Glacial Eustasy During the Cenozoic: Sequence

Stratigraphic Implications1
Vitor S. Abreu and John B. Anderson2

ABSTRACT
A newly constructed composite oxygen isotope
record is a proxy for eustasy that extends back to
the CretaceousTertiary boundary and provides an
independent test of sequence stratigraphicbased
eustatic curves. The isotope record shows several
eustatic episodes that are consistent with the geological record of ice-sheet evolution.
The first evidence for the existence of an ice sheet
in East Antarctica occurs near the lowermiddle
Eocene boundary (base of the Lutetian stage).
There is no evidence for a large ice sheet on
Antarctica prior to this time; however, strata of this
age are lacking over most of the continent. The isotope curve also indicates that the ice sheet experienced phases of growth during the late Eocene and
middle Oligocene, followed by a decrease in volume in the early Miocene.
The Ross Sea stratigraphic record indicates initial
evolution of the West Antarctica ice sheet during
the early Miocene. By the middle Miocene, the ice
sheet spread across the Ross Sea, Weddell Sea, and
Antarctic Peninsula continental shelves. The
PliocenePleistocene record of glaciation in
Antarctica includes numerous glacial erosion surfaces on the continental shelf, indicating repeated
advance and retreat of both East and West
Antarctica ice sheets. These volume changes in the
Antarctica ice sheet were in response to the rise
and fall of sea level caused by expanding and contracting Northern Hemisphere ice sheets.

Copyright 1998. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All

rights reserved.
1Manuscript received October 8, 1996; revised manuscript received May
9, 1997; final acceptance February 5, 1998.
2 Rice University, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Houston,
Texas 77005-1892.
We would like to express our gratitude to Peter Vail, Jan Hardenbol,
Geoffrey Haddad, and Andre Droxler for suggestions and discussions during
the preparation of this paper. Special thanks to Emoke Vakarcs, Stephanie
Shipp, Gabor Vakarcs, and Gerald Baum for reviewing early versions of the
manuscript. Thanks also to Nicholas Christie-Blick, whose review greatly
improved the original work.

AAPG Bulletin, V. 82, No. 7 (July 1998), P. 13851400.

There is a reasonable correlation between eustatic curves derived from sequence stratigraphic studies and the composite oxygen isotope record since
the middle Eocene. This correlation indicates that
glacial eustasy has been the principal factor regulating stratal stacking patterns on a global scale since
the middle Eocene.
INTRODUCTION
A significant portion of the Earths stratigraphic
record bears evidence for continental glaciation.
Major glacial episodes occurred during the late
Precambrian, early Paleozoic (Saharan Glaciation),
late Paleozoic (Gondwana Glaciation), and Cenozoic. Each glacial episode was different because of
the distribution of continents and, therefore, of ice
sheets. Of particular importance is the extent of
terrestrial ice sheets in lower latitudes; subpolar to
temperate ice sheets are more responsive to highfrequency climatic changes, hence causing highfrequency sea level oscillations. These glacial
episodes are manifested in the global stratigraphic
record by strong cyclicity and by complex stratigraphic and facies relationships.
A reasonable generalization in most basin settings is that subsidence rates are slower than the
rate of glacial eustatic oscillation. Thus, glacial
eustasy can predominantly regulate stratigraphic
architecture (i.e., creation of accommodation
space). This assumption implies that sequences are
likely to be global in scale during glacial episodes.
In contrast, stratal stacking patterns in nonglacial
intervals may be more strongly regulated by other
factors, such as climate and tectonism, which are
more regional in scale. Thus, an improved record
of glaciation provides a stronger basis for global
sequence stratigraphic interpretations.
Nearly 20 yr have passed since Vail et al. (1977)
published their sequence stratigraphic results indicating third-order sea level fluctuations extending
back in time far beyond when ice sheets were
thought to exist. Since 1977, more detailed sequence
stratigraphic studies have revealed third-order
1385

1386

Glacial Eustasy and Sequence Stratigraphy

eustatic cycles dating well into the earlier

Cenozoic (Haq et al., 1987). An important application of these studies has been the establishment of
global stratigraphic correlation charts. The underlying assumption in these charts is that observed
sequence stratigraphic events are global in scale,
implying a glacio-eustatic control on stratigraphic
packaging. The validity of the Haq et al. (1987)
curve and similar cycle charts has raised considerable debate over the past decade. In light of this
debate, it is important to view other lines of evidence for major volumetric changes in ice sheets
that could have influenced the stratigraphic architecture of basins on a global scale. Also, knowledge of the rate and magnitude of eustatic change
is necessary for predicting the thickness, extent,
and facies architecture of coastal and marine depositional systems. In this paper, we provide a brief
overview of what is known about ice-sheet evolution since the Cretaceous. We focus mainly on
Antarcticas glacial history because ice sheets on
the Northern Hemisphere date only to the late
Miocene.
OXYGEN ISOTOPE RECORD
Carbonate precipitated organically or inorganically in the ocean records the seawater isotopic
composition. If the ocean is enr iched in 1 8 O
because of the growth of large ice sheets, the 18O of
calcite is heavy. If the ocean is depleted in 18 O
because of the melting of major ice sheets, the
18 O of calcite is light. By observing downcore
variations in the 18O of diagenetically unaltered
calcite, variations in ice volume can be inferred.
Caution must be taken in making this interpretation, because the 18 O composition of calcite is
also dependent on water temperature and salinity.
Thus, oxygen isotopes provide an independent
gauge to ice-sheet/ocean-volume changes, which
should correlate with the sequence stratigraphic
record of eustasy.
Several composite isotope records based on
planktonic and benthonic foraminifera generated
since the 1970s aimed at understanding the climate evolution from the Cretaceous to the present. Representative records are shown in Figure 1.
Some previous composite isotope records were
constructed mainly using low-resolution data sets
from specific sites (e.g., Douglas and Savin, 1975;
Shackleton and Kennett, 1975). Douglas and
Savin (1975) compiled isotopic values for the
Cretaceous and Cenozoic from several DSDP
(Deep-Sea Drilling Project) sites. They suggested a
warming trend in the Early Cretaceous, a thermal
maximum in the Albian, and a cooling trend in the
Late Cretaceous, with a drop in marine tempera-

tures from the Campanian to the Paleocene.

