Dissolved Gas Analysis and its interpretation

techniques for Power Transformers

Adam Junid, Simin Li, Lingfeng Ni
October 21, 2008

Abstract
This report is an investigation on Dissolved Gas Analysis and its interpretation techniques for power transformers. Aspects covered in this report
include sampling method guidelines, interpretation techniques and standards, results-based guidelines and recommendations.
used to demonstrate interpretation.

A case study is

Acknowledgements:
We thank:

Dr Toan Phung for his help and explanations on ELEC9712 (High Voltage
System) topics

Zulkarnain Muhamad and Ahmad Zarir Makhtar from Petronas Gas Berhad
(CUF-Kerteh) for sharing practical DGA data and photos with us

Yee Yen Fu and Nor Azhar Saad from Asean Bintulu Fertilizer for sharing
DGA reports with us

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ANSI
American National Standards Institute,

www.ansi.org

AS
Australian Standard,

www.standards.org.au

ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials

BS
British Standards

H2
Hydrogen

C 2 H2
Acetylene

C 2 H4
Ethylene

CH4
Methane

C 2 H6
Ethane

CM
Condition Monitoring

DG
Dissolved Gas

DGA
Dissolved Gas Analysis

HPLC
High Performance Liquid Chromatography [Duval et al, 1977]

LTC
Load Tap Changer

OLTC
On-Load Tap Changer

PD
Partial Discharge

ppm
Parts per million

TCG
Total Combustible Gas

TDCG
Total Dissolved Combustible Gas

Glossary
Condition Monitoring
The monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery, such that a signicant
change is indicative of a developing failure.

It is a component of predictive

maintenance [Wikipedia, 2008b]

Dissolved Gas Analysis

A method of measuring dissolved gases in transformer oil in order to:
1. Deduce the operating condition of the transformer
2. Estimate a transformer's future safe operating range
3. Estimate probability of transformer failure

Fault Gases
Hydrogen, Methane, Ethane, Ethylene, Acetylene, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon
Dioxide; which are used in DGA to diagnose transformer faults.

The degree

of hydrogen unsaturation of the molecule correlates to the amount of energy

released by the fault [Duval, 1989]

Fuller's Earth
A nonplastic clay or claylike earthy material used to purify mineral oil [Wikipedia, 2008d]

Furan
A colorless, ammable, highly volatile liquid with a boiling point of about 31.4

C;

produced by thermal decomposition of cellulose [Wikipedia, 2008g]

Hot Metal Gases

Ethylene(C2 H4 ), Ethane (C2 H6 ), Methane

(CH4 );

produced when transformer

oil contacts hot metal [Jakob et al, 2003]

On-Load Tap Changer

A Tap Changer that can be adjusted either manually or automatically while the
transformer is supplying power to loads

Pyrolysis
Thermal Decomposition [Wikipedia, 2008f]

(Beta) Scission
The initial step in the chemistry of thermal cracking of hydrocarbons and the
formation of free radicals [Wikipedia, 2008i]

Tap Changer
A mechanism for selecting a desired number of transformer windings to be used

X-Wax
Solid particles of carbon and other hydrocarbon products produced by transformer heat, partial discharge or arcing. Excessive X-Wax buildup along paper
insulation increases its dielectric dissipation factor and may result in excessive
heating and increased risk of fault occurence [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.1, 5.8].

Contents
1

Introduction
1.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12
12
16
17

Sampling
18
2.1 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
2.2 Oine sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
2.3 Online sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.3.1
Manual sampling while the transformer
is on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.3.2
Continuous automated online sampling 19
2.4 Sampling periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.5 DGA inaccuracy due to poor sampling technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19

Gas
3.1
3.2
3.3

extraction and measurement

Extraction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement equipment calibration . . . . .
DGA report guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Interpretation techniques
4.1 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
Roger's Ratio method . . . . . . . .
4.1.2
IEC 60599 Ratios method . . . . . .
4.1.3
IEEE (Key Gas) and Dornenburg
Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4
Duval Triangle Method . . . . . . . .
4.1.5
Single ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Relative diagnostic accuracies of DGA interpretation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 DGA inaccuracies due to low DG concentrations and lab equipment error margins . . .
4.4 Application to OLTCs . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21
21
21
21

23
.
.
.

23

.
.
.

26

30

.
.

31

24
25

28
30

33

4.5
4.6

Predicting fault locations within the transformer based on DGA results . . . . . . . . .

Headspace Fault Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Case
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

Study
35
Pre-trip DG
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
Post-trip DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
Duval Triangle method applied . . . . . . . .
36
Comparison with Youngblood (Cinergy) ratios 37

Future developments in DGA

6.1 Online continuous monitoring . . .
6.2 New analysis methods . . . . . . . .
6.3 New DGA interpretation techniques
gradeable oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conclusion

34
34

39
. .
. .
for
. .

. . . .
. . . .
biode. . . .

