10-1

CHAPTER 10
EAST ASIA
You should know these locations:
Administrative Divisions The Peoples Republic of China, Taiwan (Nationalist China), Japan, Mongolia, South Korea,
North Korea, Hong Kong, Macao, Manchuria.
Physical Features Tian Shan Mountains, Gobi Desert, Tarim Basin, Tibetan Plateau, Szechuan Basin, Huang (Yellow)
River, Chang (Yangtze) River, Hokkaido Island, Honshu Island, Shikoku Island, Kyushu Island, Okinawa Islands.
Cities Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Taipei, Pyongyang, Seoul, Tokyo.

Introduction to Region
East Asia includes the countries of the Peoples Republic of China, Taiwan (Nationalist China),
Japan, Mongolia, South Korea, and North Korea. It is a region that has historically been dominated by
Chinese culture. Each of the countries in the region at one time was either part of a Chinese empire, or
received cultural influences from Chinese society. Much of the eastern portion of the region also came
under the colonial control of Japan during the first half of the 20th-century.

The Four Regions of China

China, which is approximately the same size as the United States, is often described as having four
distinct regions: (1) the northeast, (2) the southeast, (3) the southwest, and (4) the northwest, each with
its own unique geographic characteristics. Indeed, this differentiation of China into four regions has
deep historical roots as well.
Northeast China has been the cultural and political heartland of China for 5000 years. It is
characterized by extensive plains and rolling hills, nutritious soils, and several large rivers flowing
eastward across the region (very important for irrigation). Population densities are very high, around
1000 people per square mile.
Southeast China is composed of hills and small mountain ranges, with a subtropical or tropical
environment throughout the region. Several major rivers cross this region as well, but they are most
important for transportation. The landscape is densely settled and heavily farmed.
Southwest China, which includes Tibet (Xizang Plateau, xi means west), is an extremely rugged
and mountainous landscape with little farmland (except in irrigated valleys). This isolated terrain was
actually an independent Buddhist theocracy that was illegally occupied by China in 1950.
Northwest China, and much of Mongolia, is characterized by extensive basins and very high
mountain ranges. Most of the region is desert, with extremely cold winter temperatures (as low as 50oF). While harsh, this region was a major transportation corridor for Oriental goods carried by Turkic
merchants between 1100 CE and 1400 CE.
Major Physiographic Features
Tian Shan Mountains - extremely high and rugged mountains (24,000 feet) which help separate China from the Turkic
territories to the west.
Gobi Desert - a large cold desert region in northern China and much of Mongolia.
Tarim Basin - a broad lowland in northwest China, surrounded by mountains on three sides.
Tibetan Plateau - a high rugged plateau with average elevations of 12,000 feet, and mountains up to 20,000 feet.
Szechuan Basin - a lowland area in south-central China with extremely good soils and a mild climate. It is a major farming
region.
Huang He (Yellow) River - originates in north-central China, and is extremely important for irrigation.
Chang (Yangtze) River - originates in the Tibetan Plateau and winds through much of central China. It is especially
important for transportation.
Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa the four major islands of Japan, they are composed of hundreds of
volcanoes (many of which are still active).

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Major Climates
You should refer to Chapter 1 for the descriptions of each climate type listed below.
Highlands - highest elevations.
Humid Continental - northeastern China and Japan.
Humid Subtropical - southern China and southern Japan.
Midlatitude Desert - the Gobi region and the Tarim Basin.
Midlatitude Steppe - western China and Mongolia.
Subarctic - northeastern China and northern Japan.
Tropical Wet/Dry - small areas of far southern China.
Patterns of Natural Vegetation
You should refer to Chapter 1 for the descriptions of each vegetation type listed below.
Desert Vegetation - Gobi region and the Tarim Basin.
Steppe (Grassland) - found mostly in cool steppe climates.
Subtropical Forest - southeastern China and southern Japan.
Taiga - northern China, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan.
Temperate Forest - eastern China, Korea, and Japan.
Tropical Rain Forest - far southeastern China and small portions of Taiwan.
Tundra - highest elevations of the regions mountains.

Historical Geography
Early Dynasties and Empires
East Asia is a region with extremely early roots of civilization. In fact, we find archaeological and
historical accounts of civilization in northeast China as early as 2200 BCE. It is interesting to note that
this early development of civilization was mostly independent of civilizations elsewhere in the world.
Also, the development of these early cultures had great impact on much of the rest of Asia in coming
centuries.
Interestingly enough, the earliest known pottery in the world was manufactured by hunter-gatherer
groups in Japan over 12,000 years ago. However, these groups did not develop agriculture for another
9000 years. Instead, it was on the mainland of China that the first civilizations in East Asia developed.
Agriculture had been practiced in northeast China since 5800 BCE (especially in the fertile Loess soils
of the region). Some, but certainly not all, of the dynasties and empires of East Asia are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
The earliest large civilization in East Asia was the Shang Empire, which evolved on the Yangtze
River valley of northeast China around 1800 BCE. The Shang became quite proficient in bronze
working and they came to dominate much of eastern China. Pictographic writing was developed in the
region by 1600 BCE. However, by 1100 BCE the Shang dynasty was overthrown, and power shifted to
the Zhou Empire.
The Zhou Empire was in control of Northeast China from 1160 BCE to 400 BCE. The Zhou
benefited from the rise of trade with the Mediterranean countries. Iranian nomads, who dominated the
steppes of Central Asia, served as the carriers of silk from China, and iron and other metals from the
west. However, the latter stages of the Zhou Dynasty were plagued by numerous wars, and the rise of
new forms of thought (for example Confucianism and Taoism). The Zhou Empire broke up unto dozens
of smaller kingdoms by 400 BCE. Following the break up of the Zhou Empire, several other empires
rose and fell within the chaos of the 400s BCE through 200s BCE. Much of the Great Wall of China
was built during this time period in an attempt to protect the northern flank of Chinese culture from
Mongolian invasions.
The Han Empire or Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) eventually spread across most of China, and even
as far south as Vietnam. During this time period Buddhism made its way into China from Tibet, and it
infused into the local religions of China. Iron working became widespread during this period as well
(especially by 150 BCE). After several uprisings and chaotic transitions of government, the Han
Dynasty collapsed in 220 CE. The next 400 years were characterized by numerous invasions of