Shackleton and Kennett (1975) constructed two
composite isotope records for the Cenozoic based
on Southern Ocean DSDP sites 277, 278, and 281
(Figure 1). They interpreted a strong positive oxygen isotope shift during the middle Miocene as an
indication of significant ice-sheet accumulation in
Antarctica.
Matthews and Poore (1980) presented a generalized 18O record for the Cenozoic. They assumed
constant tropical sea-surface temperatures since
the Cretaceous to evaluate ice-volume changes
based on the isotope record. According to these
authors, an ice-free world with sea-surface temperature of 28C would yield shallow-marine 18O values of about 3. Their approach implied significant ice volumes since at least the late Eocene and
possibly for much of the Cretaceous.
More recently, composite isotope records have
been constructed through mathematical smoothing
of data sets from several sites (e.g., Miller et al.,
1987; Prentice and Matthews, 1988). Miller et al.
(1987) constructed two composite isotope records
for the Tertiary. They interpreted synchronous
changes in both benthonic and planktonic 18O values as related to ice growth and decay during the
Oligocene and Miocene. According to these
authors, 18O values lighter than 1.8 in benthonic foraminifera (Cibicidoides) could possibly be
related to an ice-free world (Figure 1). They
assumed substantially ice-free conditions during
the Paleocene and Eocene, with glacio-eustatic
changes restricted to the Oligocene and Neogene,
and concluded that glacio-eustasy was responsible
for producing sequence boundaries on passive margins since the Oligocene. Prentice and Matthews
(1988) assumed that the planktonic isotopic record
reflected ice-volume changes and that the benthonic record was more likely related to bottom-water
temperature changes. They concluded that an ice
sheet had existed on Antarctica since the middle
Eocene (Figure 1).
The effect of smoothing on isotope records or
of using low-resolution data has been to remove or
reduce the amplitude of higher frequency events.
The composite oxygen isotope record for the
Cenozoic presented here aims at preserving the
chronostratigraphic position and amplitude of
higher frequency (of about 1 m.y.) positive isotope
events. We prefer this approach for comparing the
isotope record with the third-order sequence
stratigraphic record (Haq et al., 1987; Hardenbol et
al., in press). The isotope record shows events
with a 1.5 m.y. frequency from the Paleocene to
the Miocene, which is similar to the frequency of
Haq et al. (1987) sequences, although the frequency
observed in the pre-upper Miocene 18 O record
may be affected by the DSDP/ODP (Ocean Drilling

Abreu and Anderson

Shackleton and Kennett, 1975

CHRONOSTRATI.

-1

18 O ( 0 / 0 0 )
2
1
0

Prentice and Matthews, 1988

-1

18 O ( 0 / 0 0 )
2
1
0

-1 4

This work
3

18 O ( 0 / 0 0 )
1
0

-1

OLIGOCENE
u. lower upper
PALEOCENE

lower

EOCENE
middle

CENOZOIC

MIOCENE
lower middle upper

PLIO-

Miller et al., 1987

PLEIST.

18 O ( 0 / 0 0 )
2
1
0

1387

Figure 1Comparison of the composite isotope record constructed for this study with earlier composite records.

Program) site sample densities. Abreu and Haddad

(in press) constructed a composite smoothed isotope record for the OligoceneHolocene. We
expanded the composite record of Abreu and
Haddad (in press) to the CretaceousTertiar y
boundary using DSDP/ODP isotope records from
sites with detailed isotope data in the Paleocene
and Eocene. The sites used in this work are presented in Table 1.
This work builds on recent publications that
defined positive oxygen isotope events during the
Oligocene and Miocene (Miller et al., 1991, 1996;
Wright and Miller, 1992; Abreu and Savini, 1994;
Abreu and Haddad, in press). The chronostratigraphic position, oxygen isotope value, and amplitude of each event were defined in the sites with
more well-represented sections (Table 2). We
attempted to use, as far as possible, sites situated
in middle latitudes and intermediate paleowater
depths. We propose six new positive isotope
events for the middle and late Eocene based on
sites 689 and 690 (Table 2). These sites are located
in high latitudes, but present the best resolution
for the Eocene. The standard isotope records from
sites 522 (Miller et al., 1988) and 608 (Wright et
al., 1992) are the reference sections for the
Oligocene and Miocene records, respectively. The
Pliocene isotope record, based on sites 502 and
704, was smoothed to keep the 100 k.y. cycle and
longer cycles. We have used the filtered isotope
cur ve of Haddad and Vail (1992) for the

PleistoceneHolocene sections; this curve is a filtered version (low pass, 1/661/45 k.y.) of the
stacked benthonic isotopic records from sites 607
and 677 (Raymo et al., 1990).
Oxygen isotope records have been among the
most widely used proxy indicators of glaciation. A
number of records have been generated from
DSDP/ODP drill sites (i.e., Shackleton and
Kennett, 1975; Matthews and Poore, 1980;
Shackleton, 1986; Miller et al., 1987; Prentice and
Matthews, 1988; Stott et al., 1990; Wise et al.,
1992; Robert and Kennett, 1994; Flower and
Kennett, 1994). The interpretations of these
records with regard to ice-sheet evolution on
Antarctica differ considerably (Figure 2), which
serves to emphasize the need to interpret oxygen
isotope records in light of other lines of evidence
for ice-sheet evolution.
GEOLOGICAL RECORD OF GLACIATION
The following discussion will examine the geologic evidence for ice-sheet evolution on Earth
during the Cenozoic. The focus is mainly on
Antarctica; the Antarctica ice sheet is the source of
glacial eustatic changes for most of the Cenozoic.
Discrepancies in the published record of Antarcticas
glacial history primarily result from differences in
interpretation of the deep sea proxy record
(Figure 2) and different emphasis being placed on

1388

Glacial Eustasy and Sequence Stratigraphy

Table 1. Sites Used to Construct the Composite Isotope Record

Site

Location

Sample Type

502
552
704

Caribbean
North Atlantic
South Atlantic
mid-latitudes
North Atlantic
Equatorial Pacific
Equatorial Pacific

P. wuellerstorfi
P. wuellerstorfi
Cibicides

Middle bathyal
Middle bathyal
Middle bathyal

Oppo et al., 1995

Keigwin, 1987
Hodell and Venz, 1992

Cibicidoides
Uvigerina
Uvigerina and
P. wuellerstorfi
P. wuellerstorfi
and Cibicidoides
P. wuellerstorfi
and Cibicidoides

Lower bathyal
Lower bathyal
Lower bathyal

Raymo et al., 1990

Raymo et al., 1990
Shackleton et al., 1995

Lower bathyal

Wright et al., 1992

Lower bathyal

P. wuellerstorfi
and Cibicidoides
Bulk rock

Upper bathyal

Miller and Fairbanks,

1985; Wright et al.,
1992
Wright and Miller, 1992

Cibicidoides

Lower bathyal

Abreu and Savina, 1994;

Azevedo et al., 1993
Miller et al., 1988

Cibicidoides

Middle bathyal

Miller et al., 1987

Cibicidoides
Cibicidoides
Cibicidoides
Cibicidoides and
G. beccariformis
Cibicidoides
Cibicidoides

