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Analog and Digital Signals

Analog Electronics
Section 2
Prof. Dr. Murat Akar
D-211
E-mail: askar@eee.metu.edu.tr
Web: www.eee.metu.edu.tr/~askar

Analog Signals are links to the real world

Transreceiver

Bio-eng: Neuronal implants

Linear Amplifiers (1)


Multiply amplitude of a signal by a constant scalar quantity
xo(t) = A xi(t)

Non-scalar or
non-uniform
amplification
is called
distortion

Linear Amplifiers (2)


Symbol for a single-ended
input linear voltage amplifier.

Transfer Characteristics (1)


Plot of amplifier output versus amplifier input

Ideally provides linear


voltage gain regardless of
the amplitude of the input
signal
Real amplifiers have power
supplies that limit the
amplitude of the output
If input is too large, output
clamps

Transfer Characteristics (2)

Real Transfer Characteristics


Each circle represents
a different DC
component for the
input and output
signals called an
operating point
Location of operating
point has an effect on

Gain = Slope
To operate amplifier in its linear region, the input
must be kept small enough

Operating Point (1)


Voltage gain, output DC voltage, allowable input
magnitude range are affected

input signal range


amplifier gain magnitude
amount of distortion

Operating Point (2)


Input and output signal amplitude ranges are
maximized when operating point is near middle of
linear region
Derivative of
transfer
characteristic
gives measure
of amplifier gain
linearity (and
distortion)

Signal Convention (1)

Signal Convention (2)


In general

DC magnitudes in uppercase symbol and


subscript
Example: ID, VD
Ac signal quantities in lowercase symbol &
subscript
Example: id(t), vd(t)
Total DC + ac signal quantities in lowercase
symbol, uppercase subscript
Example: iD(t), vD (t)

vD(t) = VD + vd(t)
iC(t) = IC + ic(t)

Superposition

Amplifier Classification

If the amplifier is linear, superposition can be


applied. Each component can be determined
seperately.
Determine the DC magnitude of the output using
DC model (i.e capacitors are open circuited,
inductors are short circuited)
Example: IO, VO
Determine the ac signal component of the output
using the ac model (i.e., DC sources are killed and
capacitors are short circuited, inductors are open
circuited) as
Example: vo(t) = Av vi(t)

Input

Output

Type

Voltage

Voltage

Voltage

Voltage

Current

Transconductance

Current

Voltage

Transresistance

Current

Current

Current

Ideal Voltage Amplifier


+

+
vi
-

Avi

+
vo
-

Real Voltage Amplifier


+
vi
-

Ri

Ro
Avi

+
vo
-

Loaded Ideal Voltage Amplifier


+

vs

Rs +
vi
-

Avi

+
vo
-

RL

vo
= A
vs

Loaded Voltage Amplifier


+

Rs +
vi
-

vs

Ri

+
vo
-

Ro
Avi

Ideal Current Amplifier


ii

RL

ii

Loaded Ideal Current Amplifier

+
vi
-

ii

Rs

ii

ii

io

Ri

Aii

io
Ro

Loaded Current Amplifier


is

RL

RS

ii

Ri

Aii

io
Ro

RL

io
= A
is

io
Rs
Ro
= A
is
R s +R i R o +R L

To determine Input Resistance Ri

To determine Output Resistance Ro

Ri

+
vo
-

Ro

Avi

Voltage Amplifier

+
vi
-

Aii

io

Real Current Amplifier

vo
Ri
RL
= A
vs
Rs +R i R o +R L

is

Aii

Ri

Aii

Current Amplifier

io
Ro

Apply input voltage vi


(or input current ii)
Determine the input
current ii (or input
voltage vi)
Then
Ri = v i / ii

+
vi
-

ii

Ri

Ro ix

Avi

+
vx
-

Voltage Amplifier

+
vi
-

ii

Ri

Aii

Current Amplifier

ix +
Ro vx
-

Kill the input signal


(set vi or ii to zero)
Apply a test voltage
vx to the output node
Determine the current
ix that the source
delivers to the circuit
Then
Ro = v x / ix

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