The solar resource

11,1)ll!nn!

Thc Sun is

tl-rc'

Sf ,itln

cerrtlal energl' producel of our solal s-vstcm.

lt

is

1,390.000 km

diamctcr- sphere rvith nuclel fusion taking place contiruously in its centr-e. A snrall
fl'actior.r of tlrc encrgl' produced in the Sun hits the Earth ancl urakes life posible
on our pllrct. Solal radiation dlives lll narulaL c,vcles and processes sucli as raili,

g,ind, photosynthesis, ocean currents and sever: othe$ rvlich lr-e inlpoltait for
lifc. The rvorlcl's enelgl' need has been based fionr dre ver')' beqinning on solar
ener-gy. All lossil iuels (oil, gas, coal) ar',: converted solar enerst'.
The solar radiation is cmittcd b,v the Sunls col-ona at ur ellLctive blackbocl,v
tcrrlpcr-atrlr-c ofapproxirratell.5ll(X) K..virh an irradiance (tt'r-nrs ar-e delired in tlre
Appcndix) of 70,(X)0 8(l,0il0 kW/nrr. Or-rr-planet receives only a ver,v smdl por-tion
ofthis er-rergy Il spite ofdris, thc incoruing soJar-radiation energt'in a 1c-rl rs sonre
1 5r 10r" kWh: this is abour 15,000 timcs thc 1-carly cncrgJ. nccd of tl.rc rvholc
rvorld rn 2000 (10 r kWh/a; BPAnroco, 2002).
The dur-atiou ofthc sunshinc:s s.ell as the solar ilradi:rnce is cleperldent on the tir11e
of the ,vear, wcithcr .onditions and nattudly also on thc gcogirphical location. Thc
amourt ofycady global mdietion (on l horizonul surfaccJ rn the sunbclr rcgronr rnrlcxceccl 2200 kWl-r/lnr. In trortheln Eu]opc-, the rnarinrunr value is rbout 1100

kWh/mr.

2.1 SOLAR RADIATION AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

Thc' climate is one of the key lactors influc'ricing the erlerll)- yield of :r solar
conrbisystenr. This inter-action t:rkes pl:1cc on scvcral lcvcls:

Sol:rr collector:

The absolbcl tcmpclatllrc is dcpendcnt on the solar Lldietion on thc solar

collector.

to tl-re ambient are driven b,v the tempc'1atulc difli:rclcc bc' vcen the
,t,llccror rbrorb.t' .rnd rlr. .rrttbicrtr.
Heat demand ofthe building:
- Heat losses to the :rnrbient are driven by the telrlpelatrile dilltrcncc bcnvcc,n
Losscs

the house and the ambielit (air:rnd ground).

- Solar ladiltion th-ough the rvindorvs can be seen as inner-heat gains in thc
pcriod ofthe year.rvhen sp:rce hearing is effectively needed (heating scason).
Domcsric hot rv:rtcr (DHW) demalid
- The cold water- terlperatule fiom the ntrins varies over thc ycar.This
variation is ruainly dependerrr on the aver-agc- rlolrthly :11-ub1e11t telllpeliltures.

THE SOLAR RESOURCE 11

Clinrate varies fiom location to locatiorr and fiorn year to year. Figures 2.1

arLd

2.2

shorv dre rvodd's yeally average global irradiation arid the Earth'.s surface
tenlperature. In Figure 2.3 thc average values of solar irradiation arrd outdoor

l3 6..0. soo
!:! !ao. loao
: 1050.. 1200
. t2@..13E0

Glob6l lrradiation: yoar lkWhi m7l

?1oo . 23@

B& >

?3oo

rFT

CO

il,l < 'r'

in

map of yearly average global irradlatian (an a horizantal surface) in

. Wold
lsource METEOTESI Bernc, Swiae and, http //www.meteanarm.cam).

Fryure 2.7

See alsa

*
i:,
I

lemperatura: y6ar loCl

kwh/mta

calaut plate

)-,1
-lo
.T

..ro

-2o.. ro

-ro.