Middle bathyal
Upper bathyal
Middle bathyal
Upper bathyal

Barrera et al., 1993

Kennett and Stott, 1990
Kennett and Stott, 1990
Bralower et al., 1995

Lower bathyal
Upper bathyal

Shackleton et al., 1984

Browning et al., 1996

N. truempyi

Lower bathyal

Hovan and Rea, 1992

607
677
846
608
563
747
Well A
522
529
803
689
690
865
527
577
215

North Atlantic
mid-latitudes
North Atlantic
mid-latitudes
Indian Ocean
mid-latitudes
South Atlantic
low latitudes
South Atlantic
mid-latitudes
South Atlantic
mid-latitudes
Equatorial Pacific
Southern Ocean
Southern Ocean
Equatorial Pacific
South Atlantic
Pacific
mid-latitudes
Southern Ocean

the proxy record vs. the terrestrial and continental

margin records. For example, interpretation of the
first occurrence of a large ice sheet on Antarctica
based on results from the two most recent ODP legs
in the region (Legs 113 and 119) differ, with one set
of results dating the ice sheet in the middle Eocene
(Barron et al., 1991) and the second set of results dating the ice sheet in the late Miocene (Kennett and
Barker, 1990). Our summary attempts to integrate
the deep-sea record with the terrestrial and continental margin records, although we emphasize the terrestrial and continental margin record, which is a
principal difference between our synthesis and that
of some other workers (e.g., Kennett and Barker,
1990; Miller et al., 1991; Flower and Kennett, 1994).
Our summary has benefited from several recently
published reviews on the subject (Denton et al.,
1991; Moriwaki et al., 1992; Wise et al., 1992;
Hambrey and Barrett, 1993; Barrett, 1996).
Cretaceous Glacial Record
Matthews and Poores (1980) interpretation of
the composite oxygen isotope record suggests ice

Paleowater Depth

Upper bathyal

References

buildup in Antarctica during the Cretaceous.

Geological evidence for widespread glaciation on
the continent at that time is lacking; however, no
Lower Cretaceous exposures exist on Antarctica,
and Upper Cretaceous strata are restricted to the
Antarctic Peninsula region. Thus, the continents
glacial and climatic setting during the Cretaceous is
incomplete. Upper Cretaceous deposits in the
Antarctic Peninsula occur on James Ross and
Seymour islands (Figure 3) and include the Latady
and Fossil Bluff formations. The deposits contain a
rich pollen and spore assemblage, including
conifers, cycads, ginkgos, and some angiosperms.
These indicate that a conifer-dominated rainforest
inhabited the region at that time (Askin, 1992). The
adjacent marine record from ODP Leg 113 off the
Queen Maud Land margin (Figure 3) penetrated
Upper Cretaceous deposits. Studies of oxygen isotope concentrations, clay mineralogy, and planktonic microfossil assemblages indicate temperate to
cool subtropical climatic conditions in the region
(Kennett and Barker, 1990).
Some insight into Antarcticas climate during the
Cretaceous is afforded by examining the stratigraphic
records of neighboring Gondwana continents,

Abreu and Anderson

Table 2. Positive Oxygen Isotope Events for the Middle

EocenePliocene*

Event

Site

Chron.

Age
(Ma)

18O
()

Amplit.
()

PGi-2
PGi-1
PPi-2
PPi-1
PZi-3
PZi-2
PZi-1
MMi-2
MMi-1
MTi-4
MTi-3
MTi-2
MTi-1
MSi-4
MSi-3
MSi-2
MSi-1
MLi-1
MBi-3
MBi-2
MBi-1
MAi-3
MAi-2
MAi-1
OCi-3
OCi-2
OCi-1
ORi-3
ORi-2a
ORi-2
ORi-1
EPi-2
EPi-1
EBi-1
ELi-4
ELi-3
ELi-2
ELi-1

502
502
704
704
704
704
552
608
608
608
608
608
608
608
608
608
747
608
747
608
747
608
608
529
529
529
529
529
522
522
522
689
689
689
689
690
689
690

C2r.1r
C2r.2r
C2An.1n
C2An.2r
C2Ar
C3n.3n
C3n.4n
C3r
C3Ar
C4n.2n
C4r.3r
C4Ar.2r
C5n.1n
C5r.3r
C5Ar.2n
C5ABr
C5ADn
C5Br
C5Cr
C5Dr
C6n
C6An.2n
C6AAr.1r
C6Cn2n
C7r
C9n
C10n.1n
C10r
C11r
C12r
C13n
C15n
C17n.1n
C18n.1n
C19r
C20n
C21n
C21r

2.1
2.5
2.8
3.3
4.0
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.7
7.7
8.6
9.4
9.8
11.7
12.7
13.6
14.6
16.1
17.2
18.0
19.4
21.1
22.2
23.8
25.2
27.3
28.4
29.4
30.2
31.9
33.5
34.7
37.0
39.9
42.3
43.7
46.3
48.2

3.0
2.8
3.5
3.2
2.9
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.1
2.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.4
2.0
1.6
2.1
2.0
1.8
2.0
1.7
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.7
1.3
1.0
1.0
0.5

1.2
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.9
0.8
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.6
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.6
0.5

*The isotope events were named according to the stage in which the
event occurs and its relative position within the stage. For example, the ORi-1
event represents the oldest isotopic event within the Rupelian stage. These
names correspond to the names used in Figure 2.

particularly those still attached to Antarctica during

the Cretaceous. Cretaceous deposits from Australia,
Africa, and South America yield sparse evidence of
glaciation. A piston core into Lower Cretaceous
deposits on the continental shelf off Wilkes Land
yielded a rich pollen and spore assemblage indicating a relatively warm temperate climate and no icerafted material (Domack et al., 1980).
In summary, evidence suggests temperate or subtropical climate in Antarctica during the Cretaceous,
but Cretaceous and Paleocene exposures are restricted to the northern Antarctic Peninsula region.
Although evidence does not favor the existence of a

1389

large ice sheet in Antarctica during the Cretaceous,

ice caps may have been present at times in the central portions of the continent.
Paleocene Glacial Record
Stott et al. (1990) suggested that the Paleocene
Eocene boundary has been possibly the warmest
time during the Cenozoic, based on oxygen isotope
data. In contrast, Denton et al. (1991) interpreted the
18O record as consistent with the existence of significant ice on Antarctica during the Paleocene. ODP
Leg 113 sites in the Weddell Sea sampled Paleocene
strata with diverse calcareous planktonic and benthonic microfossil assemblages and clay mineralogy
indicative of warm climatic conditions (Kennett and
Barker, 1990). The oxygen isotope data from these
sites also indicate relatively warm surface and bottom
waters in the Weddell Sea throughout most of the
Paleocene (Robert and Kennett, 1994).
Paleocene strata are confined to the northern
Antarctic Peninsula region, and none of these
deposits contain ice-rafted material; rather, palynological data from exposures on James Ross Island
indicate that Late CretaceousPaleocene climates
in the Antarctic Peninsula region were warm to
cool temperate, with high rainfall (Askin, 1992).
These observations are not inconsistent with the
existence of an ice cap in the interior portions of
Antarctica during the Paleocene.
Correlation between the isotopic and the
sequence stratigraphic records for the Paleocene is
poor (Figure 4). In the upper Paleocene and lower
Eocene, the isotope record shows the most negative values of the Cenozoic. The relatively light oxygen isotopes values indicate periods of warmer bottom waters or the presence of only small volumes
of ice on Antarctica. In summary, there is little evidence for significant ice cover on Antarctica during the Paleocene, but the lack of outcrops in interior East Antarctica lends to uncertainty about
the existence of ice caps in the region during the
Paleocene.
Eocene Glacial Record
Shackleton and Boersma (1981) argued that
polar surface waters were 10 to 15C warmer than
the present during the early Eocene. Prentice and
Matthews (1988) and Poore and Matthews (1984)
discussed that the overall positive oxygen isotope
shifts in the Eocene indicate a significant buildup of
ice on Antarctica. In contrast, Kennett and Stott
(1990) observed a steplike increase in 18O in the
upper part of the Eocene at site 689 on Maud Rise
and attributed this increase to a temperature