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Mongolian groups and the rise and fall of several empires in eastern China and Korea. It was during this
time period that the first highly civilized societies developed in Japan (around 300 CE). Buddhism was
widespread in China and Korea by 327 CE, and it was introduced into Japan in 552 CE.
The Tibetan Kingdom (550 CE-850 CE) formed in the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau. By 800 CE
it had expanded their control over all of the Tibetan Plateau, and to the coast of Bangladesh, into
northern Thailand, and into central and western China.
Various Japanese kingdoms (600s CE-1500s CE) absorbed elements of Chinese society, politics,
and religions. The Japanese readily adopted many of these new ideas as they were incorporated into
beliefs already existing in Japan. The first empires to develop in Japan were in the 600s CE. By 800 CE
the Heian Empire was headquartered in the territory of a powerful family, the Fujiwara, near Kyoto.
They established a constitution that gave the emperor supreme power and set forth a legal code based on
Buddhist and Shintoist principles. The power of central authority began to weaken, especially after 1100
CE, and the country broke into hundreds of feudal states for the next 500 years. These feudal states were
under the control of local powerful property owners (called Daimyo), who maintained private armies of
Samurai.
Centralized authority again came to dominate much of China by 618 CE under the rule of the Tang
Dynasty (618 CE-907 CE). They expanded Chinese control of Central Asia as far west as Uzbekistan
and Tibet, until their advances were halted by Arabs and Turks in those regions. In the 800s CE nonChinese religious groups (especially Buddhists, Muslims, and Christians) came to be persecuted by
Chinese authorities in order to maintain control of the region. Gunpowder was also invented in China
around 850 CE. Although the empire collapsed in 907 CE, it was considered one of the great dynasties
of Chinese culture.
Korea was also the origin of a number of significant empires. The Silla Empire (676 CE-780 CE),
based in Korea, came to power about the same time as the rise of Tang authority. The Koreans
organized themselves into a powerful kingdom, which included much of Japan. Kingdom of Korea
(Koryo Dynasty, 918 CE-1258 CE) took over much of the territory that had been part of the Silla
Empire, except for Japan. Korea was soon over-run by the Mongols in 1258 CE.
The next great empire to develop in East Asia was created by the Mongolian people, who began
spreading out of Mongolia, conquering much of East and Central Asia (1204 CE-1500s CE). They had
conquered northeast China by 1206 CE, most of Central Asia and Eastern Europe by 1227 CE, and
southwestern China, Tibet, Pakistan, Iran, portions of the Middle East, and the Baltic region of Europe
by 1259 CE. This rapid expansion was made possible by their skilled use of cavalry on the open plains
(or steppes) of Eurasia. Indeed, their military advantage was severely limited once they encountered
densely forested areas in Europe and southern China, and deserts in the Middle East. They also used an
incredibly powerful long-range bow, and their policy of almost total destruction, and extensive use of
extermination of the peoples they conquered, encouraged people to join them rather than to fight them.
While Genghis Khan and other Mongol leaders created the Mongol Empire, it could hardly be
considered a civilization, because it left little in the way of cities, fortifications, science, and guild
diversification in its wake. Indeed, the most sophisticated civilizations of the time period, the Arabs and
the Chinese, suffered the most under Mongolian attacks. Although the Christian empires of Europe and
the Mediterranean were attacked on their eastern flank by the Mongols, in the end, they benefited the
most from the raids because these weakened the power of the Muslim states with whom they were
competing. Finally, the Mongolian Empire began to collapse under its own weight, breaking into
numerous smaller kingdoms around the 1300s.
In the 1300s the Chinese were able to force the Mongolians from their territory and they
established the Ming Empire (1368 CE-1550s CE). The Ming ruled in much the same was as the Tang,
and they pushed their control over many of the same areas occupied by the Tang, including northern
Vietnam. However, they adopted a policy forbidding the travel of Chinese citizens to other territories in
an effort to control the Chinese people. This dramatically reduced Chinese control over trade with the

