Aditivarea Fainii

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18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications
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264
and thus on the wheat, but it may also thrive

on flour residues on the walls of the bakery or
on the equipment. When it finds its way into
the dough it survives baking and destroys the
crumb during storage of the bread. Warm,
damp conditions promote the development of
the micro-organisms, so its appearance is
more frequent in summer.
The dough shows normal baking properties
and the fresh bread has a normal appearance.
But within a short time a fruity flavour develops
in the bread, turns into sweet smell and finally
becomes disgusting. Meanwhile, degradation
of the bread crumb takes place, along with a
yellowish-brownish discoloration. When the
bread is broken, thin slimy strands are formed
(Fig. 158).
mesentericus in the dough, for instance with

sour dough or edible acids. Antimicrobial
substances such as acetic or propionic acid
and their salts (acetates and propionates) are
also very effective in suppressing the growth
of the organisms. Their effect is improved at
lower pH values, i.e. in the presence of other
acidifying agents. Since they affect taste and
yeast growth, their dosage should be limited
to a required minimum. The lack of volume
yield caused by the antimicrobial agents can
be compensated for by increased yeast levels
and with flour additives such as enzymes or
emulsifiers.
The optimum growth conditions for B.

mesentericus are 37 C and pH 6. But it can
grow in the range of 10 - 45 C and a pH of 4.9
- 9.3. At 97 C only 90% of the spores are inactivated within 2 h, and this temperature is far
higher than that reached in the bread crumb.
18.13.1 Steamed Bread
Thorough cleaning of the wheat reduces the

chance of the bacterium to get into the bread,
because it only adheres to the surface of the
kernels. The baker can reduce its survival by
proper cleaning of the bakery and equipment.
If ropiness has occurred, the bakery and
equipment should be disinfected, e.g. by
washing with vinegar solution. Acidification is
a means of controlling the growth of Bacillus
18.13 Flour Treatment for

Specific Applications
Introduction
Although they differ in details, steamed breads
from various regions have several properties
in common, for instance the lack of stabilization
by a firm crust (in contrast to baked bread), a
very fine crumb structure, and a mild, almost
bland taste. This can be considered an advantage because of the absence of acrylamide
and the possibility of combining the steamed
bread with various fillings and dishes.
Since little or no salt is normally used, the
dough is very extensible, but the stability of
the finished, steamed product is also reduced.
This is a special challenge to additives such
as enzymes, ascorbic acid and other flour
improvers.
In the laboratory, steamed bread can be
prepared in the traditional way in baskets
placed on woks containing boiling water (Fig.
159), stainless steel pots placed on a fire or
electric hotplate, or in stainless steel steam
chambers (Fig. 160). For the following investigations a steam chamber was used.
Fig. 158: Ropiness in wheat bread

(Schnemann and Treu, 2002)
Furthermore, flour with normal properties

without any obvious quality problems was
used. It fell into the flour quality range usual
for steamed bread (Tab. 95).
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Fig. 160: Stainless steel steaming chamber
The course of the core temperature during

steaming is significantly lower than during
baking (Fig. 161). This has to be taken into
account if ingredients coated with fats or
emulsifiers or pure fat or emulsifier powders
are used, and also if enzymes that have a high

inactivation temperature, such as bacterial
amylase, are included. Whereas the former
would not dissolve readily, the latter would
survive the curing process and cause damage
in the final product.
Tab. 95: Flour quality for steamed bread trials

Parameter
Wet gluten
Range
%
Gluten index
29 - 32
90 - 75
Enzymes
Amylases
Amylases affect the volume yield and crumb
softness of the steamed bread. Fig. 162 shows
the effect of adding pure fungal -amylase
with 5,000 SKB/g. The volume yield increased
by almost 25%, displaying a maximum at 250
ppm (equal to 1,250 SKB per kg of flour).
Ash
0.45 - 0.55
Falling Number
250 - 450
55 - 62
Dough development
min
1.5 - 3
100
Dough stability
min
min. 2
80
Dough softening
FU
max. 90
60
Farinogram
Water absorption
Extensogram (135 min)
40
Energy
cm2
110 - 120
20
Extensibility
mm
140 - 160
Dough resistance
BU
380 - 410
Ratio
1.5 1.7
Steamed bread
Baked buns
10
15
Baking time (min)
20
Fig. 161: Core temperature of baked buns and steamed bread
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Flour Treatment
Fig. 159: Basket for traditional steaming

(source: H. Moegenburg, Muehlenchemie Asia Pte. Ltd.)
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Reference
Alphamalt VC 5000, 125 ppm
Fig. 162: Effect of -amylase with 5,000 SKB/g (Alphamalt VC 5000) on the size of steamed bread.
The volume yield per 100 g of flour was 300, 325, 369 and 351 mL respectively (from upper left to lower right).
Flour Treatment
266
Hemicellulases
Not unexpectedly, the positive properties of
hemicellulases, described in chapter 18.5.2,
were also observed in the preparation of
steamed bread.
For instance, a hemicellulase from Aspergillus

niger (Alphamalt HCC) achieved a volume
increase similar to that of amylase (Fig. 163).
At the same time the pore structure became
much finer (not shown).
Reference
Alphamalt HCC, 5 ppm
Fig. 163: Effect of hemicellulase on the size of steamed bread.