Glacial Eustasy and Sequence Stratigraphy

ISOTOPE RECORD

THIS
WORK

ICE-RAFTED DEBRIS

HIATUS

WEST ANTARCTICA
PACIFIC
ATLANTIC
EAST ANTARCTICA
3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 7 7 7 7 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 7 7
2 2 2 2 9 9 9 9 9 6 6 6 6 7 8 9 3 3 4 4 2 2 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 0 0
2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 4 9 0 6 8 4 6 3 5 4 7 9 1 2 9 0 3 6 9 1 4

INDIAN
2 2 7 7 7 7 7
6 6 3 3 4 4 4
6 7 7 8 4 7 8

SMOOTHED OXYGEN
ISOTOPE CURVE ( 0/ 0 0 )
0

TIME (Ma)

SERIES

TIME (Ma)

1390

PLIO

QUAT

10

MIOCENE

15

10

15

20

20

25

30

OLIGOCENE

?
?

25

?
30

?
35

40

40

45

EOCENE

35

45

50

55

55

60

PALEOCENE

50

60

Figure 2Differences in interpretation of key deep-sea proxy indicators (oxygen isotopes, ice-rafting, and deep sea
hiatuses) in Southern Ocean drill sites, compared with the smoothed oxygen isotope record. Solid bars in the isotope records indicate the existence of ice caps according to different workers, and the dashed lines represent possible existence of ice caps. Under isotope record: 1 = Matthews and Poore (1980), 2 = Prentice and Matthews (1988), 3
= Miller et al. (1987), 4 = Shackleton and Kennett (1975). The solid lines in the ice-rafted debris (IRD) record indicate the first occurrence of significant IRD in DSDP/ODP sites, and the dashed lines indicate small occurrence or
uncertainties in age. Major hiatuses in the deep-sea record (according to Wright and Miller, 1993) are represented
by horizontal wavy lines. The solid lines represent the rock record in each DSDP/ODP site. These hiatuses have
been interpreted as representing episodes of strong bottom-current circulation related to more severe glacial conditions on the continent (Wright and Miller, 1993). The smoothed oxygen isotope recorded generated in this study is
shown in the last column.

decrease and not an ice-volume increase in

Antarctica. A pronounced positive shift of the oxygen
isotopes occurs at the base of the Lutetian stage (base
of the middle Eocene). The average value for the isotope record in the upper part of the Lutetian stage
reached 1 (Figure 4). Another significant positive
isotopic shift occurred near the LutetianBartonian
stage boundary. The upper Eocene (Bartonian and
Priabonian) is marked by isotope values around 2
and has high-amplitude fluctuations (Figure 4). The
Eocene isotope record indicates cooling of marine

waters, as well as an ice-volume increase toward the

late Eocene. The more positive values during the late
Eocene, relative to the middle Eocene and the early
Oligocene (Figure 4), correlate with lower sea level
during the late Eocene (Haq et al., 1987).
The most compelling evidence for glaciation in
East Antarctica during the Eocene comes from ODP
Leg 119 drill sites on the continental shelf in Prydz
Bay (Figure 3). Site 742 in Prydz Bay (Figure 3)
recovered middleupper Eocene massive diamictons, interpreted as water-lain till ( Barron et al.,

Abreu and Anderson

704

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Figure 3Geographic map of

Antarctica and locations of DSDP
and ODP drill sites and outcrops
in the Antarctic region.

30E

703

1391

702 701

700

699
328
512

698

INDIAN
OCEAN
689

329

697

SOUTH
AMERICA

695

uth
Isl Shet
an lan
ds
d

696

693

252

Queen Maud Land

736
East Antarctica
Ice Sheet (EAIS)

ni

Pe

tic

c
ar
nt

325

694

Weddell Sea

322

691-2

Seymour Island
James Ross Island

So

690

511

326

251

327

a
ul
ns

90W

West Antarctica
Ice Sheet (WAIS)

80S

Tr

sa

nt

Marie
Byrd Land

744

747
737
751

748 750

Kerguelen
Plateau

267

ar

cti

ou

nt

Ross Ice
Shelf

ai

ns

266

sL

and
aL

Wi

tori

265

lke

Vic

271 270
272
273
Ross
Sea

268

cM

120W

749

745-6

738

an

Prydz Bay

an

324
323

739-743

330

120E

269

274

PACIFIC OCEAN
278

LAND

280

ICE SHELF
OUTCROP

279
276

274

WELL SITE

275

277

1991; Hambrey et al., 1991). Prydz Bay is presently

the focus of ice discharge from 22% of the East
Antarctic continent, so the presence of the till
offers strong evidence for an ice sheet on East
Antarctica at this time (Bar ron et al., 1991;
Hambrey et al., 1991). The occurrence of till on the
continental shelf corresponds to the first significant occurrence of ice-rafted detritus at Leg 119
site 738 on the Kerguelen Plateau (Ehrmann,
1991). On the Wilkes Land continental margin
(Figure 3), the oldest major unconformity on the
shelf, interpreted to be a glacial erosion surface, is
inferred to be middlelate Eocene in age, based on
extrapolation to DSDP site 269 on the adjacent continental rise (Eittreim et al., 1995).
Evidence also exists for alpine glaciation in West
Antarctica during the middle Eocene. Glacial-marine
sediments recovered at CIROS-1 in the western Ross
Sea contain middle Eocene dinoflagellates (Hannah,
1994); however, there is no evidence that the West

281

282

AUSTRALIA

Antarctica ice sheet advanced across the continental

shelf during the Eocene (Cooper et al., 1991; De
Santis et al., 1995). Lowermiddle Eocene glacial
deposits occur in small outcrops on King George
Island (South Shetland Islands). These deposits
record an episode of glaciation in the northern
Antarctic Peninsula region that has been designated
the Krakow Glaciation (Birkenmajer, 1991). The
age of these deposits, younger than early Eocene, is
derived from radiometric dating of basalts that
underlie them. Coccoliths within a unit just above
the basalt indicate a late Paleoceneearly Eocene
age (Birkenmajer, 1991).
The Krakow Glaciation was followed by the
Arctowski Interglacial (middle Eoceneearly
Oligocene), when a relatively warm, moist climate
and diverse vascular plant community existed in
the South Shetland Islands. Eocene f loras of
Seymour Island, located to the south of the South
Shetland Islands (Figure 3), also indicate relatively

TIME (Ma)

CHRONO STRAT.