39
40

40

42

List of Figures
1. Figure 1: A chemcal bond diagram showing how (naphtenic) mineral oil,
under heat or arcing, breaks down to form hydrocarbon gases
2. Figure [IEC 60599, 2007]: Scission energies required to produce particular
carbon-carbon bonds in fault gases
3. Figure 3: Table of DGA Fault Gases, in order of energy required to produce them
4. Figure 4: Relative gas production with respect to oil temperature
5. Figure 5: Relative gas solubility with respect to temperature
6. Figure 6: Tables of dissolved Fault Gas ratios which indicate pyrolysis due
to overheating, partial discharge and arcing
7. Figure 7: Transformer oil sampling setup at drain point
8. Figure 8: Typical DGA sampling periodicity by utilities
9. Figure 10: Table of key gases used for particular DGA interpretations
10. Figure 9: Sampling syringe and 3-way valve set
11. Figure 11: Diagnostics using the Roger's Ratio approach
12. Figure 12: A owchart approach to Roger's Ratio diagnostics
13. Figure 13: IEC 60599 Dissolved Gas Ratio Diagnostics
14. Figure 14: Simplied diagnostics table for IEC 60599 interpretation
15. Figure 15: IEEE DGA diagnostic guidelines
16. Figure 16: IEEE denitions for transformer condition based on TDCG
17. Figure 17: IEEE recommendations for transformer operation and maintenance action, based on TDCG
18. Figure 18: The Duval Triangle
19. Figure 19: Comparison table of DGA interpretation technique accuracy
20. Figure 20: Plot showing DG reading errors increase as DG concentrations
get lower for factory () and routine (-) testing
21. Figure 21: Table showing variations in laboratory reading errors for medium
and low DG concentrations
22. Figure 22: DG concentration limits for transformers and separate OLTC
tanks requiring attention

23. Figure 23: Cinergy Monthly Watch Criteria for DG in LTCs

24. Figure 24: Youngblood (Cinergy) 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios
25. Figure 31: Graphical representation of IEC 60599 DGA ratios
26. Figure 25: 11kV pre-trip DG concentrations
27. Figure 26: 11kV post-trip DG concentrations
28. Figure 27:11kV DG concentration percentages
29. Figure 29: CUF-K 11kV transformer incident ratios (2008) compared to
Youngblood (Cinergy) 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios
30. Figure 28: Duval Triangle applied to case study
31. Figure 30:

Proposed graphical interpretation of IEC 60599

applied to biodegradeable oil

32. Figure 32: IEC 60599 DGA interpretation technique owchart

10

C2 H4
C2 H6 ratio

Standards and Recommended Practice

1. ANSI C57.104-1978: Guide for the detection and determination of generated gases in oil-immersed transformers and their relation to the serviceability of the equipment
2. IEEE Std C57.104-1991: IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers
3. IEC 60567, 2006, Oil-lled electrical equipment  Sampling of gases and
of oil for analysis of free and dissolved gases  Guidance
4. IEC 60599-1999: The Interpretation of Gases in Transformer and Other
Oil-lled Electrical Equipment in Service

11

Introduction

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) is a method of diagnosing faults

1 in electrical

equipment having oil as a conductor insulator [Wikipedia, 2008a]. It may also be

a good indicator of the likelihood [IEC 60599, 2007, 8.1.1] of transformer failure
[Duval, 1989, Figures 8 and 9]. DGA interpretation techniques have become so
sensitive and accurate that it has now become standard practice in transformer
acceptance [Waukesha Electric, 2004], maintenance programs involving online
CM [Wong, 2000, Osztermayer at al, 2003], and post-mortem equipment failure
studies [Schroeder, 2000].

2 and its interpretation techniques for

3
oil-insulated power transformers, including oil at tap changers . It also presents
This report focuses specically on DGA

sampling method guidelines, gas extraction practice, maintenance recommendations

1.1

4 based on interpretation techniques, and case studies.

Concepts

Transformer insulating oil, whether paranic, naphthenic or aromatic contain

dissolved gases.

1 It

is also used in transformer factory acceptance tests, both before, during and after a

heat run [IEC 60567, 2006, "Introduction"]

2 Analysis

of Furans, although not part of this report because they are considered uids

[Wikipedia, 2008g] at standard temperature and pressure, are useful in predicting buildup of
X-Wax at paper insulation that could possibly lead a future fault [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.8]. Oil
additives such as oxidation inhibitors, and the eect of copper sludge has on oil conductivity
and tan

are also not covered here.

3 Winding

and tap-changer oil should ideally be contained separately to ease troubleshoot-

ing and fault location [Kramer, 2008, Reinhausen Grp, 2006].

4 See

Figure 17

12

Figure 1:

A chemcal bond diagram showing how (naphtenic) mineral oil,

under heat or arcing, breaks down to form hydrocarbon gases (Taken from
[Jakob, 2008, Slide 12])

5 (Figure 1) of transformer oil6 under heat or arcing result in

The decomposition

7
8
9
more Fault Gases produced and dissolved in the oil than were there originally
10
[Blackburn, 2008] . Both the amount and types of Fault Gases produced are
5 Also referred to as thermal breakdown [Wikipedia, 2008a, "Faults"]
6 There may be accompanying paper insulation breakdown (also referred

to as cellulose

breakdown, or pyrolysis [Wikipedia, 2008f]), which result in Furanic compounds produced in

the oil, which can be interpreted using IEC 61198 to estimate the extent cellulose involvment
in the fault [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.2].

7 Often referred to as DGA Fault Gases (see Figure 3)

8 Gas volume production is nearly quadratic with voltage, and linear with arc
9 Until saturation limits are reached [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 5]
10 X-wax may also be produced [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.1: Decomposition of Oil]

13

duration

Bond type

Scission energy required

C H
C C
C=C

338 kJ/mole
607 kJ/mole
720 kJ/mole

Figure 2: Scission energies required to produce particular carbon-carbon bonds

in fault gases [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.1].

related to the energy produced by the fault (Figure 2).