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remainder of the world, and an overall neglect of its maritime powers. Unfortunately, for the Chinese
people, this was almost exactly at the point in history that European powers were expanding their
interest in both trade and colonial expansion. This policy was to put China at a severe disadvantage in
the coming centuries.
In the late 1500s, a series of extremely powerful daimyo (property owners) and shoguns
(samurai leaders), were able to take control of much of Japan, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate of
Japan (1603 CE-1644 CE). They utilized muskets, which had been introduced by the Portuguese, and
were able to expand across Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido Islands by the 1700s. Although
trade with European countries was vigorous at this time, backlashes against Japanese Christians were
widespread.
After the collapse of the Ming Empire at the hands of Mongol invaders, Japanese pirates, and
European intrusions in South China, the Manchu people of northern China (near Korea) began their
conquest of the former Ming Empire. This group, who were not ethnically Chinese, expanded their
control over the Han (or Chinese people) as far south as Vietnam. A significant southward migration of
Han people also occurred at this time as they tried to escape Manchu rule. They founded the Manchu
Empire (Dynasty, 1644 CE-1912 CE). Finally, the Manchu Empire suffered through the 1700s-1900s
due to thousands of ethnic uprisings, rampant government corruption, and the increasing influence of the
opium trade by Europeans.

The Arrival of Europeans

One of the primary goals of European exploration during the 1500s through 1800s was to obtain
access to luxury items from the Orient (including East Asia). The Europeans sought Chinese cotton and
silk fabrics, ironware, porcelain, tea, medicines, spices, and sugar. In exchange, they hoped to trade
silver, grain crops, wool, timber, and raw cotton fiber which they produced in Europe or elsewhere
within their territorial control.
The Chinese and the Japanese governments were both quite hesitant to allow foreign influence in
their region. They had grown accustomed to trading with the Turkic or Mongolian peoples to their west,
and were not eager to have contact with Europeans. The 1700s, and especially the 1800s, were
characterized by attempts by Europeans to establish trade relations in the region, at the expense of East
Asian power. The British found a powerful weapon to use against Chinese authority; they had
discovered that the demand for opium as a narcotic was immense in southeastern China in the early
1800s. This addiction went far to weaken Chinese authority as it led to rampant criminal activity and the
rise of powerful Chinese merchants associated with the trade. The Chinese government reacted by
initiating the first Opium War in 1839-1842. However, the Chinese, who had outdated technology due
to their self-imposed isolation, lost. This resulted in China having to concede to British trading ports in
Hong Kong and five other ports. The second Opium War (1856-1860) resulted in even greater
European influence in coastal China.
Portugal established a trading base in Macao (China) in 1557. They were followed by Russia
(1689), France (1880s), and Germany (1897), who each gained spheres of influence in which they
were given exclusive trading rights. The Russians dominated northwestern China, Mongolia, and
Manchuria. The British dominated the Yangtze River valley in east-central China. The French had
control over much of southern China. The Germans concentrated their efforts in the Shandong
Peninsula of northeast China. Later, the Japanese established a sphere in Taiwan and nearby coastal
areas of mainland China.
Political and economic chaos and the constant meddling of foreign powers led to the overthrow of
the Manchu Dynasty in 1912, and the formation of the Chinese Republic, resulting from a peasant
revolution.

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Japanese Imperialism and the World Wars

As already mentioned, the Japanese government was also hesitant to allow trade with European
powers during this time period for fear that western influences would weaken its political control over
the Japanese people. Russian and British ships were repelled each time they attempted to trade in
Japanese waters. In 1853, the United States Naval Commodore, Matthew Perry, along with a squadron
of ships and 4000 marines, was finally able to convince the Japanese government to allow limited
trading on Japanese territory. In response to this increased foreign influence, the Japanese nobility
adopted a policy of rapid industrialization and a reinforcement of its military. They decided that they
would compete directly with the Europeans for dominance of East Asian trade.
Japan invaded the Kuril and Sakhalin islands to the north of its traditional territory (taking them
from Russia), and the Ryukyu Islands from the Chinese. Later, in 1904 they occupied Korea, followed
by Manchuria (China), and German territories in China in 1914. The Japanese also controlled large
areas of Mongolia, and southeastern China by 1914. Japan proceeded to invade Russian Siberia between
1918 and 1922, while the Russians struggled through their own Communist revolution. The Treaty of
Versailles (which ended WWI in 1919) confirmed Japanese territorial advances. Motivated by the need
for iron, coal, and petroleum to fuel its emerging industrial economy, Japan invaded much of eastern
China during the late 1930s.
Following agreements with Nazi Germany, Japan occupied Southeast Asia, and advanced its naval
control of the western Pacific. Its un-precipitated attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 brought
the United States into a war in the Pacific that it might not have entered otherwise. Following that raid
the Japanese conducted bombing raids in many areas outside the region they controlled with the hope of
breaking the will of its enemies (including India, Sri Lanka, Australia, and Alaska). The four year long
battle between the United States and Japan ended with almost complete destruction of the Japanese
urban landscape, industrial base, and agricultural economy by 1945. Millions of Japanese and other
Asians (as well as Allied troops) died in the conflict between 1914 and 1945.
Despite the severe damage experienced by Japan during WWII, it was able to reconstruct itself into
a major economic power beginning in the 1960s (with the economic help of the United States).