SEQUENCE
STRATIGRAPHY
MAGNITUDE
MINOR

QUATERNARY

MODER.

SEA LEVEL
SMOOTHED
COMPOSITE
ISOTOPE
RECORD - 18O ( 0 / 0 0 )

- MFS
MAJOR

PLIOCENE

PGi-1
PPi-1

PIACENZIAN

200

EUSTATIC
CURVE
(meters)
0

E
A
I
S

PGi-2
PPi-2

PZi-3
PZi-2
PZi-1

ZANCLEAN

MMi-2
MMi-1
MTi-4

10

MTi-3
MTi-2

TORTONIAN

UPPER

MESSINIAN

SERRAVALLIAN

MIDDLE

MTi-1

MIOCENE

15

100-k.y. CYCLES

GELASIAN

GLACIAL
HISTORY

CURVES

MSi-4
MSi-3
MSi-2
MSi-1

LANGHIAN

MLi-1

UPPER

BURDIGALIAN

AQUITANIAN

MAi-2
MAi-1
OCi-3
OCi-2
OCi-1

LOWER

30

OLIGOCENE

25

MBi-2
MBi-1
MAi-3

RUPELIAN

20

CHATTIAN

LOWER

MBi-3

ORi-3
ORi-2a
ORi-2

BARTONIAN

PRIABONIAN

UPPER

ORi-1
35

45

EPi-1

EBi-1

ELi-4
ELi-3

LUTETIAN

MIDDLE

EOCENE

40

EPi-2

ELi-2
ELi-1

YPRESIAN
THANETIAN

SELANDIAN

UPPER
LOWER

60

PALEOCENE

55

DANIAN

LOWER

50

?
GLACIOEUSTATIC
EVENT

W
A
I
S

N
H
I
S

Abreu and Anderson

1393

Figure 4Composite smoothed 18O record for the Cenozoic based on the isotope events identified in DSDP/ODP
and PETROBRS well A oxygen isotope records compared with Antarctica and Northern Hemisphere glacial history, the sequence boundaries of Hardenbol et al. (in press), and the eustatic curves of Haq et al. (1987) and Mitchum
et al. (1994). The time scale used is from Berggren et al. (1995). Solid bars in the glacial history column indicate
strong evidence for ice-sheet existence, and dashed lines indicate early phases of ice-sheet development. EAIS = East
Antarctica ice sheet, WAIS = West Antarctica ice sheet, NHIS = Northern Hemisphere ice sheet. Event names on the
isotope record correspond to names used in Table 2.

warm conditions, with a subsequent shift toward

Nothofagus-dominated flora indicating cooling
(Askin, 1992). No sedimentological evidence of
glaciation exists in the form of ice-rafted clasts in
Eocene deposits on Seymour Island (Zinsmeister,
1982), nor is there any indication of glacial erosion
on the adjacent continental shelf at that time
(Anderson et al., 1992; Sloan et al., 1995). This is an
important observation because it tells us that large
ice sheets could have existed in East Antarctica
prior to the Eocene without leaving a geological
record of their existence in the Antarctic Peninsula
region, where the only known Cretaceous and
Paleogene outcrops occur.
In summary, there is evidence for glaciation in
East Antarctica since the middle Eocene (Figure 2).
This evidence is supported by the presence of
glacial sediments and glacial erosion surfaces on
the continental shelf, as well as by the reasonable
correlation between the isotopic and sequence
stratigraphic records for the middle and upper
Eocene (Figure 4).
Lower Oligocene Glacial Record
At the EoceneOligocene boundary, a major shift
in 1 8 O occurs at sites on Campbell Plateau
(Shackleton and Kennett, 1975) and at some lower
latitude locations (Douglas and Savin, 1973; Wright
and Miller, 1993). Zachos et al. (1992) interpreted
the lower Oligocene oxygen isotope record of ODP
sites from the Kerguelen Plateau to indicate the
existence of ice sheets similar in volume to the
present Antarctica ice sheet. Miller et al. (1987),
Denton et al. (1991), and Wright and Miller (1992,
1993) also indicate the existence of significant ice
volumes on Antarctica during the Oligocene. The
RupelianChattian stage boundary is marked by a
pronounced positive isotope event, which coincides with the middle Oligocene sequence boundar y (30 Ma of Haq et al., 1987) and sequence
boundary Ch-1 (Hardenbol et al., in press; Vakarcs
et al., in press).
Deep-sea hiatuses mark the EoceneOligocene
boundar y (Figure 2) in portions of the South
Atlantic (Wright and Miller, 1993), but it is not
clear how these hiatuses relate to glaciation on the

continent. Since the late Eocene, significant ice

rafting was occurring at ODP Sites 738, 744
(Ehrmann, 1991; Wise et al., 1992), and 748 (Wise
et al., 1992) on the Kerguelen Plateau (Figure 3). At
Site 744 the increase in ice-rafted debris (IRD)
occurs in conjunction with a change from smectitedominated clay assemblages to illite- and chloritedominated assemblages, an increase in biosiliceous
sedimentation, and an increase in the percentage of
cold-water calcareous nannofossils, interpreted as
evidence for the existence of the East Antarctica
ice sheet (Wise et al., 1992). Site 739 (Figure 3) in
Prydz Bay penetrated lower Oligocene diamictite
interpreted as till (Hambrey et al., 1991). The presence of till indicates that a grounded ice sheet
extended to the continental shelf break (Barron et
al., 1991; Hambrey et al., 1991).
Some evidence exists for glaciation in West
Antarctica during the early Oligocene. Lower
Oligocene glacial-marine sediments were recovered
at CIROS-1 in the Ross Sea (Hambrey et al., 1989),
but these deposits may record alpine glaciation.
Birkenmajer (1991) described till and glacialmarine deposits of the Polonez Cove Formation,
South Shetland Islands, and concluded that they
were deposited by an ice cap that extended across
the northern Antarctic Peninsula. Basalts, with
K/Ar ages of 32.8 and 30 Ma, overlie these glacial
sediments. Birkenmajer (1991) referred to this
glaciation as the Polonez Glaciation. Seismic
records from the Antarctic Peninsula continental
shelf show no evidence for glaciation (glacial erosion surfaces or geomorphic features) prior to the
Miocene (Bart and Anderson, 1995).
Upper OligoceneLower Miocene Glacial
Record
By the late Oligocene, a reorganization of planktonic foraminiferal biogeographic provinces
occurred in the Southern Ocean, indicating significant cooling (Kennett, 1978). DSDP sites on the
continental rise and abyssal floor off Victoria Land
and Wilkes Land (sites 267, 268, and 274) record
the first significant occurrence of ice-rafted material at these sites in the upper Oligocene (Hayes and
Frakes, 1975). Seismic reflection profiles for the