The quantifying and historical trending of these Fault Gas ratios with respect
to industry-wide interpretation guidelines are the basis of DGA interpretation
[Jakob et al, 2003].

Key Fault Gas

Indication

H2
EthyleneC2 H4 , Ethane C2 H6 , Methane CH4
Acetylene C2 H2
Carbon Monoxide CO , Carbon Dioxide CO2

Partial Discharge, Heating, Arcing

Hydrogen

Hot metal
Arcing
Cellulose insulation degradation

Figure 3: Table of DGA Fault Gases, in order of energy required to produce

them (Taken from [Jakob et al, 2003, Table 2])

By having baseline records and trending of DG content, transformer operators

and owners would have a good indication how much their transformer oil has
deteriorated, either due to age, overheating (see Figure 4), arcing or external
water ingress.

14

Figure 4: Relative gas production with respect to oil temperature (Taken from
[Blackburn, 2008, Slide 13])

DGA is typically done by:

1. Taking an oil sample,
2. Quantifying gas content by using techniques such as liquid chromatography [Wikipedia, 2008e], and
3. Correlating the results

11 with known standards and Fault Gas12 ratio13

guidelines to gauge the transformer's internal condition

11 This

may include headspace Fault Gas results (see Section 4.6), should the suspect fault

be large enough to produce large enough Fault Gas volume

12 The

degree of hydrogen unsaturation of the molecule correlates to the amount of energy

released by the fault [Duval, 1989]

13 Gas

ratios are used because Fault Gas solubility with respect to oil temperature relative

to one another appears reasonably constant (see Figure 5). Thus DGA samples may be taken
even when the transformer has cooled and their relative ratios would remain similar.

15

Figure 5:

Relative gas solubility with respect to temperature (Taken from

[Blackburn, 2008, Slide 6])

1.2

Applications

DGA concepts are applied to assess oil which insulates conductors, such as
transformer cores and windings, and oil-insulated cables. By using DGA techniques, information about the equipment from which the oil sample was taken
from can be deduced, e.g. has there been overheating (see Figure 4

14 ), has there

been internal arcing within the oil (see Figure 6), has there been atmospheric
ingress. Such DGA interpretations would then be applied to estimate:
1. The transformer's most recent operating condition,
2. How much derating (or uprating) it should (or could) be safely operated
at in its remaining condition, and
3. How soon the next transformer oil change, ltering, Fuller's Earth treatment or inspection should be.

14 There

are also other sources of gas production, such as from newly facbricated steel and

via reaction of steel with water in the oil [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.3]

16

Pyrolysis

Ratios

PD

Ratios

C 2 H4
Ethane C2 H6
Methane CH4

60%

85%

20%

H2
Methane CH4
Ethane C2 H6

Arcing

Ratios

C2 H2
H2
Methane CH4
Ethylene C2 H4

30%

Ethylene

Hydrogen

20%

Acetylene

Hydrogen

5%
5%

60%
5%
5%

Figure 6: Tables of dissolved Fault Gas ratios which indicate pyrolysis due to
overheating, partial discharge and arcing (Taken from [Blackburn, 2008, Slide
16])

1.3

History

DGA has been used for transformer routine monitoring since the late 1960s
[Duval, 1989]. In 2003, it was estimated that about a million DGA tests were
done annually at laboratories worldwide [Duval et al, 2003]

15 This

15 .

averages to more than 10 DGAs per minute, or > 1 DGA every 6 seconds

17

Sampling

2.1

Guidelines

Transformer operators may obtain gas samples from the gas relays (or Buchholz
relays), but for more accurate and early diagnosis [Wikipedia, 2008a, "Usage"],

16 [Duval et al, 2003] and chro-

DGA by careful oil sampling, gas extraction

matography is recommended.

In all cases, sampling should not endanger the

operation of the equipment [IEC 60567, 2006, 4.1].

2.2

Oine sampling

ASTM D3613 requires that transformer oil sampling be taken via a syringe
[POA, 2007] and stopcock system [Duval, 1989] from a mineral-oil insulated
transformer's drain point to ensure no oil contact with air.

Figure

7:

Transformer

oil

sampling

setup

at

drain

point

(Taken

from

[Alamo Transformer, 2008])

To minimise air ingress, it is important that the syringe not be pulled forcefully,
i.e. the transformer oil's natural gravity ow should be allowed to work the oil
into the syringe [NTT, 2001a].

16 Internationally

recognized standards for gas extraction from oil samples are IEC 60567

(see Section 3.1) and ASTM D3612.

18

2.3
2.3.1

Online sampling
Manual sampling while the transformer is on

Some oil-sampling contractors can obtain oil-samples from live transformers for
DGA [IET, 2008], subject to transformer owner clearance of such practice.

2.3.2

Continuous automated online sampling

There are also manufacturers oering automated online sampling equipment for
undissolved gases [Kelman, 2005-8]. However the gases such equipment detect
from the headspace or Buchholz (gas) relay and are not dissolved, limiting the
rapidity of this CM diagnostic.
Continuous automated online sampling of DG oers cutting edge DGA CM
accuracy and diagnostics. This is addressed in Section 6.1.