The Rise of Communism

Throughout World War II, the United States and Britain attempted to free Chinese territory from
Japanese control. Once the war ended, however, the alliance soon broke down as the Chinese attempted
to assert their political autonomy. They were not interested in returning to the subservient role they had
during the colonial period, and many new social reform movements (including Communism) were
sweeping across the nation. By 1949, the Communists, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, were able
to force their primary political competitors (the Nationalists) off the mainland (who went to Taiwan
and founded a new, non-communist country).
The Chinese Communists founded the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. This new regime
began to exert its force in the region, invading Tibet in 1950. Working alongside the Soviets, they
supported the invasion of South Korea in 1950. During the 1950s and 1960s, Mao Zedong modified the
Soviet version of communism to suit the rural character of China, creating the ideology of Maoism.
The basic influence of Maoism on farming policies is discussed in the agriculture section. In general
terms, Maoism placed heavy emphasis on minimizing the superficial differences between classes in
China (like clothing, shoes, and housing), but it did little to reduce political corruption and the everwidening gap between the rural poor and the urban classes.

The Partition of Korea

Leading up to, and during World War II, Japan controlled Korea by utilizing the existing Korean
government bureaucracy (e.g., many local Korean administrators helped maintain stability during the

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occupation). However, significant numbers of Koreans resisted Japanese occupation with the help of
communist support from China and the Soviet Union.
Following Japans defeat in 1945 the United States lent its support to Korean bureaucrats in the
southern part of the country, while the Soviet Union and China supported their communist allies (located
primarily in the north). The United Nations eventually approved (1948) a division of Korea into two
separate states (countries). The hardships of the Korean War, the massive military build-up on both
sides of the border, prolonged famine in the north, and severe disparities in economic development of
the two countries have generally prohibited the establishment lasting or meaningful political
cooperation. Interestingly, the two Koreas are populated by one dominant ethnolinguistic group, share
one major religion, and have one national historical identity (until they were separated in the 1940s).
Table 1: Military expenditures in Korea.
Country
North Korea
South Korea

Expenditures
$5.1 billion
$12.8 billion

Percent of GDP
23.5%
1.4%

Demography
East Asia has more people than any other region on the planet. Indeed, one of every five persons
on Earth today lives in China. The demographic table outlines the current population and growth
characteristics of each country in East Asia. The primary cause of the rapid growth in population in this
region has been a reduction in infectious disease and improvements in agriculture that have reduced
malnutrition. That said, East Asia has had a large population for a very long time (for example, China
had over 100 million people as far back as the 1600s CE.
Initially, China's post-1949 leaders were ideologically disposed to view a large population as an
asset. But the liabilities of a large, rapidly growing population soon became apparent. For one year,
starting in August 1956, vigorous propaganda support was given to the Ministry of Public Health's mass
birth control efforts. These efforts, however, had little impact on birth rates. After the interval of the
Great Leap Forward, Chinese leaders again saw rapid population growth as an obstacle to development,
and their interest in birth control revived. In the early 1960s, propaganda, somewhat more muted than
during the first campaign, emphasized the virtues of late marriage. Birth control offices were set up in
the central government and some provincial level governments in 1964. The second campaign was
particularly successful in the cities, where the birth rate was cut in half during the 1963-66 period. The
chaos of the Cultural Revolution brought the program to a halt, however.
In 1972 and 1973, the party mobilized its resources for a nationwide birth control campaign
administered by a group in the State Council. Committees to oversee birth control activities were
established at all administrative levels and in various collective enterprises. This extensive and
seemingly effective network covered both the rural and the urban population. In urban areas public
security headquarters included population control sections. In rural areas the country's "barefoot
doctors" distributed information and contraceptives to people's commune members. By 1973 Mao
Zedong was personally identified with the family planning movement, signifying a greater leadership
commitment to controlled population growth than ever before. Yet until several years after Mao's death
in 1976, the leadership was reluctant to put forth directly the rationale that population control was
necessary for economic growth and improved living standards.
Population growth targets were set for both administrative units and individual families. In the
mid-1970s the maximum recommended family size was two children in cities and three or four in the
country. Since 1979 the government has advocated a one-child limit for both rural and urban areas and
has generally set a maximum of two children in special circumstances. As of 1986, the policy for
minority nationalities was two children per couple, three in special circumstances, and no limit for ethnic
groups with very small populations. The main goal of the one-child policy was to keep total population
within 1.2 billion by the year 2000.

