Biology Unit 2

Cells and cell structure

Animal cells

Animal cells contain the following parts:

Nucleus contains DNA and controls cell
activities.
Cell membrane controls what goes it and
out of the cell.
Cytoplasm where chemical reactions take
place.
Mitochondria produces energy from
respiration.
Ribosomes make proteins from amino
acids.

Plant cells

Plant and algal cells have the following extra parts:

Cell wall (made from cellulose) strengthens the cell.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which absorb light energy to make
food.
Vacuole contains cell sap (sugars and salts).

Bacterial cells
Bacterial cells are made up of a cytoplasm, cell membrane and cell
wall.
The genes are not in a distinct nucleus (there is a loop of DNA)

They do not have mitochondria.

Yeast cells

Yeast is a single-celled organism.

They have a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, ribosomes,
mitochondria and a cell wall.

Specialised cells

Sperm cell
Lots of mitochondria
to provide energy
from respiration.
A tail to swim to the
egg.

Root hair cell

Hair-like structure to
increase surface
area to absorb more
water and minerals.

Red blood cell

Special shape to give
it a large surface
area to carry more
o2.
No nucleus so more
space to carry
oxygen.

Dissolved substances

Dissolved substances can move in and out of cells by diffusion.

Diffusion is the spreading out of particles from a high concentration
to a low concentration.
Diffusion happens in gases and solutions.
The greater the difference in concentration, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
Oxygen required for respiration moves in and out of cells by
diffusion.

Tissues, organs and organ systems.

The cells of multicellular organisms

may differentiate and become adapted
for specific functions.
Large multicellular organisms develop
systems from exchanging materials.
During the development of a
multicellular organism, cells
differentiate so they can perform
different functions.

Tissues

Tissues are groups of similar cells that work

together to carry out a particular function. Examples include:
Muscular tissue, which contracts to bring about movement.
Glandular tissue, which can produce substances such as hormones
and enzymes.
Epithelial tissue, which covers some parts of the body.

Organs

Organs are groups of different tissue that work together to perform a

certain function. The stomach is an organ which contains:
Muscular tissue, to churn up the contents.
Glandular tissue, to produce digestive juices.
Epithelial tissue, to cover the outside and inside of the stomach.

Organ systems

An organ system is a group of organs working

together to perform a particular function, organ
systems form organisms. An example is the digestive
system which includes:
Glands, such as the pancreas and salivary glands,
which produce digestive juices.
The stomach and small intestine, where digestion
occurs.
The liver, which produces bile.
The small intestine, where absorption of soluble
foods occurs.

The large intestine, where water is absorbed from undigested food,

producing faeces.

Plant organs
Plant organs include stems, roots
and leaves. Examples of plant
tissues include:
epidermal tissues, which cover
the plant
mesophyll, which carries out
photosynthesis
xylem and phloem, which
transport substances around
the plant.

Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + water oxygen +glucose

(light energy)

During photosynthesis:
Light energy is absorbed by a green substance called chlorophyll,
which is found in the chloroplasts.
The energy is used by converting carbon dioxide (from the air), and
water (from the soil) into sugar (glucose).
Oxygen is produced as a by-product.

Limiting factors

The rate of photosynthesis may be limited by:

Temperature
A low temperature will limit the rate as the
molecules will move less and therefore the
reaction happens slower
Beyond this point, enzymes are denatured.
Carbon dioxide
A shortage of CO2 will limit the rate as fewer molecules will be
available for the reaction.
Light intensity
A shortage of light means there is less
energy to power the reaction.
Where circled, light intensity is a limiting
factor, beyond this CO2 or temperature
a limiting factor.

Farming practices

is

The easiest way to create the ideal environment to grow plants is to

grow them in a greenhouse.
The use of artificial light allows photosynthesis to
continue after daylight hours. Bright lights also
provide a higher than normal light intensity.
Greenhouses trap the suns heat, but make sure
that temp. isnt limiting.
Heaters may be used in winter, and ventilation in
winter.
To increase the level of CO2, farmers use paraffin
heaters, they heat the greenhouse AND produce CO2 as a byproduct.
In practice, the farmer will need to find the optimum growing
conditions for the crop, given the costs of providing extra lighting,
heat and carbon dioxide.