1394

Glacial Eustasy and Sequence Stratigraphy

East Antarctica continental slope and rise off Prydz

Bay and Wilkes Land show a prominent unconformity separating more distal, hemipelagic seismic
facies below from more proximal fan deposits
above. Offshore Wilkes Land, this unconformity
spans much of the Oligocene and early Miocene
(Eittreim et al., 1995), and offshore Prydz Bay the
unconformity spans the early Oligocenelate
Miocene (Kuvaas and Leitchenkov, 1992). The dramatic changes in continental margin sedimentation
recorded in these regions are interpreted as the culmination of glacial erosion and mass wasting
on these continental margins (Kuvaas and
Leitchenkov, 1992; Eittreim et al., 1995).
A major unconformity in the CIROS-1 drill site in
western Ross Sea (Figure 3) separates lower
Oligocene from upper Oligocenelower Miocene
strata. The core and seismic records through this
site show seven grounding events indicated by
glacial erosion surfaces and tills (Hambrey and
Barrett, 1993; Bartek et al., 1996). Upper Oligocene
glacio-marine deposits at CIROS-1 alternate with
interglacial units that include fluvial to deep-water
mudstone facies (Hambrey and Barrett, 1993). The
fluvial deposits, in conjunction with the occurrence of a temperate (Nothofagus) pollen and
spore assemblage in the mudstones, reflect temperate interglacial conditions (Hambrey and Barrett,
1993). The oldest glacial deposits drilled in central
Ross Sea during DSDP Leg 28 are late Oligocene in
age (site 270) (Hayes and Frakes, 1975). Based on a
recent analysis of an extensive seismic reflection
data set in Ross Sea, De Santis et al. (1995) demonstrated that late Oligocene glaciation in Ross Sea
was characterized by localized ice caps centered
over banks and islands and that lower Miocene
diamictons at DSDP site 270 record this more localized glaciation.
In the South Shetland Islands, the late Oligocene
Legru Glaciation is recorded by glacial deposits
(Birkenmajer, 1991). Fossiliferous glacial-marine
strata record an upper Oligocene to lower Miocene
glacial episode, the Melville Glaciation (Birkenmajer, 1991; Abreu et al., 1992). No equivalent age
deposits exist on Seymour and James Ross islands,
so the extent of the Legru Glaciation is uncertain.
By the Oligocene, vegetation in Antarctica was
reduced to a sparse Nothofagus-fern assemblage
(Kemp, 1972; Askin, 1992).
The upper Rupelian and lower Chattian stages are
characterized by heavy isotope values that can be
related to low sea level, which do not entirely agree
with the Haq et al. (1987) eustatic curve (Figure 4);
however, the isotopic and sequence stratigraphic
records are consistent with a period of high sea level
during the early Miocene, with a possible decrease in
ice volume, followed by a pronounced sea level fall
during the middle Miocene (Figure 4).

MiddleUpper Miocene Glacial Record

A pronounced 18O enrichment occurred during
the middle Miocene (Figure 4). Shackleton and
Kennett (1975), Savin et al. (1975), Woodruff et al.
(1981), and Flower and Kennett (1994) argued that
this enrichment indicates initiation of the Antarctica
ice sheet, but the evidence for prior ice-sheet evolution seems irrefutable. Miller et al. (1991) indicated step-like buildups of ice in the middle Miocene.
Denton et al. (1991) considered that ice volume on
Antarctica has been equal to roughly one-half of the
present volume by 15 Ma, and that ice volumes perhaps had exceeded those of the present by 12 Ma.
The results of drilling in the southeast Pacific
Basin (DSDP Leg 35) led to the conclusion that significant glaciation occurred in West Antarctica by
earlymiddle Miocene, based largely on the first significant occurrence of IRD at Site 325 on the
Bellingshausen continental rise (Tucholke et al.,
1976). This conclusion is supported by results from
a seismic stratigraphic investigation on the adjacent
Antarctic Peninsula continental shelf. The oldest
widespread glacial erosion surface on the shelf is
interpreted to be of middle Miocene age and evidence exists for several grounding events on the
shelf during the middlelate Miocene (Bart and
Anderson, 1995).
A shelf-wide middle Miocene glacial unconformity in Ross Sea (Savage and Ciesielski, 1983;
Anderson and Bartek, 1992; De Santis et al., 1995)
indicates that both the East and West Antarctica ice
sheets grounded on the continental shelf at that
time. Glacial-marine deposits dominate the upper
Miocene section that rests on top of the unconformity (Hayes and Frakes, 1975; Savage and
Ciesielski, 1983; Anderson and Bartek, 1992).
Upper Miocene glacial and glacial-marine strata
recovered at DSDP sites on the Ross Sea continental shelf and at CIROS-1 drill sites in westernmost
Ross Sea are interbedded with meltwater deposits,
which indicate temperate interglacial climates
throughout the Miocene, and diatomaceous oozes.
Seismic reflection profiles from Ross Sea show predominantly glacial-marine seismic facies and no
major glacial unconformities in the upper Miocene
section (Anderson and Bartek, 1992).
Detailed sequence stratigraphic analyses of Crary
Fan in eastern Weddell Sea (Moons et al., 1992) led
to the recognition of a minimum of five channellevee units of Oligocenemiddle Miocene age. De
Batist et al. (1994) argued that episodes of fan
development correlate with ice-sheet grounding
events and conclude that at least five long-term
glacial expansions onto the continental shelf and
no fewer than fourteen smaller scale expansions
occurred in the Weddell Sea region since the middle Miocene.