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During the 1970s, the government of China realized that any social or economic progress that
would be made by their communist revolution would be absorbed (or wasted) by the severe rate of
population increase. The Chinese government instituted a variety of population control programs in an
effort to reduce growth rates. Probably the most famous of these strategies was the policy of One
couple, one child (1979). The idea was that each couple would only be allowed to have one child, with
the goal that through time the population of China would stabilize at about replacement level. The
government set up a series of incentive programs to encourage couples to have only one child. Those
couples who violated the one child rule would be penalized. They may lose their current jobs and placed
in inferior positions, their housing quality could be reduced, they could be placed on long waiting lists
for things they desired, and they could even be fined or imprisoned. In many instances, especially during
the early days of the program, women who violated the rule would be sterilized against their will, or
forced to have abortions.
Unfortunately, the incidence of female infanticide increased dramatically as well. This
phenomenon was due to the fact that in traditional Chinese society, as in many others, male children are
preferred to female because they will ultimately be responsible for taking care of their aging parents. If a
family had a female child under the regulations, they would be tempted to kill her soon after birth so as
to have the opportunity to try for a male child. The government came to recognize that an inordinate
number of female babies were having accidents soon after birth. Despite the ethical ramifications of
this strong population control policy, birth rates did decline dramatically (down to 0.9% annually).
Recently, the government has relaxed the policy to help minimize infanticide.
Observers suggested that an accurate assessment of the one child program would not be possible
until all women who came of childbearing age in the early 1980s passed their fertile years. As of 1987,
the one-child program had achieved mixed results. In general, it was very successful in almost all urban
areas but less successful in rural areas. The Chinese authorities must have been disturbed by the increase
in the officially reported annual population growth rate (birth rate minus death rate).
Rapid birth rate reduction associated with the one-child policy has potentially negative results. For
instance, in the future the elderly might not be able to rely on their children to care for them as they have
in the past, leaving the state to assume the expense, which could be considerable. Based on United
Nations statistics and data provided by the Chinese government, it was estimated in 1987 that by the year
2000 the population 60 years and older (the retirement age is 60 in urban areas) would number 127
million, or 10.1 percent of the total population; the projection for 2025 was 234 million elderly, or 16.4
percent. According to one Western analyst, projections based on the 1982 census show that if the onechild policy is maintained 25 percent of China's population will be age 65 or older by the year 2040.

Population Distribution
Today, you will find that most people who live in East Asia live along the eastern portion of China,
on the Korean Peninsula, or in Japan. The whole western half of China only has 10 percent of the total
population of China. Furthermore, most of the Chinese population is rural. However, an increasing
number of Chinese are moving to the cities in search of better economic opportunities, despite
government discouragement of this activity.
Table 2: Demographic patterns.
Country
Peoples Republic of China
Japan
Taiwan
South Korea
North Korea
Mongolia
USA

Population in 2009
1,362 million (1.362 billion)
127 million
23 million
50 million
25 million
2.7 million
317 million

Growth Rate
0.48%
-0.02%
0.33%
0.33%
0.34%
0.96%
0.97%

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Ethnicity and Language

Approximately 600 linguistic or ethnic groups live in East Asia today. China itself has over 500
languages, although the Han people dominate the culture and politics of the entire country. Indeed, the
Chinese ethnic group (Han) has four main subgroups: (1) Manchurians, (2) Mandarins, (3) Cantonese,
and (4) Hui. The Manchurians are concentrated in northeast China (Manchuria). The Mandarins are
concentrated in the Beijing area, and they are the dominant of the four branches of Han. The Cantonese
are located mostly in the southeastern quarter of the country. The Hui (about 7 million) are located in
north-central China, and were converted to Islam around 1000 CE. As a result, they have had less
contact with the other branches and have begun to develop a different dialect and even demonstrate some
basic genetic differences from the rest of the Han people.
Ethnolinguistic Groups
1. Sino-Tibetan Language Family
A. Chinese Branch Chinese (Mandarin, Manchurian, Cantonese, and Hui, and 12 others).
B. Tibeto-Burman Branch Tibetan, Burmese, Yi, Karen, Sherpa, Sikkimese, and 339 other
languages in China. Many of the Tibetan people have physiological adaptations to hypoxia like
those found in certain Amerindians in the Altiplano of South Amerca.
2. Altaic Language Family
A. Mongolian Branch Buriat, Mongolian, and eleven others in northern Asia.
B. Tungus Branch Even, Manchu, and 10 others in northern Asia. Manchu conquered China during
the 1600s CE, and are highly mixed with the Chinese. However, they should not be confused with
the Manchurians, who are northern Han.
C. Turkic Branch Uighar (Uyghur), Uzbek, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Altai, and 30 others.
3. Japanese Language Family Japanese.
4. Korean could be distantly related to Altaic Family, or to certain Native American families.
5. Tai-Kadai (Daic) Language Family Thai, Lao, and 66 other languages in southeastern China.
6. Austronesian Language Family
A. Formosan Branch 23 languages in Taiwan.
7. Hmong-Mien Language Family 32 languages in China.
8. Indo-European Language Family Tajik in far western China.

Religion
Several important religions have their roots in East Asia, including Confucianism, Taoism (or
Daoism), and Shintoism. The region also has a significant number of adherents (millions) to two other
important religions that originated outside the region. They are Buddhism, which originated in India,
and Islam, which comes from the Middle East. Buddhism is described in more detail in the following
section. In addition to the Oriental religions, approximately 25 million people in East Asia practice
Islam. This religion was brought into the region approximately 1000 years ago by Turkic traders along
the Silk Trade route across Central Asia.

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Taoism (or Daoism)

Taoism was founded by a Chinese philosopher named Lao-tzu who lived around 600 BCE. "Tao"
means responsible behavior and understanding. Taoism is often considered a philosophy rather than an
actual religion. Together with Confucianism and Buddhism, it has played a strong role in guiding many
Chinese people in terms of their behavior and their government. Taoism has been incorporated into the
religious beliefs of many people in the eastern half of China, Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Indeed, it was
a major influence in the ideas of Confucianism.

