1

TECHNICAL DATA
GENERAL
Corrosion Definitions:
Anode - An electrode at which oxidation of the surface or some component of the solution is
occurring. Practically, this is the electrode at which corrosion occurs.
Ampere - The practical unit of electrical current equal to that produced by one volt applied across a
resistance of one ohm.
Ampere-hour - The unit quantity of electricity equal to that produced by one ampere of current in a
one hour period.
Cathode - An electrode at which reduction is occuring. Practically, this is the electrode at which
protection occurs in a cathodic protection system.
Corrosion - The deterioration of material, usually metal, from a reaction with its environment.
Current Density - The applied electrical current per unit area.
Electrolyte - The common environment with which both a cathode and anode are in contact.
Practically, this is the soil or water to which a metal structure is exposed.
Galvanic Anode - A metal that provides cathodic protection when connected to other metals, as a
result of its relative position in the Galvanic Series.
Galvanic Series - A listing of metals in order of reactivity when exposed to an electrolyte.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection - A cathodic protection system derived from the application
of external electrical energy from sources such as common electrical power, thermoelectric
generators, and solar panels.
Ohm - The practical unit of electrical resistance equal to the resistance of a circuit in which a potential
difference of one volt produces a current of one ampere.
Sacrificial Cathodic Protection - A cathodic protection system derived from the internal electrical
energy developed by coupling to more reactive metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and zinc.
Volt - The practical unit of electrical potential difference required to produce a current flow of one
ampere across a resistance of one ohm.

Introduction to Corrosion

Introduction
Corrosion is usually defined as the deterioration of a metal or its properties caused by a reaction with
its environment. Most metals occur naturally in the form of oxides and are usually chemically stable.
When exposed to oxygen and other oxidizing agents, the refined metal will try to revert to its natural
oxide state. In the case of iron, the oxides will be in the form of ferrous or ferric oxide, commonly
known as rust.
Metallic corrosion generally involves the loss of metal at a particular location on an exposed surface.
Corrosion occurs in various forms ranging from a generalized attack over the entire surface to a
severe concentrated attack. In most cases, it is impossible or economically impractical to completely
arrest the corrosion process; however, it is usually possible to control the process to acceptable
levels.
The U.S. government funded a detailed study of the annual cost of corrosion in 1975. The total cost
of metallic corrosion to the U.S. economy was estimated at 4% of the GNP ($70 billion dollars). Of
that, approximately 30% was defined as avoidable. Adjustment based on today's current economy
puts total current costs in the $300 billion range with over $100 billion of that avoidable.

Corrosion Process
3

Metallic corrosion is caused by the flow of direct current from one part of the metal surface to another.
This flow of direct current causes the loss of metal at the point where current discharges into the
environment (oxidation or anodic reaction). Protection occurs at the point where current returns to the
metal surface (reduction or cathodic reaction. The rate of corrosion is proportional to the magnitude of
the corrosion current. One ampere of direct current removes approximately twenty pounds of steel in
one year. Where corrosion occurs and to what extent depends upon the environment to which the
metal is exposed.

Four conditions must be met for corrosion to occur. Elimination of any of the four conditions will halt
the corrosion reaction.

Anode - the oxidation reaction occurs here. Current discharge into the environment and metal
loss are associated with this reaction.

Cathode - the reduction reaction occurs here. Current acceptance and metal protection are
associated with this reaction.

Electrolyte - the environment to which both the cathode and the anode are exposed. The
electrolyte must have the capacity to conduct electrical current through the flow of ions.

Metallic path - the anode and the cathode must be connected via a metallic connection that
conducts electrical current flow through the flow of electrons.