2.4

Sampling periodicity

For new, overhauled, repaired, or newly oil-ltered transformers, a recommended

monthly sampling periodicity may be increased or decreased, depending on
whether DGA results show that gas content is stabilizing [Wikipedia, 2008a,
"Monitoring"]. Once the DGA concentrations have acceptably stabilized, the
transformer operator may commence monitoring every one or two years. Some
examples of DGA periodicity practiced are as follows:

Operator

Periodicity

NGC UK (1998)

Annually [Esp et al, 1998]

Petronas CUF-K (2008)

Annually [Makhtar et al, 2008]

Petronas MCOT (2004)

Pending oil dielectric test per 2 years [Makhtar et al, 2008]

Shell (2000)

Pending dielectric test per 4 yrs; nonsealed units [Shell, 2000]

Syprotec (1995)

Annually [Gibeault et al, 1995]

Transgrid (2008)

Annually [Transgrid, 2007]

Figure 8: Typical DGA sampling periodicity by utilities

2.5

DGA inaccuracy due to poor sampling technique

DGA readings may be skewed by poor sampling technique, which the sampling
operator must guard against, e.g.:
1. Contaminated oil sample containers [IET, 2008]

19

2. Not allowing some oil to ow to clean the drain valve piping before taking
a sample [NTT, 2001a]

17

3. Exposing the oil to sunlight [IEC 60567, 2006, 4.1]

4. Bubble in the syringe sample, in which case resampling is recommended
[IEC 60567, 2006, 4.2.2]
5. Pre-existing oxygen in the sample [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.3]

Figure 9: Sampling syringe and 3-way valve set (Taken from [NTT, 2008b])

17 Oil

at the bottom of the tank may also be more susceptible to contaminants & dierent

DG levels [Ward, 2003]

20

Gas extraction and measurement

3.1

Extraction methods

Gas extraction methods specied in IEC 60567 include [IEC 60567, 2006, "Scope"]:

Extraction by vacuum

Extraction by displacement of the dissolved gases by bubbling a carrier

gas through the oil sample (stripping)

Extraction by partitioning of gases between the oil sample and a small

volume of the carrier gas at the head space

3.2

Measurement equipment calibration

Chromatography equipment accuracy is veried and corrected by measuring

gas content from calibrated gassed oil samples, known as gas-in-oil samples.
Trained and competent personnel are required to maintain the calibration of
DGA extraction and chromatography equipment, which require re-calibration
[IEC 60567, 2006, 8.6] prior to each sample and linearity checks [IEC 60567, 2006,
9.1] every 6 months or following changes in apparatus or operating conditions.
Given that dierent labs have been known to report dierent DGA quantities
for the sample oil sample, each DGA lab report should include the accuracy
margins of the lab equipment used [Duval et al, 2005].

3.3

DGA report guidelines

IEC 60559 recommends that DGA interpretation reports should contain the
following [IEC 60599, 2007, 10.]:
1. Method of DGA
2. DG lab equipment sensitivity thresholds and accuracy
3. Transformer date of commissioning, rated voltage and power, sealed or
vented, OLTC type, make and model
4. Oil volume, sampling date and location
5. Special incidents just before the sampling, e.g.

tripping, alarm, repair,

degassing, outage
6. Previous DGA results on the transformer
7. Indication of typical DG values for the equipment, inlcuding healthy and
fault values, and identication of the previous fault types
8. Recommended action, e.g.:

21

(a) Revised oil sampling frequency

(b) Furanic compound analysis if

CO2
CO < 3

(c) Other tests, inspections or maintenance

22

Interpretation techniques

4.1

Guidelines

DGA interpretation techniques take into account the amounts of Key Gases
[Blackburn, 2008, "Analysis"] (see Figure 10) found in oil samples (in ppm) and
their relative ratios to each other to arrive at conclusions about the transformer
condition. These techniques include empirical approaches such as Roger's Ra-

18 , IEC 60599 Ratios [Blackburn, 2008], IEEE 57.104 Ratios

tios (IEEE - 1978)

19
[Jakob, 2008] , and graphical methods such as the Duval Triangle.

Key Fault Gases

Interpretation applied

C2 H4 , C2 H6 , CH4 , H2
CO2 , CO
H2 , CH4 , C2 H6 , C2 H4
H2 , C2 H2 , C2 H2 , CH4 , C2 H6

Thermal Fault: Overheated oil

Thermal Fault: Overheated cellulose
Electrical Fault, PD in Oil
Arcing In Oil

Figure 10: Table of key gases used for particular DGA interpretations (Taken
from [Blackburn, 2008, "Analysis"])

The following gas ratio methods work best with diaphragm or hermetically
sealed transformers. Kan et al has also noted its applicability to nitrogen sealed
transformers with

N2 replenishment, because release of fault gases are infrequent

enough to treat the gas mixtures as being in equilibrium within the transformer
[Kan et al, 1995, "CO2/CO value for transformers with gas space above oil",]

20 .

21 for transformers with open type conservators because:

It would be less accurate
1. The diusion rate of
2.

O2 entering

H2

would be faster than the heavier Fault Gases

the transformer would aect the insulation paper's character-

istics in terms of

CO

and

CO2

retention [Kan et al, 1995, "Cases where

CO/CO2 method does not apply",].

To obtain data related to the transformer's most recent fault, the most recent
DGA results should have gas concentrations from previous DGA results subtracted from it [IEC 60599, 2007, 6.1].