The volume yield per 100 g of flour was 300, 382, 373 and 373 mL respectively (from upper left to lower right)
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Lipase
Lipase is yet another miracle enzyme, underestimated for a long time. The enzyme
converts lipids into di- and monoglycerides,
i.e. emulsifiers (chapter 18.5.4). Especially

after extensive kneading, lamination or long
fermentation processes, a dramatic effect on
dough stability and volume yield can be
noted. In the example shown in Fig. 165, the
increase was a net 70%. Since it is highly
dependent on processing conditions, this
effect cannot be reproduced with all dough
preparation methods.
Development of the dough by sheeting
promotes the beneficial effect of lipase. This
is probably due to a more extensive exposure
to atmospheric oxygen.
Endogenous lipoxygenases prefer to react with
free unsaturated fatty acids rather than with
unsaturated fatty acids bound to the glycerol
backbone. Lipolysis exposes the fatty acids to
the action of lipoxygenases which, in the
presence of sufficient oxygen, are converted
into hydroperoxides; these in turn react with
components of the flour. In addition to dough
strengthening, a bleaching effect occurs due to
the oxidation of flour carotenoids. Since
lipases are specific to the type of fatty acid
present in the triglyceride, not all lipases are
suitable for improving steamed bread.
Reference
Alphamalt Gloxy, 20 ppm
Fig. 164: Effect of glucose oxidase on the size of steamed bread.

The volume yield per 100 g of flour was 300, 317, 334 and 321 mL respectively (from upper left to lower right).
267
Flour Treatment
Glucose Oxidase
The enzyme glucose oxidase (GOD) converts
glucose into gluconic acid while oxidizing
water into hydrogen peroxide, an oxidizing
agent, as described in chapter 18.3.3. The
reaction requires oxygen, which is readily
consumed by yeast and some chemical reactions at the very beginning of the dough preparation process. This means that the effect
of GOD is often only perceptible on the surface
of the dough or the baked product (dryer
dough surface, stabilized structure), while the
volume yield is hardly affected. Most probably
due to the specific dough development process
often used in the preparation of steamed
bread, the GOD has a better supply of oxygen.
The effect on volume yield is therefore
measurable. In our example the improvement
was about 10% (Fig. 164). One further effect is
always mentioned by the bakers: the doughs
have better machinability because of reduced
stickiness.
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Reference
Tigerzym 01, 5 ppm
Tigerzym 01, 25 ppm
Tigerzym 01, 50 ppm
Fig. 165: Effect of a commercial enzyme preparation containing a specific lipase on the size of steamed bread.
The volume yield per 100 g of flour was 300, 447, 477 and 512 mL respectively
(from upper left to lower right; colour differences were due to a rising thunderstorm).
Fig. 166 and Fig. 167 summarize the effects of

various enzymes on volume yield. The data
are taken from two sets of trials, so there are
two different references. Tigerzym 01 and LP
12066 signify two different lipases; Gloxy
Volume yield (mL/100 g flour)
7082 stands for glucose oxidase from

Aspergillus niger; VC 5000 is 5,000 SKB/g
-amylase from A. oryzae; HCC, HCE and
HCH are hemicellulases from A. niger,
Thermomyces lanoginosus expressed in
600
500
400
300
200
100
rz
,5
ym
Ti
0
1,
ge
25
rz
ym
01
LP
,5
0
12
06
6,
LP
20
12
06
LP
6,
50
12
06
G
6
,1
lo
xy
00
70
G
82
lo
,2
xy
0
70
G
8
2,
lo
xy
12
70
5
8
VC 2, 2
50
50
00
VC
,1
25
50
00
VC
,2
50
50
00
,5
00
HC
C,
HC 5
C,
10
HC
C,
20
Ti
ge
rz
y
ge
Re
fe
re
01
nc
Ti
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268
Dosage (ppm)
Fig. 166: Effect of specific lipases (Tigerzym 01, LP 12066), glucose oxidase (Gloxy 7082),
-amylase (VC 5000) and hemicellulase (HCC) on the volume yield of steamed bread
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600
500
400
300
200
100
HC
E,
2
HC 0
E,
4
HC 0
E,
6
HC 0
H,
2
HC 0
H,
3
HC 5
H,
50
C
13
2,
10
C
13
2,
35
C
13
2,
50
BG
31
,
BG 35
Ti
31
ge
,5
rz
ym
0
Ti
02
ge
,1
rz
y
0
Ti
ge m 0
2,
rz
ym
50
Ti
02
ge
,1
rz
ym
00
02
,1
50
,2
5
01
ym
Re
Ti
ge
rz
fe
re
nc
Dosage (ppm)
Fig. 167: Effect of specific lipases (Tigerzym 01), hemicellulases (HCE, HCH), cellulase (C 132), -glucanase (BG 31)
and an enzyme combination (Tigerzym 02) on the volume yield of steamed bread
Volume yield (mL/100 g)
By combining several enzymes, additive

effects resulting in even larger volume yield
can be achieved (Tigerzym 02). Pure lipase,
Tigerzym 01, served as an internal standard
for both sets of trials.
Oxidation
Ascorbic acid is known to improve dough
stability, crumb structure and volume yield in
baking. Would it have comparable effects in
steamed bread? Fig. 168 answers part of this
question, showing the volume yield when
ascorbic acid is combined with -amylase in
normal and long fermentation (1 h and 2 h
respectively). A distinct maximum as a function
430
400
Normal
fermentation
Normal fermentation
with amylase
Long
fermentation
370
340
310
280
250
0
Ascorbic acid (g/100 kg)