Glucose (from photosynthesis) in plants and algae

Some is converted into insoluble starch for storage.
Some of the glucose produced is used in respiration.
Some glucose is used for:
Producing fats and oils for storage
Producing cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall
To produce proteins (with nitrate ions from the soil)

Organisms and their environment

Physical factors

Physical factors that may affect organisms are:

Temperature:
Temperature affects the rate of an organisms
metabolism.
Some organisms cannot maintain a constant high body
temperature.
They cannot tolerate extreme temperatures.
Organisms that can maintain a constant high body
temperature may also struggle to survive in extreme temperatures.
Availability of nutrients:
Nutrients such as nitrates are essential for the growth of plants and
microorganisms.
If there is a low concentration of these nutrients, these organisms
struggle to
grow and survive.
Amount of light:
Plants require light as an energy source for photosynthesis.
In low light intensities plants grow very slowly.
Availability of water:
All organisms require water.

It is essential because chemical reactions that occur inside and

outside cells
occur in solution in water.
In the absence of water, cells, and therefore organisms, die
Availability of oxygen:
Oxygen is essential for aerobic respiration.
It can become limited in the soil, so plant roots cannot grow and
absorb
mineral ions and water.
It can also become limited in water, so aquatic organisms struggle
to respire
and survive.
Availability of carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
This can become limited in an environment where there are many
plants.
This will reduce the rate of growth of plants.

Collecting quantitative data

Transects

A transect is a line across a habitat or part of a habitat.

It can be as simple as a string or rope placed in a line on the ground.
The number of organisms of each species can be observed and
recorded at regular intervals along the transect.

Quadrats

A quadrat is usually a square made of wire.

It may contain further wires to mark off smaller areas inside, such
as 5 x 5 or 10 x 10 squares.
The organisms underneath, usually plants, can be identified and
counted (possibly slugs as they are slow moving.)
When using a quadrat:
It should be placed randomly so that a representative sample is
taken
The validity and reproducibility of the results increases as the
results from more quadrats are analysed

Proteins

Protein molecules are made up of long chains of amino acids.

These chains are folded into a specific shape so other molecules can
fit into the protein. Some uses of proteins are:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Hormones
Antibodies
Catalysts
Structural components of tissues e.g
muscles
Catalysts are substances which speed up
a chemical reaction without being
changed or used up.
Biological catalysts are called enzymes, enzymes are proteins.

Enzymes

The shape of an enzyme is specific to its function, the shape fits

onto the substance involved in the reaction (substrate).
High temperatures change the shape of an
enzyme (this is when enzymes are
denatured)
Different enzymes work best at different pH
values:
pH can also affect the shape of the active
site.
It does this by affecting the forces that hold
the enzyme molecule together.
A change in pH denatures the enzyme.
Different enzymes work best at different pH values.
Eg. Stomach enzymes work best in acidic conditions.

Enzymes in digestion

Some enzymes work outside body cells.

Digestive enzymes are produced by specialised cells in glands in the
lining of the gut.
The enzymes pass out of the cells into the gut, where they come
into contact with food molecules.
They catalyse the breakdown of large molecules into smaller
molecules.
Amylase
Produced in the salivary glands, pancreas and small intestine.
Catalyses the breakdown of starch into sugars in the mouth and
small intestine.
Protease
Produced in the stomach, pancreas and small intestine.
Catalyses the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the
stomach and small intestine.
Lipase
Produced in the pancreas and small intestine.
Catalyses the breakdown of lipids (fats and oils) into fatty acids and
glycerol in the small intestine.

Hydrochloric acid

The stomach also produces hydrochloric acid, the enzymes in the

stomach work best is acidic conditions.

Bile

The liver produces bile, it is stored in the call bladder and released
into the small intestine.
Bile neutralises the acid added to food in the stomach.
Bile provides alkaline conditions which the enzymes in the small
intestine work best in.