18 Roger's Ratios originated from the Doernenburg method [Serveron, 2007, p8]
19 Also known as the Key Gas Method [Serveron, 2007, Table 3, p4]
20 Although it has been argued that the headspace gases are aected by headspace

purging

[Woolley et al, 2994]

21 IEC60599

mentions there is no agreement yet on adjustment techniques to account for

gases esacping to the atmophere for ventilated transformers [IEC 60599, 2007, 6.1]

23

4.1.1

Roger's Ratio method

Based on ratios of particular fault gases, a diagnostics summary using Roger's

Ratios [Rogers, 1975]

C2 H6
CH4

C2 H4
C2 H6

R < 10
R < 1
R < 1

22 is as follows23 :

C2 H2
C2 H4

Diagnosis

R < 1

R < 0

Normal deterioration

R < 1

R < 0.5

PD activity

R < 1

R < 0.5

Heating to 150

R > 1

R < 1

R < 0.5

R < 1

1 < R < 3

R < 0.5

Winding circulating current and overheating

R < 1

R > 3

R < 0.5

Overheated contacts

R < 1

R < 1

0.5 < R < 3

Transient arcing

R < 1

R > 1

R > 0.5

Transient arcing at power frequency

R < 1

R > 3

R > 3.0

Continuous sparking

R < 1

R < 1

R > 0.5

PD and tracking

Figure

11:

Diagnostics

using

the

Heating 150 -

Roger's

Ratio

approach

C
o
300 C

(Taken

from

[Blackburn, 2008, Slide 20])

A manually faster approach to Roger's Ratio diagnostics may be done using the
following Roger's Ratio owchart [Jakob, 2008, Slide 26]:

22 Also found in Table 7 of ANSI/IEEE C57.104-1978

23 For DGA diagnosis involving single ratios of CO2 , see
CO

24

Section 4.1.5.

Figure 12:

A owchart approach to Roger's Ratio diagnostics (Taken from

[Jakob, 2008, Slide 26])

4.1.2

IEC 60599 Ratios method

IEC 60599 has a similar diagnostic approach, using dissolved gas ratios [IEC 60599, 2007,

24 :

5.3 (Table 2), 9, Figure 1]

The IEC 60599 ratios in Figure 13 above should only apply if one of the gas
concentrations exceeds typical values [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.3, Table 2 and 6.1c].
The ratios may also be reproduced in a twin square, graphical format (Figure
31, Appendix).

In some cases, no diagnosis may be forthcoming from the above

table, in which case a simplied diagnostics table may be applied:

24 IEC

60599 [Duval et al, 2001] also species that: (a) Faults are considered active if DG

rates continue to rise at 10% per month for hermetically sealed transformers [IEC 60599, 2007,
8.4]; and (b) Higher DG rates of increase such as 50% per week are considered very serious.

25

Figure

13:

IEC

60599

Dissolved

Gas

Ratio

Diagnostics

(Taken

from

[Miranda et al, 2005, Table II])

Case

C2 H2
C2 H4

CH4
H2

Partial Discharge

Figure

14:

< 0.2

Discharge (Arcing)

> 0.2

Thermal fault

< 0.2

Simplied

diagnostics

C2 H4
C2 H6

table

for

IEC

60599

interpretation

[IEC 60599, 2007, Table 3].

For TDCG baseline acceptance criteria, IEC 60599 allows transformer operators to set their own thresholds, based on forensic evidence [IEC 60599, 2007,
8.2]. IEC 60599 also presents an overall owchart for its DGA interpretation,
reproduced in Figure 32, Appendix.

4.1.3

IEEE (Key Gas) and Dornenburg Ratios

25 diagnostics

IEEE 57.104 also has a set of ratios for DG and headspace gas

26
that borrows from the Dornenburg method :
25 Fault

Gases from may help asses the size of a recent large fault [IEC 60567, 2006, "In-

troduction"].

Headspace Fault Gas analysis is addressed more completely in IEC 60599

[IEC 60599, 2007, 7.]which uses Ostwald coecients to convert headspace Fault Gas concentrations to a DG equivalent.

26 Found

in Tables 5 and 6 of ANSI/IEEE 57.104-1978

26

Figure 15: IEEE DGA diagnostic guidelines (Taken from [Jakob, 2008, Slide
29])

In addition, based on TDCG, IEEE 57.104 includes condition denitions (Figure

16) and maintenance guidelines (Figure 17).

Figure 16: IEEE denitions for transformer condition based on TDCG (Taken
from[Jakob, 2008, Slide 33])

DG concentration ratios below the above threshold values do not necessarily

mean no fault is present, such results merely mean that the concentration values
are not high enough to be able to estimate probabilities of an incipient fault
[IEC 60599, 2007, 8.2.1, 8.3].

27

Figure 17: IEEE recommendations for transformer operation and maintenance

action, based on TDCG (Taken from [Jakob, 2008, Slide 34])

For new transformer oil TDCG baseline acceptance criteria, both IEC and
IEEE guidelines allow the transformer operators to set their own thresholds
[Jakob, 2008, Slide 31].

4.1.4

Duval Triangle Method27

A popular [Bandhopadhyay, 2006, Field et al, 2002] method that has been noted

28 than the above three,

to be more accurate [Serveron, 2007, Table 7, p10]

29 provides DGA fault diagnosis simply based on relative

the Duval triangle
percentages of

CH4 , C2 H4

and

C2 H2 , where the fault codes are [Delta-X,

2008]:

PD : Partial discharge

27 Found in Appendix B of
28 Caveats to this accuracy

IEC 60599-1991 [Delta-X, 2008]

[Delta-X, 2008] : (a) Because extremely low levels are related to

decreases in detection accuracy, detected gases involved in the triangle should be reasonably
above the detection limit; (b) Existing gases that were detected in the original oil sample
(during baseline sampling or before a suspect fault) should be subtracted out from the sample
percentages to be substituted into the triangle.