Fig. 168: Effect of ascorbic acid on the volume yield of steamed bread
10
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Flour Treatment
A. niger and from Bacillus subtilis respectively;

C 132 is a cellulase from a Trichoderma species,
and BG 31 is a -glucanase from A. niger.
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of ascorbic acid concentration appeared in all

the trials. Amylase caused a shift towards higher
concentrations, which is analogous to baking.
The exact amount necessary to achieve a
maximum depends on various factors such as
the recipe, process, and flour quality.
Emulsifiers
The number of emulsifiers used in baking is
still increasing. In our investigations we used
the most common ones, i.e. SSL, CSL, DATEM
and mono/diglycerides. The dosage was in
the typical range for baking applications, i.e.
between 0.1 and 0.5% on flour. While DATEM
had the best volume yield (Fig. 169), the appearance and pore structure of the buns were
not satisfactory. The best overall result was
achieved with SSL, which produced good
volume, a regular shape, a fine, even and
bright pore structure and prolonged crumb
softness.
Trials with sucrose esters also resulted in
improved volume (not shown), but the overall
properties were inferior to SSL and the cost
was much higher.
A large variety of breads are made with rye

flour (Fig. 171). Due to the lack of a gluten
network, the volume yield is comparatively
low if a large proportion of rye flour is used.
Acceptable processing conditions and sufficient dough stability can only be obtained by
acidification, either through sour dough or
with acidifiers such as lactic acid, acetic acid
or fumaric acid.
Ascorbic acid as a maturing agent is only used
in mixed flour bread. Sour dough fermentation
reduces the amount of available simple sugar,
improving the glycemic index further.
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
nc
SS e
L,
0.
SS 1
L,
0.
SS 3
L,
0.
CS 5
L,
0
CS .1
L,
0
CS .3
L
DA , 0.
5
TE
M
,
DA
0
TE .1
M
,0
DA
TE .3
M
,0
M
on
.5
o/
Di
,0
M
on
.1
o/
Di
,0
M
on
.3
o/
Di
,0
.3
Re
fe
re
Flour Treatment
270
18.13.2 Rye and High-Fibre Flour

In Northern Europe high-fibre bread has a
long tradition. Rye flour contributes a large
proportion of the dietary fibre in all countries
around the Baltic Sea. Rye per se does not
have a higher fibre content than wheat, but
the dark flours used for most types of rye or
mixed flour bread provide up to 3 times as
much fibre as standard wheat flour (Fig.
170).
Dosage (%)
Fig. 169: Effect of emulsifiers on the volume yield of steamed bread
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100
Content (% d.b.)
Rye flour
80
60
40
20
0
Type: 815
100
997
1370
1800
Whole
60
40
271
20
0
Type: 550
Protein (Nx5.8)
812
Fat
1050
Available carbohydrates
1700
Dietary fibre
Fig. 170: Composition of wheat and rye and some typical flours (data from Souci et al., 2000)
Fig. 171: Selection of rye bread
Whole
Minerals
Flour Treatment
Content (% d.b.)
Wheat flour
80
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Fig. 172: Effect of glucanase on the structure of rye kernels. Left: untreated, right: treated with -glucanase.
(Source: K. Autio, VTT, Helsinki, Finland)
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Amylases
Although bread with a high fibre content already
has a lower staling rate due to the higher water
absorption, amylolytic enzymes of microbial
or cereal origin are able to improve this even
further, particularly if grains with low intrinsic
enzyme activity (i.e. high Falling Numbers) are
used (chapter 18.10.1, page 246).
Hemicellulases
Pentosanases and glucanases affect the
hemicelluloses of wheat and rye (Fig. 172).
Pentosans consist of two fractions, one of
which is water soluble, while the other is not.
Hydrolysis of the water-insoluble fraction
results in smaller, water-soluble fragments
(solubilized) which absorb more water. When
soluble or solubilized pentosan is hydrolyzed,
water is released from the gel. Some pentosanases only act on one or the other pentosan
fraction, while others are less specific.
Non-Specific Pentosanase
Secabon, a standard wheat flour treatment
pentosanase from a Trichoderma species,
acts on both soluble and insoluble pentosans.
At a suitable concentration the water absorption
will first rise, improving machinability. Later in
the process, water will be released from the

pentosan gel through the continuing hydrolysis
of soluble and solubilized pentosans (Fig. 173).
This increases the availability of water and
thus softens the dough structure (better
volume yield), retarding and reducing starch
retrogradation.
Dough "Drying" with Specific Pentosanases
If the doughs are already quite slack, a very
specific xylanase which acts almost solely on
the insoluble pentosans may be useful: it
increases water absorption and thus results
in dryer and more stable dough. Fig. 31 shows
the effect of such a xylanase on a wheat flour
type 550 in the Farinograph. The effects may
be even stronger in rye and dark wheat flour.
130
Viscosity (%)
Enzymes for Wheat and Rye "Volume" Bread
120
110
100
90
0
10
20
30
40
50
Fermentation time (min)

Fig. 173: Effect of Secabon on the viscosity
of wheat pentosans
60
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High-Extraction Wheat Flour