Confucianism
Confucianism is a complex system of morals and ethics, but it is considered a religion because of
the impact it has on the way people live their lives. Confucianism was founded about 500 BCE by a
young scholar named Kung-tze, but the western version of the name is commonly rendered "Confucius".
Confucius was born in 551 BCE in the province of Shantung (China). The focus of Confucius was on a
strong, yet benevolent government. Confucius believed that a strong government was key to a strong
society. Today, Confucianism is often found intermingled with Taoism. It is difficult to distinguish
between what is Taoist and what is Confucian because they both have many of the same ideas.
Confucianism never took root in Confucius' lifetime, but after his death, it had a profound impact
on ancient Chinese societies. It was once governmental policy to adopt Confucian principles in order to
order and discipline in society. Society saw education as social mobility. At the local level schools,
Confucian philosophy and ethics were required of every student. Today, the primary followers of
Confucianism are found in mainland China (especially the eastern half), and Taiwan. Confucianism as
practiced here is usually in combination with Buddhism and Taoism and often in conjunction with
ancestor worship. The largest population of non-Chinese followers is found in Korea.

Buddhism
As mentioned in the previous chapter, Buddhism originated in South Asia. It spread across that
region quickly and by 300 BCE much of South Asia had been converted. In contrast, Buddhism spread
slowly into East Asia. By 700 CE it had just advanced into far southwestern Tibet, by 1100 CE it had
advanced across more of Tibet, and by 1300 CE it finally reached Mongolia. From there it spread
eastward into the remainder of China, Korea, and Japan, where it mixed with Confucianism and Taoism.

Shintoism
Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion. Beginning about 500 BCE (or earlier), it was originally a
blending of nature worship (animism), fertility cults, and hero worship. Its name is derived from the
Chinese words "shin tao" (The Way of the Gods) in the 8th Century CE. At that time, the Yamato
dynasty consolidated its rule over most of Japan, divine origins were ascribed to the imperial family, and
Shinto established itself as the official religion of Japan, along with Buddhism.
Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of religious law, and only a very loosely
organized priesthood. Most Japanese citizens follow both Shinto and Buddhism. Buddhism first arrived
in Japan from Korea and China during the 8th century CE.
Spirits or gods (Kami) are related to natural objects and creatures, from food to rivers to rocks.
Shinto recognizes many sacred places: mountains, springs, etc. Estimates of the number of Shintoists
vary considerably. Some sources give numbers in the range of 2.8 to 3.2 million. One states that 40% of
Japanese adults follow Shinto; would amount to about 50 million Shintoists. Others state that about 86%
of Japanese adults follow a combination of Shinto and Buddhism; would put the number of followers of
Shinto at 107 million.

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Table 3: Religious adherence.
Religion
Confucianism
Taoism
Buddhism
Shintoism
Islam

Main Ethnic Group

Han, Korean, and others.
Han and others.
Mongolian, and Tibetan
Japanese
Hui Chinese and Uighur Turks.

General Location
Eastern China and Korea.
Eastern China.
Mongolia and Tibet.
Japan
Northwest China.

Land Use (Agriculture)

Agriculture in East Asia is characterized by great diversity of crops and production systems. As a
country, China may have more agricultural variety than anywhere else on earth. Of course, each
particular farming region, or farmer, may not have a great deal of variety. To fully understand agriculture
in China, we need to go back to the concept of Chinas four major regions.
Northeast China - This is the original agricultural heartland of China. Today it is characterized by
the production of wheat and several other grains, soybeans, corn, and cotton, using human and animal
labor, and to a large degree, tractors and chemical treatments. One crop per year is produced and the
good soils facilitate high production amounts. Pigs and chickens constitute a high percentage of the
meat intake in this region.
Southeast China - The humid subtropical climate of most of this region has facilitated the
production of rice and many tropical crops for thousands of years. Most of the rice is raised in paddies
(or flooded fields) which help control weeds and which supply ample nutrients to the crop. The long
growing season coupled with intensive nursery techniques makes two (or even three) crops possible each
year. Tea, hundreds of tropical fruits, and sugar cane are also produced in very high quantities. Humans
and water buffalo supply most of the energy in the agricultural systems in this region. Pigs, chickens,
ducks, and fish are also very important sources of food.
Southwest China - The high elevations, cold temperatures, and dry conditions of this region
severely inhibit agricultural activities. Farming is only possible in the small-irrigated valleys at lower
elevations. The farmers raise small quantities of wheat and other grains and deciduous fruits. The
grassy meadows of higher elevations provide food for nomadic herds of sheep, goats, and yaks (large
hairy semi-wild oxen, up to 11 feet long).
Northwest China - This region has large areas of flat deserts at lower elevations than Tibet.
However, extremely dry and cold conditions inhibit agriculture in most areas. Farming does take place
in natural or man-made oases (using qanats), or along some of the regions river valleys. Wheat and
other grains are raised in these settings, while cattle, sheep, goats, yak, and Bactrian camels are herded
on the pastures.

