Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
10
10
12
12
13
17
18
X
X
X
However, most ISDs, whether Social, Economic, Environmental or Institutional, can visually be shown
cartographically for sub-regions, as indicated earlier - NB. Therefore, the list above should be considered
conservative.
Geographical Information Systems in Indicators of Sustainable Development work
The term Geographical Information Systems have traditionally been applied to software bundled with hardware
particularly suited to deal with spatial data and information. Recent trends show that GIS are increasingly becoming
integrated with of other types of information systems and tools, such as general Database Management Systems
(DBMS), traditional office spreadsheet packages, and, very recently, Internet and WWW components thereof
(Langaas, 1996a,b). However, this integration tends to happen at the expense of loss of many valuable
functionalities found in a full-fledged GIS. Therefore, the advantages of using dedicated GIS packages most likely
will remain for many years to come.
The merits of using GIS in indicator work are several. We will here briefly review some of the important
functionalities. For those interested in an introduction to GIS and spatial analysis, we refer to text-books (see, e.g.,
Bernhardsen 1992, Star and Estes 1990 , Tomlin 1990)
Sampling
In many cases, when dealing with environmental indicators, there is a need to obtain a spatially representative
sample of an indicator in question, possibly for deduction of an average value for the overall area considered. Many
GIS can assist in making spatially unbiased averages from geographically distributed sample measurements by
offering geostatistical analytical tools.
Analysis
One of the key features of dedicated GIS are the range of tools offered for spatial analysis, and frequently also tools
(e.g., statistical, SQL) for non-spatial analysis of data associated with the geographic features, so-called attribute
data. In the context of ISD work one should not exaggerate the importance of many of these possibilities, since they
rarely will be used. The most frequently used 'analytical operation' is the use of Boolean overlay techniques for the
derivation of statistics. For instance, for the issue Land affected by desertification in chapter 12 in UN/CSD (1996),
it is proposed that the ".. creation of an index which combines degrees of severity will require the
following measures:
(i) Area subjected to severe land degradation x_Km2 (severe here includes both
the severe and very severe categories of UNEP.
(ii) Area subjected to moderate land degradation y_Km2.
(iii) Area subjected to slight land degradation = z_Km2.
(iv) National area (excluding surface water bodies) n_Km2.
Database management
Many of the more comprehensive GIS software packages are connected with powerful database management
systems (DBMS). Thus, it may be considered to keep and maintain a ISD database, including the raw statistical data,
using the DBMS found in GIS and thereby improve the opportunities for cartographic visualisation.
Visualisation
The production of cartographic outputs is a key feature of any GIS. In a ISD framework, at least two types of
cartographic out-puts may be useful to produce spatial indicator maps and 'Reference' maps. Figures 1 and 2 show
good examples of spatial indicator maps, whereas figure 1 also incorporates a temporal aspect .
Figure 1. Wilderness territory in Norway 1900, 1940, 1980 and 1994. Wilderness territory is defined as an
area lying more than 5 kilometres from roads, railways and regulated water-courses. In 1994, power lines and
tractor tracks have been included. Wilderness is a state indicator for cultural and natural landscapes in the
Norwegian state-of-the-environment report on the Internet. Source: UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 1996
Figure 2. Latin American and Caribbean coastal ecosystems threatened by development. For detailed
descriptions of threat potential, see source. This indicator has recently been included in the Global
Environment Outlook-1, UNEP's global state of the environment report 1997 (UNEP/DEIA 1997). Source:
Bryant et al. 1995.
Another types of cartographic illustrations that may be useful in the context of ISD reporting and visualisation are
reference or index maps, showing the locations of measurement stations, if a few measurement stations are supposed
to represent a larger region.
The potential use of GIS in ISD work should not be seen in technological isolation. As mentioned earlier, there is a
trend that GIS software is being directly connected to Internet WWW server software (Langaas 1996b, Steinke et al.
1996). In this respect we are not referring to the publication of static maps, which in a environmental indicator
context has been forcefully demonstrated by several national indicator based state of environment reports, such as
for Australia, Canada, Georgia and Norway (Environment Canada 1996, ERIN 1997, UNEP/GRID-Arendal 1996,
Georgian Geoinformation Centre 1996), as well as global ones (UNEP/DEIA 1997). We rather suggest the
possibilities for interactive analysis by Internet users of on-line ISD databases managed by GIS software linked to
Web servers allowing the Internet user to individually define and visualise spatial indicators better suiting the user's
needs. The range of choices in such cases must be carefully determined by those responsible for the ISD database to
prevent the generation of 'odd' outputs. Such on-line interactivity is not restricted to GIS - WWW connected
databases, but also for DBMS - WWW ones, thus allowing for the individual definition and creation of graphs and
charts. One research project examining these opportunities is the international State of the Environment Cities on
Internet project lead by UNEP/GRID-Arendal, Norway.
Conclusions
In an ISD work context, whether on the municipal, national, international, or global level, the question is not
whether to think spatially and use GIS. The question is - to what extent? Knowing that cartography is an extremely
powerful means of conveying messages, the answer to this question needs careful consideration. Generally, though,
we recommend increased spatial thinking and the use of GIS as a most appropriate technology.
References
Bernhardsen, T. 1992. Geographic Information Systems. VIAK IT, Norway, 318 pages.
Environment Canada. 1996. The State of Canada's Environment - 1996. <http://199.212.18.12/~soer/>
ERIN. 1997. Australian Environment On-line. <http://www.erin.gov.au/erin.html>
Georgian Geoinformation Centre. 1996. State of the Environment Georgia.
<http://www.grida.no/prog/cee/enrin/htmls/georgia/soegeor/hp_soege.htm>
UNEP/GRID-Arendal. 1996. State of the Environment Norway 1995. Internet: <http://www.grida.no/soe95/>, last
updated 27. September 1996.
Langaas, S. 1996a. Transboundary European GIS databases: A review of the Baltic Sea region experiences. Paper
presented at GISDATA Specialist Meeting on "Geographic Information: the European Dimension", Buoux, France,
8-12 May 1996. < http://www.grida.no/prog/norbal/docs/gisdata/ >
Langaas, S. 1996b. Commercial, off-the-shelf solutions for GIS - WWW interfacing.
<http://www.grida.no/prog/norbal/docs/giswww/giswww.htm >
Star, J. and Estes, J. 1990. Geographic Information Systems. An Introduction. Prentice Hall: Englewoods Cliff, 303
pages.
Steinke, A., Green, D.G., and Peters, D.J. 1996. On-line environmental and geographic information systems. In:
Saarenmaa, H. and Kempf, A. (eds.), Internet applications and electronic information resources in forestry and
environmental sciences. EFI Proceedings 10: 89-98, Joensuu,
Tomlin, C. Dana. 1990. Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modelling. Prentice Hall: Englewoods
Cliff, 249 pages.
UNEP/DEIA. 1996. Rump, P.. State of the Environment reporting: Source Book of Methods and Approaches UNEP/DEIA/TR.96-1, Nairobi.
UNEP/DEIA. 1997. Global Environment Outlook-1. New York: Oxford University Press, 265 pages. Also on
Internet at <http://www.grida.no/geo1/>, <http://www.grid.unep.ch/geo1/>, <http://grid2.cr.usgs.gov/geo1/>,
<http://www.rolac.unep.mx/geo1/>, <http://www-cger.nies.go.jp/geo1/>, <http://www.unep.org/unep/eia/geo1/>
UN Commission on Sustainable Development. 1996. Indicators of Sustainable Development. Framework and
Methodologies. United Nations, New York, 428 pages.