In addition to rye, bread from dark wheat flour
(high extraction) or whole wheat meal is also
fairly common, especially in Germany but also
in some other northern European countries.
Its specific volume is superior to that of rye
bread. Sour dough or acidification is not
necessary but sometimes used, in particular
for dark varieties of bread. Flour treatment is
not unlike that for white wheat flour, i.e.
oxidation or ascorbic acid and enzymes
(amylases, hemicellulases).
Crispbread
Crispbread (Fig. 174) is a speciality from
Scandinavia. Most types are made from a
Fig. 174: Examples of crispbread
rather liquid yeast sponge dough (dough

yield about 190%) which is sheeted, or rather
spread, after 2 h fermentation into a layer 2.5
mm thick. This is followed by another fermentation of 30 - 60 min. Major challenges are the
sticky dough and the instability of the sensitive
sheeted foam, as well as sufficient energy
supply to the yeast without impairing the
taste and colour of the final bread. The energy
necessary for dehydration is a further important
factor, as the dough moisture has to be reduced
from about 50% to below 6%.
The flour treatment for crispbread can be
summarized as follows:
Ascorbic acid: little or none
Amylase: for browning and fermentation
Hemicellulases and cellulases: to decrease
water addition and avoid checking
(hairline cracks)
Protease to avoid checking.
Amylases are able to provide a constant supply
of energy to the yeast. While a given sugar
addition can result in vigorous fermentation
at the beginning followed by a sudden stopping
of yeast activity once the sugar resources are
finished, the amylases continue to produce
fermentable sugar in the same measure as
the yeast continues its fermentation. Instead
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Flour Treatment
Proteases
Some baking properties of rye flour and dark
wheat flours, for instance the volume yield, can
be improved by adding vital wheat gluten. It
does not have exactly the same functionality as
native gluten (chapter 18.9). Some of its natural
behaviour can be recovered by protease. It can
be used to improve the structure of the protein
if the bread-making process is well controlled,
taking into account the time-dependent action
of the enzyme. Purified fungal proteases will
be preferable due to their comparatively mild
(specific) action at acidic pH.
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of collapsing dough due to over-fermentation,

a constant volume increase can be achieved,
with its maximum at the beginning of the
baking process.
Some pentosanases are able to increase the
amount of bound water at the beginning of
their action, while in the long run water will be
released again. This is a property that can be
exploited particularly for the crispbread
process. During pre-fermentation and dough
processing, good stability with dry surfaces is
required, whereas after a further fermentation time the water retention should be low to
improve the drying behaviour.
Flour Treatment
274
Oxidases mainly affect the surface of the

dough. Only in a small mixer such as the
Farinograph mixer do they have a visible
effect on the dough rheology (Fig. 138, page
248), because the surface to volume ratio
is large enough to permit the access of
sufficient oxygen to the system. In crispbread
production they reduce the stickiness of
the dough sheet, improving its processing
behaviour.
Fig. 175: Wholemeal and high-fibre biscuits (and crackers)
Biscuits and Crackers

Biscuits and crackers offer yet another possibility of incorporating high-fibre flour.
Whereas rye is not very common for crackers
or biscuits, wholemeal is. In this case,
distribution is not limited to Northern Europe.
Typical examples are biscotti integrale (biscuits)
or crackers integrale from Italy and granola
biscuits from England (Fig. 175). Here again,
Secabon, a hemicellulase with broad activity
on pentosans, is very useful. It improves the
chewing properties, making the bite shorter,
but it also improves the properties of the
return dough, since it counteracts the drying
out of the dough during processing.
18.13.3 Noodles and Pasta Flour
Improvers for noodle flour include:
vital wheat gluten;

emulsifiers;
bleaching agents;
colorants, in particular -carotene;
ascorbic acid;
hemicellulase and
lipases.
171
174
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To create the optimum texture of instant

noodles is a major challenge: On the one hand
dry noodles have to rehydrate as quickly as
possible, and on the other they must have a
homogenous texture without overcooked
outer layers and hard cores. Furthermore,
they should not become soggy through extended
exposure to hot water. As Fig. 178 shows,
Pastazym improves the firmness of cooked
instant noodles while the rehydration properties
remain constant. The result is a firm bite
without a hard, dry core texture.
The colour of raw noodles tends to deteriorate
rather quickly. With the enzyme compound
the darkening is reduced, and the noodles
show improved whiteness even after 24 h
(Fig. 179). The difference in L* between the
reference and the noodles with 10 g Pastazym is
about 3. The human eye can detect differences
Force (N)
1.0
0.8
Cooking time
(min)
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
0.0
0
10
Dosage (g/100 kg flour)

Fig. 176: Improvement of overcooking tolerance
Firmness (%)
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
0
10
15
20
25

Fig. 177: Firmness of fresh, uncooked noodles
with the addition of a lipolytic and
xylanolytic enzyme compound
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Flour Treatment
The uncooked noodles already show improved

stability (Fig. 177). This results in improved
handling properties such as better resistance
to mechanical stress (e.g. packaging) and
reduced stickiness.
1.2
107
106
Firmness (%)
The addition of a lipolytic and xylanolytic

enzyme compound (Pastazym) improves the
tolerance of noodles made from soft and hard
wheat flour to overcooking, as shown in Fig.
176. With 10 g of the compound per 100 kg
flour, the resistance to compression increases
by almost 30% for over-cooking conditions
(10 min).
1.4
105
104
103
102
101
100
0
10
15
20
25