Dominant Land Use Patterns

As the previous section indicates, a variety of farming styles persist in East Asia. The dominant
land use activities are listed below:
(1) Shifting cultivation (also known as slash-and-burn farming) is practiced on the poor soils along
the southern fringe of the region.
(2) Permanent subsistence farming is widespread across the region.
(3) Nomadic Herding of sheep, yaks, and Bactrian camels is widespread across Mongolia and
western China.
(4) Commercial grain and vegetable farming is concentrated the Szechuan Basin.
(5) Plantation cultivation of tropical crops is common to the coastal plains, and is focused on the
production of cash crops for both domestic and international markets.

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Farming Policies in China

Historically, the majority of farmland in China, like elsewhere in the world, belonged to wealthy
property owners who would lease the land to peasant farmers (for as much as 70% of total earnings).
Typically, the farmers would eke out a meager living on the small piece of land rented to them, and they
often had to work on the landlords farm as well. Furthermore, throughout most of the history of China,
these peasants would build large public works projects and be forced to participate as soldiers in the
endless wars between rival landlords. This pattern had persisted from the dawn of agriculture in China
over 7000 years ago up until the 1940s.
Once the Communists (led by Mao Zedong) took over most of China in 1949, they instituted a
variety of land reform programs with the intention of alleviating this problem. Mao Zedong modified
the basic beliefs of Communism (which was designed for industrialized societies) to the basic conditions
of a rural society (like that of China). He felt that the key to Chinas future was the improvement of its
agricultural base. He may have been correct; however, much doubt has now been placed on his
techniques for achieving his goals. The Communists implemented a variety of programs, each to replace
a failed program instituted a few years earlier.
The first of these major programs was called Collectivization (1949-1957). In this scheme, land
was taken away from the wealthy property owners and turned into government-operated farms. By
1956, over 88% of Chinas farmers were working within Collectives. Unfortunately, the Collectives
were extremely inefficient, and the farmers had little motivation to work hard, they lacked technical
experience to operate large farms, and the country almost starved to death in the 1950s. The program
ended in 1957.
In 1957 government leaders realized they needed a more rigorous system, and it initiated the
Great Leap Forward and established Communal farms (1957-1979). These Communal farms were
centered on large farming villages of around 20,000 people. The farmers lived in large barracks (in
some cases they were segregated according to gender). Families were typically broken up, and children
were raised in nursery barracks by communal nurses. Each of these Communes would produce almost
everything that it needed (food, clothing, shoes, basic utensils, etc.), and it was supposed to supply a
surplus of food to feed the urban areas. They would also be responsible for building roads, bridges,
dams, and irrigation canals in their local region. Ninety-eight percent of the farm population was
organized into communes between April and September of 1958. Very soon, it became evident that in
most cases the communes were too unwieldy to carry out successfully all the production and
administrative functions that were assigned to them.
As you can imagine, the results were disastrous. Between 1958 and 1961, as many as 20 million
Chinese may have starved to death under these harsh conditions. Additional suffering took place during
Maos Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of 1966 in which he attempted to purify his communist
party 20 million people died during this purge). The system was abandoned in 1979. Indeed, this
system was not all that much different from the ones designed by Chinese Emperors more than 2000
years earlier.
In 1979, the Chinese government initiated the Responsibility System in which local farmers were
allowed to make more decisions about their production activities. They were also given more economic
rights, with the hope that some basic forms of free market business activities would encourage greater
and more efficient production. This policy would not have been possible during the lifetime of Mao
Zedong, but his death in 1976 opened the way for sweeping changes in China. That said, agriculture in
China is still plagued by inefficiencies and productivity lags far behind many other farming regions of
the world. Even today, over 376 million people in China are still involved in agriculture. This amounts
to 50% of the work force, as compared to the 2.4% of the use labor force involved in farming.

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Agriculture Elsewhere in East Asia

Mongolia - For the most part, agriculture in Mongolia is similar to that of northwest China.
Korean Peninsula - The agricultural systems of the Korean Peninsula are very similar to those of
northeast China. The basic difference being that the warmer climate of South Korea has always
facilitated a more diverse and productive agricultural system.
Taiwan - The subtropical and tropical climate and fairly rich soils of Taiwan have made the island
a virtual garden. It is similar to the farming in southeast China, but it tends to be much more efficient
owing to its market-based economy.
Japan - Farming in Japan benefits from the warm climates in the southern islands and nutritious
volcanic soils throughout the country. The greatest diversity of crops is found in the islands of Kyushu,
Shikoku, and Honshu.

Mineral Resources
East Asia and more specifically, the Peoples Republic of China has a tremendous concentration of
mineral resources. Of these, the most abundant is coal. China is the worlds largest producer of coal,
and it may have approximately 25% of the worlds supply. The coal is mostly located in northeast China
and in the Szechuan Basin. Approximately 70 percent of this coal is bituminous, while 20 percent
anthracite, and 10 percent lignite. China also has significant reserves of petroleum and natural gas, with
most production located in Manchuria, and in the China Sea. Iron is located in Manchuria and several
other regions of China. Numerous additional metals are also found in southern China.