29 Developed

by Michael Duval of Hydro Quebec [Bandhopadhyay, 2006]

28

T1 : Low-range thermal fault (below 300

T2 : Medium-range thermal fault (300-700

T3 : High-range thermal fault (above 700

D1 : Low-energy electrical discharge

D2 : High-energy electrical discharge

DT : Indeterminate - thermal fault or electrical discharge

C)

C)

C)

Figure 18: The Duval Triangle (Taken from [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 22])

29

4.1.5

Single ratios

CO2 30 O2 31
C2 H2 32
,
and
ratios may indicate paper insulation involvement in
CO
N2
H2
faults, excessive heating or contamination by OLTC oil respectively [Serveron, 2007,
CO2
O2
p11]. However, the diagnosis accuracy of
CO and N2 have been disputed.
CO2
33 because of its temperature depenCO ratio is particularly nebulous
dency and CO2 's higher absorption rate into insulation paper relative to CO
The

at higher temperatures [Kan et al, 1994, 5. Conclusion]. For example, one nor-

CO2
CO2
CO range has been dened as > 7, with CO < 3 [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.4:
CO2/CO ratio]indicating severe overheating of paper insulation [Jakob, 2008,
mal

Slide 28]. However, studies by Kan et al have proposed that incipient faults may

CO2
CO ratios < 10 because CO2 gets absorbed into insulating the paper [Kan et al, 1995] at higher temperatures, depriving DGA samples
CO2
of a representative CO2 concentration. In addition to the
CO temperature deactually be occuring at

CO2
CO ratio method: (a) cannot apply
accurately to new transformer oil for the rst six months because of a lack of
pendence skew, Kan et al also noted that a

chemical equilibrium, and (b) cannot apply accurately to naturally circulated oil
because of the greater likelihood of localised hotspots [Kan et al, 1995, "Cases
where CO2/CO method does not apply",].

O2
N2 ratio, it must be noted that ransformers that have not
been Nitrogen-purged may have signicant amount of Oxygen already inside
O2
[Woolley et al, 2994]. A
N ratio of < 3 may indicates excessive oxygen conWhen applying the

sumption within the transformer [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.5].

IEC 60599 also noted that transformers with breahing apparatus (i.e.
hermetically sealed transformers) may have

CO2

non-

coming in from external air

that could falsify diagnostic results [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.4].

CO2
O2
CO and N2 must be supplemented
by one of the methods mentioned in Section 4.1.
In short, DGA involving these single ratios of

4.2

Relative diagnostic accuracies of DGA interpretation

techniques

Case studies using the IEEE Key Gases approach have shown that [Serveron, 2007,
p5]:
1. There can be high rates of incorrect diagnosis

30 This

ratio has been noted to vary depending on transformer model and its operational

mode [Failhauer et al, 2006]. Due to a lack of diagnostic consistency or distinguishable patterns, the

CO2
ratio was removed from a data mining technique by Esp et al [Esp et al, 1998].
CO

31 Transformers

that have not been Nitrogen-purged may have signicant amount of Oxygen

already inside [Woolley et al, 2994]

32 C2 H2
H2

ratios higher than 2 or 3 in the main tank indicates oil contamination from the

OLTC tank [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.5]

33 It

has also been shown that CO2 levels in headspace can uctuate by up to 500ppm per

day [Ward et al, 2000], depending on transformer loading.

30

2. Some gas combinations do not t into the specied range of values and
thus a diagnosis of the fault type cannot be given
Studies of DGA technique relative accuracies have shown that the Duval Triangle method has relatively good consistency and accuracy when taking into account cases that are undiagnosable by the other methods [Muhamad et al, 2007].

Method

% No Diagnoses

% Wrong Diagnoses

IEEE Key Gas Method

58

IEEE Rogers Ratios

33

35

Dornenburg Ratios

26

IEC Basic Gas Ratios

15

IECDuval Triangle

Figure 19: Comparison table of DGA interpretation technique accuracy (Taken

from [Duval et al, 2005, Table 3])

Although the Dornenburg method appears more accurate than the Rogers,
Thang et al noted that [Thang et al, 2000]:

Although Dornenburg's method appears relatively more accurate, it is also

more susceptible to a non-interpretation result.

Although the Duval Triangle oers relative greater accuracy, it forces the
user into a transformer fault diagnosis because it has no area to account
for gase ratios due to operational aging. Thus the Duval triangle should
only be applied after the gases have been scrutinized for normalcy.

4.3

DGA inaccuracies due to low DG concentrations and

lab equipment error margins

IEC 60567 [IEC 60567, 2006, Table 5], IEC 60599 [IEC 60599, 2007, 6.2] and
studies by Duval et al have noted that DG volume reading inaccuracies increase
at very low concentrations of DG [Duval et al, 2005]:

31

Figure 20: Plot showing DG reading errors increase as DG concentrations get

lower for factory () and routine (-) testing (Taken from [Duval et al, 2005,
Figure 1])

However, correction factors may be applied to minimise this [Duval et al, 2005].
Duval et al also noted that DG reading errors for controlled medium and low DG
concentration oil samples varied signicantly from laboratory to laboratory

Best lab
Average
Worst lab

34 :

At medium gas concentrations

At low gas concentrations

3%
15%
65%

22%
30%
64%

Figure 21: Table showing variations in laboratory reading errors for medium
and low DG concentrations (Taken from [Duval et al, 2005, Table 2])

34 IEC

60567 [IEC 60567, 2006, 9.3]mentions methods of how to minimize this, including

the storage of oil samples in fridges

32

To reduce the likelihoods of false readings resulting in incorrect DGA diagnosis

35 , both IEC 60567 [IEC 60567, 2006, 10] and Duval et al recommend

that DGA laboratories publish their lab's accuracy gures on all test reports
[Duval et al, 2005].