Enzymes in the home and industry

Some microorganisms produce enzymes that pass out of the cells,

these can be used in the home and industry.
In the home:
Biological detergents contain lipase and protease to break down
food stains for example.
Biological detergents are more effective at lower temperatures than
other detergents.

In the industry:
Protease pre-digests proteins in baby foods.
Starch is converted to sugar syrup by carbohydrases.
Glucose syrup is converted to fructose syrup by isomerase, fructose
syrup is sweeter in smaller amounts and therefore is used in
slimming products.

Aerobic respiration

Oxygen + glucose carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

Chemical reactions inside the body are controlled by enzymes.
Aerobic respiration happens continually in plants and animals.
Most reactions in aerobic respiration take place in mitochondria.

How energy is used

To build larger molecules from smaller ones.

In animals, to enable muscles to contract
(movement)
In mammals and birds, to maintain a steady body
temp. in cold surroundings.
In plants, to build up sugars, nitrates and other
nutrients into amino acids which are then built into
proteins.

Exercise

In exercise, the depth and rate of breathing increases.

Heart rate increases.
These changes increase supply of blood flow to the muscles of
sugars and oxygen, and increase the removal of carbon dioxide.
Muscles store glucose as glycogen, which can be converted back to
glucose during exercise.

Anaerobic respiration

Glucose lactic acid + energy

If there is insufficient amounts of oxygen reaching muscles during
exercise, anaerobic respiration is used to obtain energy.
Less energy is released in anaerobic respiration because there is an
incomplete breakdown of glucose.
Anaerobic respiration results in oxygen debt, this needs to be repaid
to oxidise lactic acid to carbon
dioxide and water.

Muscles in anaerobic respiration

Muscles become fatigued (stop

contracting efficiently) if they are
subject to vigorous amounts of
activity.
One cause of muscle fatigue is a
build-up of lactic acid.
Lactic acid is removed by blood flowing through the muscle.

Inheritance
Mendels discoveries

Mendel worked out the main principles of inheritance in the 19th

century.
He studied inheritance in pea plants.
He noticed that certain characteristics that were
shown by 2 pea plants were not always shown in
their offspring.
However, when he crossed these offspring
together, the characteristics sometimes

reappeared in the next generation.

He carried out thousands of crosses with pea plants, and he found
that many
characteristics were inherited in predictable patterns.

He proposed the idea of separately inherited factors:

Each individual inherits a set of factors from each of their parents.

It is the combination of these characters that determines the
characteristics of an individual.

Mendels discoveries were not recognised until after his

death Why?

He published his work in an obscure journal

DNA, chromosomes and genes were not yet discovered
People could not accept the link between plants and humans.

Cell division
Mitosis

In body cells chromosomes are usually found in

pairs. Body cells divide by mitosis.
Chromosomes contain genetic information.
When a body cell divides by mitosis:
Copies of the genetic material are made.
The cell divides once to form 2 genetically identical
body cells.
Why mitosis happens:
To replace damaged cells.
For growth.

Body cells have 2 sets of chromosomes, gametes (sex cells) have 1.

Meiosis

Cells in reproductive organs testes and ovaries divide to

form gametes.
The type of cell division in which a cell divides to form
gametes is meiosis.
When a cell divides by meiosis:
Copies of the genetic material are made.
The cell divides twice to form four gametes with a single set
of chromosomes.

Fertilisation

When gametes join at fertilisation, a single body cell with

new pairs of chromosomes is formed.
A new individual then develops with this cell dividing repeatedly by
mitosis.

Stem cells

Most animal cells differentiate at an early stage, but plant cells can
differentiate throughout life.
In mature animals, cell division is restricted to cell replacement and
repair.
Stem cells are cells which can differentiate into different types of
cells.
Stem cells can be found in adult bone marrow and human embryos.
Human stem cells have the ability to become any kind of human
cell.

How can stem cells be used?