Fig. 178: Firmness of cooked instant noodles made
from soft wheat with the addition of a lipolytic
and xylanolytic enzyme compound
84
82
Color (L*)
Enzymes with xylanolytic, glucanolytic and

particularly lipolytic activities have proved
extremely useful in the production of noodles
and instant noodles from soft and hard
wheat. They offer many advantages, for
instance:
reduced tendency to bend;
increased firmness of the cooked noodles;
enhanced overcooking tolerance;
reduced oil uptake of fried instant noodles;
reduced drying time;
improved surface appearance and
mechanical stability of dried noodles,
reduction of raw material costs.
Hours after
extrusion
1
24
80
78
76
74
72
70
0

Fig. 179: Colour of fresh, uncooked noodles with the
addition of a lipolytic and xylanolytic
enzyme compound
10
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Fig. 180: Effect of Pastazym on the colour of dry and rehydrated noodles made from wheat flour.
A: Dry noodles, reference; B: with Pastazym; C: Cooked noodles, reference; D: with Pastazym
Flour Treatment
276
exceeding L* = 1. The colour difference persists

after cooking (Fig. 180).
Other additives
Tab. 96 is a summary of noodle extrusion trials
with soft wheat flour using various additives.
Although hemicellulases have the potential to
reduce the viscosity of the extruded noodle or
pasta dough or to reduce the water addition if
added in very large amounts, this did not
show at the chosen dosage. Surprisingly, they

did not modify the appearance or texture of the
finished products even at very high dosages.
In sheeted noodle production, hemicellulases
improve sheetability because they soften the
dough without weakening the protein.
Transglutaminase strengthens the protein,
which should improve the cooking tolerance
Tab. 96: Soft wheat noodle extrusion trials (double spiral noodles) with various additives
Product
Dosage
Water addition
Reference
g/100 kg
EMCEvit Plus
Dry gluten
Transglutaminase
3000
3000
10
24
24
24
24
Dough moisture content
30.4
29.8
30.3
30.4
Extrusion pressure
bar
175
185
185
155
cm Hg
55
52
55
52
Vacuum
Sensory evaluation
Cooking water
milky
milky
milky
milky
Appearance, raw
bright beige
brownish
bright beige
bright beige
Appearance, cooked
a bit slimy,
white
a little slimy,
brownish-grey
slimy, brownish-grey
brownish-grey
slime, instable
shape, white
tough,
a little sticky
tough,
elastic
tough,
elastic
irregular bite,
tougher
Eating properties
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of noodles. The bite was indeed firmer, but

the appearance of the cooked noodle did not
improve as compared to the reference.
as a flour improver in Central European countries.

Its use in tropical and subtropical areas is
limited by the negative effects of elevated
temperatures on particle size distribution.
The addition of vital wheat gluten achieved

the expected improvement in texture. A
phospholipid-protected gluten resulted in
better visual ratings.
Oxidizing agents and ascorbic acid also

strengthen the protein, but they impair the
processing properties of the dough. This may
result in an irregular noodle structure with an
increased tendency to checking. Furthermore,
this strengthening cannot be detected in the
finished product in the form of improved
cooking tolerance.
An emulsifier compound of mono- and diglycerides and lecithin sprayed onto a carrier
(Mulgaprot S1) was rated best. For many
years Mulgaprot has been used successfully
Hemicellulase
Guar gum
Guar gum
Mulgaprot S1
Mulgaprot S1
50
500
1000
30
500
24
25.8
26
25.8
26
30.2
30.1
29.6
30.1
30.1
175
153
158
160
180
52
52
52
55
55
milky
milky
less milky
less milky
less milky
bright beige
bright beige
bright beige
smoother surface,
darker
smoother surface,
darker
irregular, porous surface,

slimy, white
a little slimy, white
a little slimy, white
not slimy, white
not slimy, white
irregular bite,
slimy
tougher,
regular bite
irregular bite, slimy

surface, off-taste
tough, regular,
pleasant
tough, regular,
pleasant
277
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Seite 278
18.13.4 Composite Flour

In most cases the use of non-wheat flours in
158
mixtures with wheat flour results in a noticeable
loss of volume and changed appearance (Fig.
181); the sensory attributes are also different.
If the overall quality of goods baked from
composite flour (taste and smell, chewing
properties, appearance, shelf-life) is to approach
that of pure wheat products, the wheat flour
component of the composite flour must first
be treated although even then the amount
of other flours that can be added is very
limited. The well-known flour improvers
potassium bromate and ascorbic acid have
proved useful for this purpose. The dosage
has to be adjusted to the particular wheat
flour quality. As a rule it is between 20 and 50