5.

"s
O

. lo. 16
L:15.ro
[: ?0. 2.
I ts - rr.s

&

''l

r-lI
nl,|LJ

>

17.6

Figure 2.2. Warld map al ),early avelage amblent temperaturc in "C. (Saurce. METEOTESI
Bene, Switzerland, http. //wwwmeteanom.com). See also calaur plate 2

12 SOIAR

HEAT NG SYSTEIVS FOR HOUSES:

A DESIGN HANDBOOK tOR SOLAR COMBISYSTEMS

Monthly values of ambient temperature'199'l

2000

-1991
1992
1993

1994

1995
1996
1997

5.0

't

998

'1999

0.0
2000

*Average

-5.0

,ru.trsf ,f+d

p*

9r$ro

odsdo-i

Monthly values ot globalirradiation 1991 - 2000

lTl
1S93

Ln.o
I

'150

1995

r= loo

1997

sofr

1998
1999

2ooo

0su .e
Fiqure 2.3. fen tear

sf "f s ,v "9 ,o od r.d o(9

"d
iradiation far
manthtv average ambient temperature and (harizantal) glabal

.;-ontr"l LLtaaearto. dttan /4\,4G.

./041)

seasonal
temperAture for one locirtlon over 10 ye;rrs are shorvD' Despite the obvious
to
ln
ordel
seen
can
be
nlonths
t..rri, wid. range of flucluations be veen the
"
climate
ditTelcnt
under
compare the p"r:forrrr"rtaa of different con'tbisystems
ao,rii,io,r, on tira ,"rrr" basis, average data for each location alc necded'
The orientation ofthe absorbers (rvindorv, collector) is also signifrcant Figrre 2'tr

hemispherical irradiation on difiercntly orienteted surfaces

fol x centnl E.,rop."n climate lt can be seen that horizont:rl surdtces end surfaces
lrcing south rvirh I tilt angle of'tSo have much higher sumluer than r'r'inter
shows the monthly

THE SOLAR RESOURCE 13

2oo

E^

150

3
.g

roo

.>50
z
E
0

JAN FEB

I]/IAR

APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV

DEC

Figurc 2 4. Hemisphe cal tradiatian an surfaces af different arientatians fot a central Eurapean
climate (Streiche, 2002)

45' tilted suface is

much highel than that lbr the horizonral suface.Vcrtical sulfices llcing south do
h:rve l ncarly constant irradiation from Marrh to Scptcmbcr, and ncarlv as mucl-r
irladiatron in rvinter-ls surdrces facing south rvith a 45'tilt angle.Tivo-axis trackine
nrainly increases the solar yield in sunrrrrer, rvhile in whter the irr:rdiancc is sitnilar
irradiation. The r.ilrtc'r iucidcnt radiation ou thc south-facrng

to

a 45o slopc

In

order

flrcilg south.
cover the geographical range

to

lor the nuin

rnatkets

of

solar-

conrbisystenrs, it rves decided to choose x northern, x centr-:rl and a southern European

climatc for all iurther investigations and simularions. llcspectivel),, thesc rverc:

.
.
.

Stockhohn. Swcden

Zurich. Sr,vitzerland
Carpcntras. Fmncc.

Table 2.1 shorvs the ch:rr acter istics of thc locations with respect to geographical
data, design temperatures (for space heating) and yearly global irradiation (or.r a
hor-izontal surlace).
Table

1. Characteristics of the lacatians (Strcichet

Lonsitude
'ENt
t+

r)5

Zurich (CH)

11 31

Stockholm

59.3l

(S)

5115
8.5.13
I 1 93lJ

et

al., 2A01)

Helght

above

ser level

tl)5
-+

13

1t)

.+1

t7

1a02
1088
981

Figure 2.5 shorvs the global solar irradiation and arrbient teulpemture o11 :r longa\rerage nronlhly basrs lor the chosen clinrates. The ditTcrences bctrveen the

tetnl

14

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEIVS FOR HOUSES:

DESTGN HANDBOOK FOR SOrAR COMB SYSTEMS

20

.:

s-P 10
g
g5
.90
15

E.J

9o <"s d9' f' d91 go :+\ r!9 qpe

oo"

..d o*

monlh

* Stockholm --+- Zurich '_ i,

250

200

ES

roo

.9

t"o <.o l9t *d Sr,s go rst os$ uoc o+ Sd d

g-

Stockhotm -*

zurich +

Carpentras

Figure 2.5. Manthly global irradiatian (on a horizontal surt'ace) and ambient temperature af the
climates chasen in Task 26

three climates are obvious. In the heating season, Stockl-roim has the lorvesr
irradiation coupled rvith the highest heat demand, due to the lorvest ambient
temperatures. The opposite is the case for Carpentras in France. Only a trl nor- par r
of the solal irradiarion is available durir.rg the hcaring per iod for all locacions.
For srmulations it is necessary to use hourly values of ir.radiance and ambienl
ternperature (see Secrion 2.2).The hourly values ofclirrrare data for Task 26 (global
and direct ir-radiance, atrrbient temperature, wind speed, r-r:lative huruiclity and dry-

bulb temperature) were calculated rvith the Swiss climate dara generaror
METEONORM (1999) using long-term monthly averages of global irradiarion

and arlbient tenrpcratule. Figur.e 2.6 shows the daily fluctuations fola surlmer
week in Zurich r,vith clor-rdy wearher at the beginning and sunny weather at the
end.

The irradiance on the collector and or the rvin<lorvs has to be calculated

into dil:ct and diffuse (sky- and groun<1-reflected) radiation
becausc ofits dilTerent angles ofincidence. This lus been donc inTask 26 using rhe
TRNSYS rl{.in .r,ri.. la'lxr r.rdi.rriorr pro.e\\or.
separately ar.rd split

THF SOIAR RFSOI]R'F 15

1000

900
800

Globalsolarirradiance

_--''- Ambient lemperature

700

600

2sE

500

209

400

t-

300

.lR !'i'r

200

I * r ir

100

'l

i i i

10

4441 4465 4489 4513 4537 4561

4585

Hour of the year

FigLlre 2.6. Haurly average values at glabal trradtance and ambtent tempetature far a summer
week in Zurich, generated with It4ETEONORM (1999)

2.2 AVAILABILITY OF CLIMATIC DATA

Clinatic data lbr anbient temperature and global solar uradiancc (on a l-rotizontal
lor a rvide range oflocrtions. ln Figur-e 2.3 it nas shos,n that
both irradiation and tcnipcraturc ditl,'r Ii-om placc to place or,'er a rvide rarlge o11 :r
lnonthly basis rnd less o1r a ,velrly basis. If clillerent locations art to bc compaled, it
is thcrefor-e necessxr-y to use average clinrate d:rt:r.
sut1ace) is ar-ailable

For simulating solar combisysteurs rvith onc to thrcc days ofrvatcr storage, at least
hourl,v clini:rtic dlta is necessary to calculate correctly thc behavioru ofthc storagc.
The same t),pe of data is needed if the ctlect of the ther-nul lctive m:rss of rhc
building (the storage ofexcc'ss er.rc'rgy during the day fol use at night to reduce rhe
heat demand) is taken into considcration. One ofthe ploblerus is to find hourly dara
that match lor-rg-term avcrages as rvell as srandard fluctuations (sunny and cloudy

wcather situirtiolls

in a

realistic statistical disu ibutron, rvher-e irr-adiance.

lcnrpet:rtute. humidiq,, u,ind spccd etc. correspond rvith each other).Tivo mcthods
are dcscribed in the literaturc.