4.4

Application to OLTCs

The DG production pattern in an OLTC oil tank is dierent from that of the

C2 H2
36 (see Section
H2 ) is produced
4.1.5). DG concentration limits for untight OLTCs that may require attention
main tank.

For example, more Acetylene (

have been presented by Blackburn [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 14]:

Fault Gas

Transformer

OLTC

(H2 )
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2 )
Methane (CH4 )
Ethane (C2 H6 )
Ethylene (C2 H4 )
Acetylene (C2 H2 )

60 - 150

75 - 150

540 - 900

400 - 850

5100 - 13000

5300 - 12000

40 - 110

35 - 130

Hydrogen

50 - 90

50 - 70

60 - 280

110 - 250

3 - 50

80 - 270

Figure 22: DG concentration limits for transformers and separate OLTC tanks
requiring attention (Taken from [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 14])

Guidelines also exist from CM consultants (Figure ) as well as CM contractors,

who provide model-specic [Jakob et al, 2008, Slides 21-22]DG concentration
limits for OLTCs.

LTC type

Hydrogen

H2

Acetylene

C2 H2

Ethylene

C 2 H4

Vented

> 1500 ppm

> 1000 ppm

> 1000 ppm

Sealed

> 5000 ppm

> 9000 ppm

> 12000 ppm

Vacuum

> 10 ppm

> 5 ppm

> 100 ppm

Figure 23:

Cinergy Monthly Watch Criteria for DG in LTCs (Taken from

[Jakob et al, 2008, Slide 19])

35 Incorrect

DGA diagnosis would also result in unnecessary downtime and resources wasted

to inspect a transformer [Duval et al, 2005]

36 C2 H2
H2

ratios higher than 2 or 3 in the main tank indicates oil contamination from the

OLTC tank [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.5]

33

Youngblood et al of Cinergy have also provided LTC DGA ratio limits based
on empirical data [Youngblood, 2003]:

Gas ratio
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
Acetylene(C2 H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )+Ethane(C2 H6 )+M ethane(CH4 )
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethane(C2 H6 )
M ethane(CH4 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
Ethane(C2 H6 )

Limit
0.3378
0.500
0.9157
0.2067
4.83

Figure 24: 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios (Taken from [Jakob et al, 2003])

4.5

Predicting fault locations within the transformer based

on DGA results

In general, once DGA DG concentration and ratio limits indicate an increasing faults within the transformer, operators will arrange for the transformer
shutdown and inspection.

Often the inspection may take weeks because the

fault may not be visually apparent upon detailed winding and core inspection
[Makhtar et al, 2008].

Given that equivalent heat areas of transformer cores

and winding dier, some work has been done by Zama et al on estimating the
likelihood of the fault lying in the windings or the core, based on

C 2 H4
C2 H6 ratioss

[Zama et al, 2008, Part F].

4.6

Headspace Fault Gas

Analysis of headspace gas collected from transformer Buchholz or gas relays

for analysis [Wikipedia, 2008c] are technically not part of DGA, since they
are not dissolved, and are aected by headspace purging [Woolley et al, 2994]
and solubility equilibrium uctutations that may only stabilise after 15 hours
[Ward et al, 2000].

However, excess Fault Gases from this headspace may be

helpful in assessing the size of a recent fault [IEC 60567, 2006, "Introduction"].
Headspace Fault Gas analysis is partially addressed in Figure 15, and more
completely in IEC 60599 [IEC 60599, 2007, 7.]which uses Ostwald coecients
to convert headspace Fault Gas concentrations to a DG equivalent.

34

Case Study
37 trip at in 2008 is referred [Makhtar et al, 2008].

A case study involving an 11kV transformer

Pre and post trip DG results are presented, and an interpretation suggested via
application of the Duval Triangle method.

5.1

Pre-trip DG

DG concentrations from a sample taken on 28 March 2008 are as follows:

Figure 25: 11kV pre-trip DG concentrations (Taken from [Makhtar et al, 2008]).

5.2

Post-trip DG

DG concentrations from a sample taken on 8 July 2008 after a trip incident are
as follows:

37 Transformer

is sealed but not Nitrogen packed, and has on o-circuit LTC in the same oil

compartment as the transformer main winding [Makhtar et al, 2008].

35

Figure

26:

11kV

post-trip

DG

concentrations

(Taken

from

(Taken

from

[Makhtar et al, 2008]).

5.3

Duval Triangle method applied

Tabulating the above results,

Figure

27:

Gas

4ppm

Methane

(CH4 )
(C2 H4 )
Acetylene (C2 H2 )

546-2=544

34.4

Ethylene

430

27.1

607

38.4

11kV

DG

concentration

[Makhtar et al, 2008]).

and plotting the intersects,

36

percentages

Figure

28:

Duval

Triangle

applied

to

case

study

(Taken

from

[Makhtar et al, 2008]).

we obtain a Duval Triangle that suggests a D2 Fault: High energy arcing with
power follow-through, and possible carbonization and metal fusion [IEC 60599, 2007,
5.2].