ppm. To take the other flours into account
seems to make little difference. If lipases
are used in conjunction with soy flour, for
example, there is no noticeable improvement
in volume (Fig. 182), although this would be
the case with wheat flour alone.
Modern enzyme preparations also help to 159
compensate for the loss of volume caused by
using composite flour instead of wheat flour
alone. Besides amylases, hemicellulases and
also lipases can be used.
Fig. 183 shows the effect of treatment with
ascorbic acid and a baking enzyme on the
structure of bread made from wheat flour with
Flour Treatment
278
Fig. 181: Structure of bread made from untreated wheat flour, alone or mixed with tapioca starch,
rye flour or soybean flour (70 / 30%; upper left to lower right)
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Seite 279
Fig. 183: Effect of flour treatment on bread made from composite flour with defatted soybean flour, (70:30). 60 ppm
ascorbic acid plus Powerzym 6000 (hemicellulase/amylase compound), 0, 75, 100 and 150 ppm
on wheat flour (upper left to lower right)
Flour Treatment
279
Fig. 182: Bread made from composite flour (90/10) with defatted soybean flour (upper row) and toasted, full-fat soybean
flour (lower row), using a lipolytic enzyme (from left to right 0, 60 and 180 ppm Alphamalt LP 12066)
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Seite 280
the addition of soy flour (70:30). Other additives commonly used in baking improvers, such
as emulsifiers, improve the results still further.
Fig. 184 shows the effects of various flour
improvers on the volume of pan bread made
from a composite flour consisting of CWRS
and cassava flour in comparison with CWRS
flour alone. In this case a combination of
ascorbic acid, enzymes and emulsifiers made
it possible to restore the volume of the loaves
almost completely up to a wheat/cassava
ratio of 85:15. If the wheat flour used is less
strong it will be necessary to add wheat gluten
or reduce the proportion of non-wheat flour.
The nature of the foreign cereal may also play
an important role.
Reference has also been made to the use of

potassium bromate and ascorbic acid as flour
improvers in chapter 16.
The wheat flour used should have optimum
baking properties, and these can be achieved
by suitable treatment with enzymes and oxidizing agents along with emulsifiers and waterbinding substances.
18.13.5 Flours for Biscuits, Crackers
and Wafers
Whereas a high protein content and strong
47
gluten are desirable properties in many bread
processes, flours with little and weak gluten 50
are preferable for durable baked goods. The
tendency of dough to spring back after rolling
and the undesirable formation of gluten lumps
in wafer batters are the reasons for this requirement. Whether a flour with low and weak
protein is available or not, the use of elasticityreducing agents (proteases, L-cysteine, glutathione, inactivated yeast, sodium metabisulphite) will have benefits at all stages of the
process: the lamination will be more uniform;
The effect of the emulsifiers GMS, CSL and

lecithin, and also of pre-gelatinized starch, has
already been described in chapter 16.
There are no rules for such flour treatment. It
has to be optimized in each case, depending
on the composition of the flour and the baking
properties of the wheat flour used.
Relative volume yield (%)
Flour Treatment
280
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
un
t
ea
tr
tr
AA
F+
t
ea
CF
ed
ed
A
+F
un
N
+E
A
F+
EM
v
ro
Z+
N
+E
ad
im
br
A
F+
er
UL
A
F+
F+
Fig. 184: Effect of flour treatment on pan loaves made from composite flour (CWRS flour/cassava flour 85:15)
in comparison with wheat flour alone
(WF = wheat flour, CF = composite flour, AA = ascorbic acid, FAA = fungal -amylase,
ENZ = enzyme compound, EMUL = emulsifier, DATEM)
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Seite 281
Biscuit and Cracker Applications

Tab. 97 shows the recipes for simple hard
biscuits made without and with bacterial
protease. The last row compares the dimensions of the biscuits. As the length/width ratio
shows (average of 25 biscuits), there is almost
Tab. 97: Biscuits baked with and without

bacterial protease
Component (kg)
Reference
With enzyme
Flour
100
100
Fat
50
50
Sugar
50
50
Salt
0.2
0.2
Water
10
10
Protease
0.05
62.3 / 59.6
63.6 / 63.3
Length/width (mm)
no difference between the length and width of

biscuits with enzyme addition, whereas those
without enzyme show shrinkage in one direction.
Since the protease takes away most of the
internal tension, the products are less inclined
to bend during baking: the first row of Fig. 186
shows the underside of biscuits without
protease; colouring occurred mainly at the
margins, which were still touching the oven
stone when the cookies became convex due to
Fig. 185: Effect of lecithin on the spread of cookies. left: reference; right: 1% liquid lecithin on flour
(Courtesy of J. v. Wakeren, Caracas)
281
Flour Treatment
reduction of the thickness of the dough sheet

can be performed faster and more reproducibly;
relaxing periods for the dough sheet can be
shortened or even omitted; the dough pieces
will keep the shape given by cutting; shrinkage
and bending in the oven and also the formation of hairline cracks (checking) are avoided.
With suitable amylases, expensive recipe
components such as milk solids otherwise
necessary for sufficient browning can be
omitted. Furthermore, the whole process
will be less dependent on flour quality.
Emulsifiers, particularly lecithin (Fig. 185),
but also mono- and diglycerides or DATEM,
improve the spread of cookies and the regularity
of biscuits and crackers. They can also be used
to reduce fat in a recipe. Emulsifiers are usually
applied at the bakery itself.
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Flour Treatment
282
Fig. 186: Underside of hard biscuits baked without (top) and with bacterial protease (bottom)
asymmetric protein shrinkage upon thermal

denaturation. Biscuits made with protease
remained flat and showed uniform browning
(bottom row). This, too, is a common problem
that can be observed with many commercially
produced hard biscuits.
Wafer Applications
Batters for wafer production contain a large
amount of water. A low viscosity and a uniform
dispersion of all the ingredients is essential for
even wafers with a homogeneous structure.
Since the formation of gluten lumps during
mixing can result in standstill of the machinery
due to blocked tubes and sieves, or in uneven
browning and reduced stability of the baked
goods, the use of low protein flour is desirable,
but may not be sufficient. Liquefying hydrolytic
enzyme complexes are able to decompose any
gluten present in a liquid batter, resulting in a
uniform mixture with optimum flow properties.
The viscosity reduction enables less water to
be used in the recipe, and this in turn
results in lower energy consumption for
baking and a higher oven throughput. Such
enzymes are most suitable for semi-continuous