2.2.1 fest Reference Years

Tbst Rc-ll-lenceYears iire generated by selecting tinlc spans (typically one lllontl.r) of
nleasrircd climatic data liom a number of r-neasuled yetrs for one location in such
a rvay that the long term l]]oltthly averages ofall climatic data for tl-ris location ate

matched. Using 111easLrled data ensures that the rveather fluctuations of thc regron
are correctly rcplesented- Of course, thc lirrks between the time spans have to be

suroothed. Llowever, generating TEst Rclelence Years (TRY) is vcr-) rinre

consl1rnillg. Consequentll. rhey ate olien vely expensive (as for.example thc 12
available Test RcGrenceYear-s for'()ermany). Horvever, they a,:e somctimes :rvailable
ficc of charsc, :rs lor esarnple the Typic:r1 MeteorologicalYears (TMY) fot the USA

'16 SOIAR HEAT NG SYSTElvlS FOR HOUSES: A

DES GN HANDBOOK FOR SOTAR COMB SYSTEMS

23.1 sites (scc l.rttp: / /rrcdc. nr e1.gov/sohr'/o1d data/r'rsrdb/tmy2/). In order to

have data available for':r rvhole countr-y, it has to be divrded into typical rveather
zones, fol rvhich Test RefelenccYeals have to be developed.

lor

2.2.2 Wealher data generators

T}re second option is the use ofrveather data gencrator s. These plogram use lotrgterul average lnonthly data of some kcy values (norurally l.llonthly aveuge daily
global irradiation and ambienr teDrperature) and gencrrte hour-ly data, using phvsical
and statistical approaches. Well knorvn are the weathel dat:r geuerators of rhe
simulation toolTRNSYS (K1eir.r ct a/., 1998) and of the Srviss tool METEONOM
(1999).The lancr rvas used inTask 26. Long-term monthly averAge rcnlpemtrues can

be found at http://wwwtop-wetter.de/klinmdiagramme/rvelt.htt'u. Worldrvide

irradiation data can be found at http://rvrdc mgo.nrel.gov/htln1/get-data-ap.html.
All of the conlbisystenl sit'uulations per-lbrmed within Task 26 needed cr,'en
smaller tirle steps (dor,vn to one ninulc) to model the behaviottr of the systerlls
correctl)'- Thercfor!' the hourly values rvere lineatly interpo].ated, cnsuring thar no
irradiance occurs before or after sunset.
The simulatior-rs were set up in such a way that othel locatrons c:rn be easily
includcd ifhourly weather data are available in the proper forrnar.

REFERENCES
BPAnroco.2002, BPl,ro.d .Sid/aJiir.rl R(rilrr ofiMvLl Entrgy 20A1,BPAnoco. London
METEONORM, 1999, Weathcr I)ata Generator. METEOTEST, Fabrikstr.rse 1'+, CLI-3012
Bcrn, Srvitzerland; n rv\r.meteonorrr1.cor11.
Streicher W 2002, Lecture book Sortacarrrrr;qicrrrt.-rr,r,g, lnstitutc ofTherrml Engineerin!1, Grlz

Univenity

of Teclmology.

Xlein, SA, Ilcckm:url WA, Mitchcll JW Dufie JA, Duflie NA, Freeulan TL, Mitchell JC, Braun
JE, El.:rns BL, Kumner JII Urban RE, Fiksel A, Thornton JWI Ilhir NJ, 1998, 7RAISYS,,4
Tintjicnt Syltetn Sil idtialr Prolra t - I:crsr,rrr 14.2 (as used in prqect), Soler Energy Lrboretory,
University of Wisconsin, Mrdison, USA.
ZAMG, Zentrdirostalt fiir Meteorologie ;rnd Geoclynarnik,Viennl, Austrix, 2002.

INTERNET SITES FOR CLIMATE DATA

http://rredc.nrcl.gov/solar/o1d data/nsrdb/nrU,2/: flee TMY datr sets lor the USA.
http://1\,u,-$:rop-wetter.de/kliuracliaglramrre/telt.htrt: long terrl worid{,ide uronthly
http:/,zrvrdc-ngo.nrel.gov/lrtrrrl/get dara-ap.htni: rlorldu'ide irradirrion data.

rve,-'rge