5.4

Comparison with Youngblood (Cinergy) ratios

The post-incident DG concentration ratios are compared to failure probability

ratios given by Youngblood (Cinergy):

37

Gas ratio
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
Acetylene(C2 H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )+Ethane(C2 H6 )+M ethane(CH4 )
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethane(C2 H6 )
M ethane(CH4 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
Ethane(C2 H6 )
Figure
to

29:

CUF-K

Youngblood

11kV

(Cinergy)

transformer

90th

Pre-incident

Post-incident

Pf ailure

0.3378

N IL
N IL

0.708

210%

0.500

0.878

176%

0.9157

0.004

0.205

22.3%

0.2067

0.051

24.7%

4.83

15.36

318%

incident

percentile

[Jakob et al, 2003] and [Makhtar et al, 2008])

38

Limit

Fault

ratios
Gas

(2008)

Ratios

compared

(Taken

from

Future developments in DGA

Some future developments in DGA include [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 33]:

Online continuous monitoring that is more reliable and aordable

New analysis methods involving gases with C3 bonds

New DGA interpretation techniques for biodegradeable oil

6.1

Online continuous monitoring

Although not yet widespread, online DGA monitoring systems have been in
use

38 since 1980 [Yamada et al, 1981]. Advantages include [Lindgren, 2003, Side

20]:
1. Theoretically more accurate diagnosis, including better resolution of rates
of DG, e.g. to discriminate between faults and contamination by OLTC
oil
2. The ability to uprate individual transformers and run it closer to thermal
limits
3. Since lab DGA often contains air, online monitoring will have much better
resolution of actual air leaks in the transformer
4. Possible capture of DG at higher temperature solubility limits, thus negating the eects of DGA inaccuracy at low DG concentration levels (see
Figure 20)
5. Lower-cost online or portable dissolved hydrogen concentration monitors
being used to decide whether a complete DGA is necessary [Belanger et al, 1977]
Some disadvantages are that [Duval et al, 2003, "On-Line Monitoring Devices"]:
1. Many of the online DGA monitors mentioned in [Duval et al, 2003, Table
VI] do not detect all Fault Gases, i.e. they detect mainly

CO , CO2

H2 , C2 H2 , CHX ,

which ag arcing faults well, but are less eective for detecting

low and medium overheating

2. Being mostly located outdoors, they may have have poorer maintenance,
resulting in poorer accuracy relative to indoor DGA lab equipment
3. Detection responses for online DGA monitors utilising fuel cells are dierent for each Fault Gas
4. Engineers are still challenged to produce online DGA monitoring devices
that are accurate, reliable and economical
Online DGA systems should use one of the more accurate extraction [Duval et al, 2003]
and diagnostic techniques mentioned in Section 4.1 [Serveron, 2007, p11-12].

38 Duval

in 2003 estimated that about 18000 online DGA monitors had been installed world-

wide [Duval et al, 2003].

39

6.2

New analysis methods

The DGA interpretation techniques mentioned in Section 4 utilize DG ratios

involving C1 and C2 bonds. However, IEC 60599 mentions that more precise
analysis methods are possible if the DG ratios involving C3 bonds are scrutinized as well [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.7].

This implies that methods such as the

Duval Triangle (Section 4.1.4) could be modied and rened to involve an analogous, square shaped percentage-ratio-reference chart, given enough forensic
DGA data [IEC 60599, 2007, 8.1.2] to verify the chart's demarcations and diagnostic accuracy.

6.3

New DGA interpretation techniques for biodegradeable oil

Studies have shown that biodegradeable oils tend to release about three times
more ethane (C2 H6 ) than mineral oil during thermal heating tests. This would
result in IEC 60599 DGA interpretations having to be modied for biodegradeable oils, in particular, the

C2 H4
C2 H6 ratio:

40

C 2 H4
C2 H6 ratio applied
to biodegradeable oil (Taken from [IEC 60599, 2007, Annex B] and edited to
Figure 30: Proposed graphical interpretation of IEC 60599

reect ethane production data from [Muhamad et al, 2008, Fig. 8]).

41

Conclusion

DGA methods have been used since the 1980s to gauge transformer condition
for:
1. factory acceptance tests,
2. site acceptance tests (e.g. for new oil),
3. predictions of remaining time to next transformer maintenance, and
4. post-mortem fault analysis
DGA sampling involves careful preparation of oil samples to ASTM D3613.
The extraction of gas from oil requires calibrated lab equipment compliant to
IEC 60567.
The actual DGA interpretation technique may rely on many dierent methods
mentioned in IEC and IEEE standards; the Duval Triangle method being one
of the more consistent methods.
Some future developments in DGA include [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 33]:

Online continuous monitoring that is more reliable and aordable

New analysis methods involving gases with C3 bonds

New DGA interpretation techniques for biodegradeable oil

42

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Appendix A
Graphical representation of IEC 60599 DGA ratios39

Figure 31:

Graphical representation of IEC 60599 DGA ratios (Taken from

[IEC 60599, 2007, Annex B])

39 Gas

volume production is nearly quadratic with voltage, and linear with arc duration

50

Appendix B
IEC 60599 DGA interpretation owchart

Figure 32:

IEC 60599 DGA interpretation technique owchart (Taken from

[IEC 60599, 2007, Figure 1])

51