Industry
China experienced most of its industrialization after World War II, and the process was directly
managed by the Communist Party. As a result, the system tends to be over-focused on heavy industry.
Consumer items were never an important component of the industrial economy. The industry tends to
be outdated and inefficient by most standards. Per capita GNP in China is 3800. See the table at the end
of this section for comparisons. In reality, the labor system in China reflects a graduated pay scale,
rather than a truly equitable system as outlined in Communist ideology. For example, farmers and
factory workers are the lowest paid (with 8 pay grades, and grade 8 earning three times as much as grade
1). Technicians and engineers are higher on the pay scale (they have 16 pay grades). Government
administrators are the highest paid (no surprise), with 26 pay grades (grade 26 earns 15 times as much as
grade 1).
For the most part, Mongolia is an un-industrialized country. Total production from the country is
less than that of any particular medium-sized city in the United States. Its low population density, strict
Communist political system, lack of natural resources, and geographic isolation severely hinder
industrial activity.
Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are part of the Miracle of East Asia. All three were severely
damaged during World War II or during the Korean War, and they have been able to rise from that
destruction to develop some of the strongest economies in East Asia, and the world, for that matter.

Chinas Special Economic Zones (SEZ)

The continued stagnation of Chinas economic development under Maoism was a primary concern
to many planners in the Chinese government during the 1970s. However, it was not until the years
following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 that the Chinese leadership was politically able to embark
on a variety of new economic strategies. One of these changes was the establishment of Special
Economic Zones (SEZ) in 1978. Four coastal cities (Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, and Xiamen) were
opened to foreign investment. The Chinese government allowed foreign companies to open
manufacturing facilities in these cities and to take advantage of the lower labor costs in the region. The
SEZs also encouraged the expansion of factories owned by the Chinese government into the zones. The

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model was such a success that the Chinese government in 1984 authorized the establishment of 14 more
SEZs (then called open coastal cities), including Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao,
Lianyungang, Nantong, Shanghai, Ningbo, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang, and Beihai. Most
of these areas become an economic success with in just a few years. Another benefit of the program was
the concentration of these enterprises in coastal areas where they would have minimal impact on the
strict Maoist society of interior areas. However, as can be expected, the residents of these areas were
being introduced to new ideas of democracy, free enterprise, and social freedom by foreigners in the
SEZs. This represented a blow to the rigid philosophical ideas of the Chinese Communist Party.
However, in spite of the increasing social and political risks caused by the presence of foreigners and
foreign enterprises in the SEZs, the Chinese government decided to expand their distribution in 1985,
1990, and again in 1992.
Today, there are over 100 special zones in eastern China, which produce almost everything,
including high tech components. In addition, at least 5900 foreign and 5000 domestic enterprises are
currently operating in these special zones generating over $30 billion a year.
The table below outlines the relative economic strength of various countries in the region with a
comparison of their per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Per capita GDP is calculated by dividing
the total GDP by the population of the country, and it is roughly equivalent to the median (average)
annual income in that particular region.
Table 4: Measuring the Chinese economy.
Measure (in 2004)
GDP
Per capita GDP
Annual Growth Rate
Export Value
Import Value
Trade Deficit or Surplus

P.R. China
$7.26 trillion
$5000
9.1%
$436 million
$397 million
+$39 million (surplus)

United States
$11.0 trillion
$37,800
3.1%
$715 billion
$1.3 trillion
-$585 million (deficit)

Table 5: Growth of the Chinese economy.

Country
Japan
P.R. of China
United States

1999
$33,170
$780
$32,250

2008
$34,099
$5962
$46,716

Percent Change
3%
764%
44%

Table 6 outlines the relative economic strength of various countries in the region with a
comparison of their per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Per capita GDP is calculated by dividing
the total GDP by the population of the country, and it is roughly equivalent to the median (average)
annual income in that particular region.
Table 6: Per capita GDP (Purchasing Power Parity, PPP). Source: World Bank.
County
China
Japan
Mongolia
North Korea
South Korea
Taiwan
USA

Per Capita GDP (Dollars)

5962
34,099
3567
1800
27,939
31,100
46,716

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Major Industrial Regions
Kanto Plain (Japan) - focused on Tokyo, Yokohama, and Kawasaki, and it produces about 20 percent of the
countrys annual output.
Kansai District (Japan) focused on Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto.
Nobi Plain (Japan) with the city of Nagoya, is a leading textile producer.
Seoul (South Korea) This area is focused on heavy industry, high-tech, consumer items.
Taipei (Taiwan) High-tech, electronic, export consumer items, and agricultural processing.
Beijing (China) - focused heavy industry, such as steel, and machinery. Textiles are also important.
Shanghai (China) specializing in textiles, heavy industry, and more recently, consumer goods.
Szechuan Basin (China) geared towards textiles, petroleum refining, and agricultural processing.
Hong Kong (China) focused on high-tech, electronics, and export consumer items. It is also an important call
center zone.
Special Economic Zones (China) rapidly expanding manufacturing in specially-designated coastal cities geared
towards consumer goods for export.

Conclusions and Key Points to Remember

Civilization in East Asia developed independently from other world regions; focusing on the
chernozem soils of NE China.
NE China has been the focus of major empires for over 4000 years, and it influenced the entire region,
including Korea and Japan.
For most of the last 4000 years the majority of farmers have lived as serfs on lands owned by wealthy
landlords.
Europeans established trading bases along the coasts of this region, but their influence on the culture
has been only minor.
Economic and political turmoil, Japanese imperialism, World War II, and the rise of communism have
influenced the social and political patterns in the region today.
East Asia has become a major industrial region and is strongly tied with the economy of all the worlds
regions.

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