processes with batch times of at least 10 min,
because the enzyme reaction needs some
minutes to take effect.
We used the Amylograph at a constant temperature for a simple test to demonstrate the
effect of a "wafer enzyme" (bacterial protease,
hemicellulase) on the rheological properties
of a liquid dough system (Fig. 187). Standard
wheat flour for bread making was used in all
the tests; 250 g flour was premixed with 330
mL of water in a Braun mixer for 1 min 45 s
and then put into the reaction jar of the
Amylograph, which was adjusted to a constant
30 C. The wafer enzyme was added to one
sample at 20 g per 100 kg flour before the start
of mixing.
Whereas the reference sample remained at
almost the same viscosity for about 40 min,
the enzyme caused an immediate viscosity
drop. Furthermore, all the gluten strands were
destroyed, which is evident from the definite
shape of the curve. By contrast, the reference
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Seite 283
no enzyme
Alphamalt LQ 4020
Viscosity (cps)
3.500
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
500
0
0
15
30
45
60
Time (min)
No enzyme
Enzyme A, 15 g
Enzyme B, 15 g
Enzyme A, 40 g
Enzyme B, 40 g
Fig. 188: Viscogram of wafer batter with different

proteolytic enzyme compounds and dosages
(Brookfield Rotovisco, 25 C)
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
100
100
90
80
70
1
60
120
140
50
160
Density (g/wafer, 29x46 cm)
Similar results can be obtained with other

viscometric devices, e.g. the Brookfield viscometer (Fig. 188), although only the rotating
rods of the Amylograph seem to be able to
show the development and disappearance
of gluten lumps.
In baking trials with a pilot-scale plant it was

possible to control the water addition and
thus the weight and density of the wafers
with the help of the enzyme compound. This
offers great economic advantages (reduced
energy demand, higher throughput) and
more freedom for product development (Fig.
189). Wafers of higher density are crisper and
remain crisp longer because of reduced
water absorption.
Energy costs (EUR/100 kg flour)
curve shows large fluctuations due to gluten

lumps or strands adhering to the mixing tool
of the Amylograph.
Initial water content (kg/100 kg flour)
Fig. 189: Effect of water addition on evaporation costs

and wafer density (energy costs: 0.15 e/kWh)
with wafer enzyme no enzyme
Flour Treatment
283
Fig. 187: Effect of a "wafer enzyme" on the viscometric behaviour of wheat flour batter (Amylograph, 30 C)
018-Flour Treatment
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Seite 284
Reference
SMB 50 g/100 kg
Enzyme A, 50 g/100 kg
Enzyme B, 50 g/100 kg
Flour Treatment
284
122
Enzyme C, 50 g/100 kg
Fig. 190: Farinographs with sodium metabisulphite (SMB)

or enzymes.
A: proteolytic enzyme for liquid wafer batters;
B: proteolytic biscuit and cracker enzyme;
C: proteolytic, amylolytic and hemicellulolytic
enzyme complex.
Replacement of Sodium Metabisulphite (SMB)

in Cracker and Wafer Production
This powerful reducing agent (chapter 18.4.3)
splits the inter-chain and intra-chain disulphide
bonds of the gluten, causing an immediate
fall in dough resistance (Fig. 115, page 228) or
batter viscosity. SMB is very cheap and easy
to use.
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18.14 References
When tested in the Farinograph, both SMB

and enzymes show a decline in kneading
resistance (Fig. 190). The reaction of SMB
occurs much faster, but probably due to the
presence of atmospheric oxygen, some of the
resistance is restored upon continued mixing,
when disulphide bonds broken by SMB recover
(upper right). The slower but persistent
reaction of the enzymes results in minimum
resistance, when all the substrate of the
enzymes has been degraded.
18.14 References
Ahrenholz SH and Neumeister CE, 1987.
Development and use of a sampling and analytical
method for azodicarbonamide. Am Ind Hyg. Assoc.
J. 48:442-446.
Bauer N, Koehler P, Wieser H and Schieberle P,
2003. Studies on the effects of microbial transglutaminase on gluten proteins of wheat. In: Recent
Advances in Enzymes in Grain Processing. Courtin
CM, Veraverbeke WS and Delcour J, (eds.),
Laboratory of Food Chemistry Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, p 107-113.
Bechtel WG, Meisner DF and Bradley WB, 1953.
The effect of the crust on the staling of bread.
Cereal Chem. 30:160-168.
Chung OK and Pomeranz Y, 1977. Wheat flour
lipids, shortening and surfactants. Baker's Dig.
5:32-44; 153.
Diderichsen BK and Christiansen L, 1986.
Preparation of a maltogenic amylase enzyme. US
Patent Application 4,598,048.
Dirndorfer M, 2000. Personal communication.
Freund W, 1995. Bckerei Konditorei Management 5 Verfahrenstechnik Brot & Kleingebck.
Gildebuchverlag GmbH & Co. KG, Alfeld, Germany.
Frisbk J, 2003. Novel tailor-made xylanases:
Their characteristics, performance in cereal proces-
sing and use as a tool to understand xylanase