Abreu and Anderson

The continental record of glaciation in West

Antarctica during the Miocene includes subglacially
erupted volcanics at the head of Scott Glacier;
radiometric dates provide ages of 915 Ma (Stump,
1980). Rutford et al. (1972) demonstrated that
glaciation in the Jones Mountains had occurred
prior to 7 Ma.
In Prydz Bay, major hiatuses span the late
Oligocenemiddle Miocene. A major middle Miocene(?) unconformity, attributed to ice-sheet grounding on the shelf, also occurred on the Wilkes Land
continental shelf (Eittreim et al., 1995). During the
late Miocenemiddle Pliocene, the ice sheet retreated from Prydz Bay, and glacial-marine sedimentation
dominated (Hambrey et al., 1991).
In summary, the isotope record suggests an icevolume increase in Antarctica during the middle
Miocene (Figure 2) consistent with the development
of the West Antarctica ice sheet. The ice-volume
increase implied by the oxygen isotopes is consistent with the sea level fall shown by the Haq et al.
(1987) sea level curve (Figure 4). The isotopic and
sequence stratigraphic records indicate a period of
low sea level during the late Miocene, suggesting
an ice-volume increase during this time.
Pliocene Glacial Record
The central issue for the Pliocene is not whether
an ice sheet existed on Antarctica, but concerns
possible extreme warming and associated interglacial events (Denton et al., 1991; Webb and
Harwood, 1991; Barrett et al., 1992). Denton et al.
(1991) concluded that isotopic data for the period
between 6.0 and 4.4 Ma suggest high-frequency icevolume changes with little evidence of extensive
deglaciation. In contrast, Moriwaki et al. (1992)
contended that the oxygen isotope record provides
supporting evidence for extreme Pliocene deglaciations. In general, the biogeographic record from
the Southern Ocean lends support to a highly variable climatic setting in Antarctica during the
Pliocene (Barron, 1996).
Mayewski (1975) demonstrated that during the
Pliocene an ice sheet covered the Transantarctic
Mountains. He referred to this as the Queen Maud
Glaciation. Denton et al. (1991) cited other lines
of evidence for a thicker ice sheet, which deposited the Sirius tillite at that time. The Sirius Group
consists predominantly of tillite and generally
occurs above the 2000 m elevation level in the
Transantarctic Mountains. Ironically, the most
controversial record of Pliocene glaciation in
Antarctica centers on the Sirius Group.
Alonso et al. (1992) recognized a number of
shelf-wide unconformities within the Pliocene
Pleistocene section of the eastern Ross Sea. Seismic

1395

records from the Antarctic Peninsula continental

shelf also indicate high-frequency grounding events
during the Pliocene (Bart and Anderson, 1995). The
increased frequency of grounding events in these
areas relative to the Miocene is attributed to stronger
eustatic control on ice-sheet stability (Alonso et al.,
1992; Bart and Anderson, 1995).
The early Pliocene sea level rise shown by the
eustatic curve (Haq et al., 1987) seems to be consistent with slightly lighter isotope values (Figure 4),
indicating a possible decrease in ice volume during
that time. From the upper Pliocene to the Holocene,
the isotope record shows a continuous trend of heavier values with high-frequency fluctuations.
Pleistocene Glacial Record
Webb and Harwood (1991) argued that the climatic cooling at the end of the Pliocene marks the
change from unipolar, temperate, and cyclic glaciations to bipolar ice sheets. Prior to the Pliocene cooling, climates were too warm to support ice caps in
middle latitudes. The latest Plioceneearliest
Pleistocene was a period of major cooling in the
Transantarctic Mountains (Mercer, 1972; Denton et
al., 1986a, 1989). The Sirius Group records this
change as a switch from pre-Pleistocene strata consisting of interbedded tillite, colluvium, and lacustrine deposits to Pleistocene tillite and interbedded
polar deposits (Denton et al., 1991). Abundant sedimentologic evidence (Sirius, Peleus, and Prospect
Mesa drift deposits) and geomorphologic evidence
exists to indicate that the East Antarctica ice sheet
overrode the Transantarctic Mountains, perhaps on
several occasions, during the PliocenePleistocene,
although the exact timing of these events remains
problematic (Denton et al., 1991).
High- and intermediate-resolution seismic profiles from the Ross Sea, the Weddell Sea, and the
Antarctic Peninsula, including Bransfield basin,
show that the Pleistocene section on the continental shelf is characterized by numerous glacial erosion surfaces separating till sheets (Alonso et al.,
1992; Anderson and Bartek, 1992; Anderson et al.,
1992; Banfield and Anderson, 1995; Bart and
Anderson, 1995). The data indicate that both East
and West Antarctica ice sheets continued to
expand and contract even after polar climate was
established. This continued expansion and contraction of the ice sheets on the continental shelf probably was caused by rising and falling sea level, a
product of Northern Hemisphere glacial-interglacial cycles (e.g., Denton et al., 1986b).
The isotope record indicates that high-amplitude
sea level changes of up to at least 120 m have
occurred at 100 k.y. inter vals since approximately 800 ka; however, prior to 800 ka, 41 k.y.

1396

Glacial Eustasy and Sequence Stratigraphy

low-amplitude Milankovitch obliquity cycles dominate the 18O record (Prell, 1982).
DISCUSSION
Figure 4 compares the composite oxygen isotope record compiled for this study, the combined
sea level curves of Haq et al. (1987) and Mitchum
et al. (1994), the cycle chart of Hardenbol et al.
(in press), and a summary of ice-sheet evolution
during the Cenozoic. Visual inspection shows reasonable correlation between these data sets.
Specifically, the increase in 18O values starting in
the middle Eocene is consistent with geological evidence for expansion of the East Antarctica ice sheet
onto the continental shelf at this time. The episode
of ice-sheet development is not recorded in the
eustatic curve, although both curves indicate progressive development of the ice sheet throughout
the remainder of the Cenozoic and episodes of
apparent rapid growth during the late Eocene, middle Oligocene, and middlelate Miocene. Episodes
of apparent reduced ice volume occurred in the
lower Oligocene, lowermiddle Miocene, and
lower Pliocene. Our inference of an early phase of
East Antarctica ice-sheet development during the
late Paleoceneearly Eocene is based on the highfrequency oscillations shown in the Hardenbol et
al. (in press) cycle chart (Figure 4). We infer that
the early phase of East Antarctica ice-sheet evolution would have occurred at a time when geological data suggest a temperate climate in Antarctica,
at least in coastal regions. Hence, the early icesheet probably expanded and contracted in
response to high-frequency climatic oscillations.
The geological record of West Antarctica icesheet expansion across the continental shelf during the middle Miocene is manifested in both the
oxygen isotope and sea level curves. Both curves
show high-frequency oscillations dur ing the
PliocenePleistocene that mark the onset of glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere. These highfrequency oscillations are attributed to the fact that
the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets were situated
in more temperate latitudes and therefore were
more sensitive to high-frequency (Milankovitchscale) climatic changes.
Even though the similarities of the eustatic and
oxygen isotopic curves will not stand up to rigorous statistical treatment, the case for glacial-eustatic
control on stratal stacking patterns during the middle EoceneHolocene is a strong one, which
implies that sequence stratigraphic cycle charts for
this time interval are valid. To better understand
the lack of a strong correlation between the sea
level curve and the oxygen isotope record, we
must examine the methods used to derive these