Nerve cells to help those paralysed by spinal cord injuries.
Beating heart muscle cells for those with heart disease
Insulin producing cells for those with diabetes.
For
Against
Those who are alive and suffering
You are killing a potential human
are more important than an
life.
embryo.
Unwanted embryos from fertility
Scientists should concentrate on
clinics which would be otherwise
other ways of obtaining stem cells
destroyed could be used for
rather than using them from
research.
embryos .

Asexual reproduction

Offspring produced by asexual reproduction are produced by mitosis

of the parental cells.
They contain the same alleles as the parent (genetically identical)

Genetic variation
Gender

Variation occurs in sexual reproduction

because when gametes fuse, one of
each pair of alleles comes from each
parent.
In human body cells, one of the 23 pairs
of matched chromosomes are different
and carries the gene that determines
the sex.
XX codes for females, XY codes for
males.

Alleles and genes.

An allele is a version of a gene. So the gene could be Hh, and the

alleles would be H and h.
An allele that controls the development of a characteristic when it is
present on only one of the chromosomes is a dominant allele.
An allele that controls the development of characteristics only if the
dominant allele is not present is a recessive allele.
Each gene codes for a combination of amino acids to make a
specific protein.
A gene is a section of DNA.

Genotype = what alleles you have.

Phenotype = the characteristic displayed by the genotype.
Heterozygous = 2 different alleles
Homozygous = 2 of the same alleles.

Genotypes, phenotypes, heterozygous and homozygous.

DNA

DNA stands for deoxyribose nucleic acid.

Chromosomes are made up of DNA.
DNA has a double helix structure.
Each person has unique DNA (apart from identical

twins).
This can be used to identify individuals, this is called DNA
fingerprinting which can be used for paternity testing and forensic
science.

Genetic disorders

Some disorders are inherited.

This is where an individual has extra fingers or toes.

It is dominant, so can be passed on by only one parent who has the
disorder.

Polydactyly

Cystic fibrosis

It is a disorder of the cell membranes.

It must be inherited from both parents to be shown as it is recessive.

You can be a carrier without having the disorder.

Embryos can be screened for alleles which cause genetic disorders.

Embryo screening
For
It will stop people from suffering
There are laws to stop it going too far
During IVF, most embryos are
destroyed anyway screening just
allows it to be healthy.
Treating disorders cost the government
a lot of money.

Genetic crosses

Against
People may start screening to pick their
most desirable baby.
The rejected embryos are destroyed,
they could have been potential
humans.
Screening is expensive.
It implies those living with disorders are
undesirable and this increases
prejudice.

Speciation
Fossils

Evidence of early life forms comes from fossils.

Fossils are the remains of organisms from many
years ago, which are found in rocks.
We can learn from fossils how much or how little
organisms have changed since life developed on
earth.
Fossils can be formed in various ways:
From the hard parts of an animal which do not
decay easily.
From parts of an organism which have not decayed because one or
more conditions needed for decay are absent e.g oxygen or
moisture.
When parts of an organism are replaced by other materials as they
decay
Preserved traces of organisms e.g footprints, rootlets e.t.c
Problems
Many early life forms were soft bodied, and therefore left few traces
behind.
What traces were left behind have mainly been destroyed by
geological activity

Scientists cant be sure about how life began because of the lack of
valid and reliable evidence.

Extinction

Extinction may be caused by:

New predators.
New, more successful competition.
Change in environment over geological time.
Single catastrophic event e.g volcanos, asteroids.
New diseases.
A new species develops (speciation)

Speciation

Speciation is the development of new species.

A species is a group of similar organisms which can
reproduce to give fertile offspring.
Speciation occurs when populations of the same species
become so different that they can no longer breed to
produce fertile offspring.
The stages of speciation.
1. Isolation 2 populations of species become separated e.g
geographically.
2. Genetic variation Both populations show variation
because there are a wide range of alleles.
3. Natural selection In each population, the alleles for the
characteristics which help the organism survive are
selected as they are best suited to the environment, and
these organisms will survive to breed and pass on their
characteristics to the next generation.
4. Speciation The populations become so different that successful
interbreeding is no longer possible.