functionality in baking. In: Recent advances in
enzymes in grain processing. Courtin CM,
Veraverbeke WS, Delcour JA (eds.), Lab. of Food
Chem., Katholieke Univ. Leuven, Belgium. 241-245.
Gebruers K, Courti, CM, Goesaert H, Van
Campenhout S and Delcour JA, 2002. Endoxylanase
inhibition activity in different European wheat cultivars and milling fractions. Cereal Chem.
79(5):613-616.
Geissmann T and Neukom H, 1973. On the composition of the water soluble wheat flour pentosans and their oxidative gelation. Lebensm.-Wiss.
Technol. 6(2):59-61.
Gonzalez P, 2001. Sunn Pest Unlocking the
Mysteries of an Ancient Problem. Int. Center for
Agric. Res.
Gray JA and Bemiller JN, 2003. Bread staling:
molecular basis and control. Compreh. Rev. Food
Sci. Food Safety 2:1-21.
Grosch W and Wieser H., 1999. Redox reactions
in wheat dough as affected by ascorbic acid. J.
Cereal. Sci. 29:1-16.
Hedwig A, 1996. Personal communication.
Hfer M, Ghyczy M and Popper L, 1996. Yeast
interaction with lecithin fractions. Food Technol.
Int. 86-88.
Hoseney RC and Faubion JM, 1981. A mechanism
for the oxidative gelation of wheat flour watersoluble pentosans. Cereal Chem. 58(5):421-424.
Jrgensen H, 1935. Ein Beitrag zur Beleuchtung
der hemmenden Wirkung von Oxidationsmitteln
auf proteolytische Enzymaktivitt: ber die Natur
der Einwirkung von Kaliumbromat und analogen
Stoffen auf die Backfhigkeit der Weizenmehle.
Biochem. Z. 280:1-37; 283:134-145.
Kieffer R, 2003. Die Elastizitt von Weizenteig
ein hufig berschtztes Qualittsmerkmal.
Getreide Mehl Brot 57(6):335-339.
Kieffer R, Kim JJ, Walther C, Laskawy G and
Grosch W, 1990. Influence of glutathione and
cysteine on the improver effect of ascorbic acid stereoisomers J. Cereal Sci. 11:143-152.
Khler P, 1999. Untersuchungen zur Backwirksamkeit von DATEM und seinen Komponenten.
Getreide Mehl Brot 53(4):224-233.
Kragh KM, Larsen B, Rasmussen P, DuedahlOlesen L and Zimmermann W, 1999. Non-maltogenic exoamylase and their use in retarding retrogradation of starch. WO 99/50399.
Krog N, 1971. Amylose complexing effects of
food-grade emulsifiers. Staerke. 23:206-210.
285
Flour Treatment
In many countries, therefore, SMB is still used

in wafer and cracker production although it
causes a sulphurous off-taste. Enzymes as an
alternative to SMB improve the taste and
have definite technical advantages, namely
constant dough properties once the reaction
is accomplished, including similar texture of
return dough and fresh dough, the reduction
of water addition to wafer batters and control
of wafer density and stability (Fig. 189).

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018-Flour Treatment

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

and thus on the wheat, but it may also thrive

mesentericus in the dough, for instance with

The optimum growth conditions for B.

18.13.1 Steamed Bread

Thorough cleaning of the wheat reduces the

18.13 Flour Treatment for

Fig. 158: Ropiness in wheat bread

Furthermore, flour with normal properties

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

Fig. 160: Stainless steel steaming chamber

The course of the core temperature during

are used, and also if enzymes that have a high

Tab. 95: Flour quality for steamed bread trials

Extensogram (135 min)

Fig. 161: Core temperature of baked buns and steamed bread

Fig. 159: Basket for traditional steaming

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

Alphamalt VC 5000, 125 ppm

Alphamalt VC 5000, 250 ppm

Alphamalt VC 5000, 500 ppm

For instance, a hemicellulase from Aspergillus

Alphamalt HCC, 5 ppm

Alphamalt HCC, 10 ppm

Alphamalt HCC, 20 ppm

Fig. 163: Effect of hemicellulase on the size of steamed bread.

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

i.e. emulsifiers (chapter 18.5.4). Especially

Alphamalt Gloxy, 20 ppm

Alphamalt Gloxy, 125 ppm

Alphamalt Gloxy, 250 ppm

Fig. 164: Effect of glucose oxidase on the size of steamed bread.

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

Tigerzym 01, 5 ppm

Tigerzym 01, 25 ppm

Tigerzym 01, 50 ppm

Fig. 166 and Fig. 167 summarize the effects of

Volume yield (mL/100 g flour)

7082 stands for glucose oxidase from

Volume yield (mL/100 g flour)

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

Volume yield (mL/100 g)

By combining several enzymes, additive

Ascorbic acid (g/100 kg)

A. niger and from Bacillus subtilis respectively;

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

of ascorbic acid concentration appeared in all

A large variety of breads are made with rye

Volume yield (mL/100 g flour)

18.13.2 Rye and High-Fibre Flour

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

Fig. 171: Selection of rye bread

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

the process, water will be released from the

Enzymes for Wheat and Rye "Volume" Bread

Fermentation time (min)

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

High-Extraction Wheat Flour

Fig. 174: Examples of crispbread

rather liquid yeast sponge dough (dough

18.13 Flour Treatment for Specific Applications

of collapsing dough due to over-fermentation,