curves and the assumptions made in converting

sequence stratigraphic data and oxygen isotope
data to sea level, and the inherent errors in both
methods.
The chronostratigraphic position of events
defined by Haq et al. (1987) was determined essentially from the position of sequences in stage type
and reference sections. An extensive revision of the
Cenozoic sequence chronostratigraphic record
expressed relative to the Berggren et al. (1995)
time scale is currently in preparation (Hardenbol et
al., in press).
The eustatic curve of Haq et al. (1987) was constrained by the tectono-eustatic curve of Pitman
(1978), which is based on estimates of the volume
of the oceanic ridges. The magnitude of a single
eustatic fall was acquired from seismic records,
mostly by measuring the vertical distance between
the offlap break of the previous sequence boundary and the youngest coastal onlap of the following
lowstand, and the degree of onlap observed in outcrop. The age of the sequence boundaries and the
maximum flooding surfaces defined the inflection
points of the falling and rising sea level, respectively. The magnitude of the eustatic rise is related to
the amount of transgression relative to the previous
coastline. In the case of a major transgressive event,
the eustatic curve would reach the position of the
Pitman (1978) curve.
Several workers used the Pleistocene calibration
of 0.11 18O variation per 10 m of sea level change
determined by Fairbanks and Matthews (1978) and
Fairbanks (1989) to estimate the magnitude of
Cenozoic sea level variations (e.g., Miller et al., 1987,
1991; Williams, 1988; Haddad et al., 1993; Abreu
and Savini, 1994). This is only a rough estimate
because a significant component of the 18O record
is expected to have been caused by decreasing
ocean temperatures through the Cenozoic (Savin,
1977; Miller et al., 1987). Although the positive isotope events correlate favorably with sequence
boundaries since the middle Eocene, the isotope
record commonly shows smaller magnitudes than
the sequence stratigraphic record.
On average, the amplitude of the positive oxygen isotope events since the middle Eocene is
0.6, corresponding to a sea level variation of
about 55 m (Table 2). Approximately 60% of these
positive events have amplitudes between 0.3 and
0.6, which corresponds to 25 to 55 m of sea
level change. High-amplitude events (up to 1)
occur during the Oligocene, middle Miocene,
Pliocene, and Quaternary. These high-amplitude isotope events would correspond to sea level variations
of about 90 m.
The average eustatic amplitude in the Haq et al.
(1987) chart for the middle EoceneHolocene is
70 m, approximately 30% higher than the average

Abreu and Anderson

amplitude predicted by the 18 O record. One

explanation for this difference is that depositional
sequences are the result of relative sea level change
(eustasy plus subsidence), whereas the isotopic signal is related more to eustasy (ice volume).
For most of the Cenozoic, sequence boundaries
seem to be generated by sea level falls in the range of
30 to 50 m. Thus, the ice-volume changes required to
generate sequences would be substantially smaller
than previously thought. A sea level fall of 40 m
would correspond to the melting of about 20% of the
total ice volume accumulated during the Last Glacial
Maximum, or less than the amount of ice present
today in the East Antarctica ice sheet (equivalent to
approximately 50 m sea level rise).
Lastly, the West Antarctica ice sheet (WAIS) contribution to sea level has undoubtedly decreased with
time. Presently, the WAIS contains enough ice to raise
sea level approximately 6 m if melted. However, the
modern WAIS is mostly situated below sea level, thus
limiting its contribution to sea level change. However,
there is strong evidence in drill cores and seismic
records from West Antarctica that the continental
shelf was much shallower during the Oligocene;
glacial erosion and isostasy have since then created the
great depth of the shelf (Hayes and Frakes, 1975;
Cooper et al., 1991; Anderson and Bartek, 1992; Bart
and Anderson, 1995; De Santis et al., 1995). A large
portion of the early WAIS was situated above sea level
and probably contributed more to eustasy than the
modern WAIS. The same can be said for the East
Antarctica ice sheet (EAIS) but to a lesser degree. The
main portion of the EAIS is situated above sea level,
but the continental shelf has been significantly lowered by glacial erosion and isostasy.
CONCLUSIONS
During the past two decades, the proxy record
of sea level change derived from oxygen isotopes
and the sea level records derived from sequence
stratigraphic analyses have steadily improved. The
records support the existence of large ice sheets
during much of the Cenozoic. Concurrently, the
geologic record of glaciation on Antarctica has
improved considerably. The result has been to
extend the age of the Antarctica ice sheet farther
back in time so that the geologic record of ice-sheet
development is more consistent with the oxygen
isotope and eustatic records.
Current evidence does not favor the existence
of a large ice sheet in Antarctica during the
Cretaceousearly Eocene; however, an ice cap may
have occupied the central portion of the continent,
far from the only Cretaceous and Paleocene sedimentary exposures, which are restricted to the
northern Antarctic Peninsula region.

1397

We found strong evidence that the East Antarctica

ice sheet was present by the middle Eocene and that
it had significant volume changes during the late
Eocene and middle Oligocene. The West Antarctica
ice sheet did not form until the earlymiddle
Miocene, and its early evolution was characterized by
repeated episodes of advance and retreat across the
continental shelves. During its early history, the West
Antarctica ice sheet was grounded at or near sea level.
With time, it eroded deeply into the sedimentary
basins on which it rests, so that it currently is grounded well below sea level. Hence, its contribution to
global sea level was diminished with time. Higher frequency glacial/interglacial cycles of the Pliocene
Pleistocene heralded the onset of Northern
Hemisphere ice sheets that were more strongly influenced by high-frequency climatic changes (e.g.,
Denton et al., 1986b).
A reasonable correlation exists between sequence boundaries (Hardenbol et al., in press) and
oxygen isotope positive events for almost the
entire Cenozoic (Figure 4), markedly since the
earlymiddle Eocene boundary. Both the isotope
record from deep ocean sites and the eustatic
curve (Haq et al., 1987) show a similar trend since
the upper part of the middle Eocene. This evidence
strongly suggests the control of glaciation upon
eustasy during most of the Cenozoic and provides
support for global stratigraphic correlation back to
the earlymiddle Eocene.
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Farley, eds., Sequence stratigraphy of European basins: Tulsa,
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Vitor Abreu
Vitor Abreu received his B.S. and
M.S. degrees at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil).
He has worked for Petrobrs since
1987 and was the manager of the
sector of biostratigraphy and paleoecology for four years. Currently,
Vitor is at Rice University working
on his Ph.D., which focuses on the
geologic evolution in conjugate volcanic passive margins in the Pelotas
basin, Brazil, and in offshore Namibia, Africa. His research
interests include sequence stratigraphy in passive margins
and stable isotope stratigraphy.

John B. Anderson
John Anderson completed his B.S.
degree at the University of South
Alabama (1968), his M.S. degree at
the University of New Mexico in
Albuquerque (1970), and his Ph.D.
at Florida State University (1972).
John is currently professor and chairman of the Department of Geology
and Geophysics at Rice University.
His research interests are in
Antarctic marine geology and the
Quaternary evolution of the Gulf of Mexico. He has
worked in Antarctica for over two decades, including 17
scientific expeditions to the continent.