Causes of Corrosion
Corrosion is a natural process. The primary driving force of corrosion is based upon the
transformation of iron from its natural state to steel. The refining of iron ore into steel requires the
addition of energy. Steel is essentially an unstable state of iron and corrosion is the process of iron
returning to its natural state. The energy used in the refining process is the driving force of corrosion.
Corrosion cells are established on underground pipelines for a variety of causes. A primary cause of
corrosion is due to an effect known as galvanic corrosion. All metals have different natural electrical
potentials. Where two metals with different potentials are connected to each other in a common
environment, current will flow causing corrosion to occur. The coupling of steel to a different metal,
such as copper, will cause a corrosion circuit to be established. Direct coupling of copper to steel will
cause the steel to corrode much faster than normal. Another form of this is the coupling of rusty pipe
to new, clean steel. The natural difference in potential causes the new steel to corrode more rapidly
than the old steel. Other causes of pipeline corrosion cells include the effect of different soil types,
oxygen availability, stray current interference and microbiological growth.

Two other unique causes (and sometimes related) are stress and hydrogen.

Stress Corrosion occurs when even a very small pit forms in a metal under stress. The
concentrated stress either deepens and extends the pit, or cracks the protective film which
tends to form. Under continued exposure to the corrosive medium and stress, the crack
extends by alternate corrosion and stress failure.

Hydrogen Embrittlement and hydrogen attack results when atomic hydrogen penetrates into
the grain boundaries of steel producing microcracks, blistering and loss of ductility. The atomic
hydrogen combines into molecules and results in blistering and laminations.

Forms of Corrosion
Corrosion exhibits itself in a number of ways. A brief description of some of these is provided below.

General Corrosion is the most common form of corrosion. It exhibits itself in an overall attack
of the metal surface with no apparent concentrations. An example is the effect of atmospheric
corrosion.

Pitting Corrosion results in a localized, concentrated attack and has the appearance of holes
or craters.

Crevice Corrosion occurs in shielded areas where stagnant corrosive electrolyte

accumulates. This type of corrosion occurs under bolt heads, gasket surfaces, and overlapping
metal connections.

Erosion-Corrosion is a combination of electrochemical and mechanical damage that occurs

in environments of high fluid velocities or mechanical movement between two metals.

Selective Leaching results in one constituent of an alloy being selectively removed, leaving a
porous replica of the original alloy. An example is the dezincification of brass or bronze and the
graphitization of cast iron where iron is removed selectively, leaving a replica composed of
carbon or graphite.

Control of Corrosion
The five general methods used in the control of corrosion are coating, cathodic protection, material
selection, environmental modification, and design practices. Control of underground corrosion is
primarily achieved by two methods: coating and cathodic protection. An effective external coating can
provide corrosion protection to over 99% of the exposed pipe surface. The protective coating is
usually applied to the pipe or tank before burial. The coating serves to electrically insulate the metal
from the soil. If the metal could be completely isolated, then the establishment of corrosion cells
would be prevented and no corrosion current would flow. However, no coating can be considered a
perfect coating. Damage to the coating as a result of handling, transportation, installation, thermal
stresses, and soil stresses will eventually create defects or "holidays" that expose the underlying steel
to the environment.
Cathodic protection is an electrochemical technique for preventing corrosion of a metal exposed to an
electrolyte. The process involves application of DC electrical current to the metal surface from an
external source. By forcing the metal surface to accept current from the environment, the
underground metal becomes a cathode and protection occurs. The external source can use outside
AC power through a rectifier and groundbed or by attaching sacrificial metals such as magnesium or
aluminum to the structure to be protected. It is used extensively in preventing corrosion to
underground and submerged steel structures; such as pipelines, production well casings, and tanks.
Effective application of cathodic protection can provide complete protection to any exposed areas for
the life of the structure. The combination of an external coating and cathodic protection provides the
most economical and effective choice for protection of underground and submerged pipelines. For
bare or ineffectively coated existing pipeline systems, cathodic protection often becomes the only
practical alternative for corrosion protection.
Cathodic protection is a mandated requirement of federal and state regulations governing
underground transmission pipelines, gas distribution systems, and underground fuel tanks. These
requirements include installation, monitoring, and maintenance of cathodic protection systems.

Introduction to Cathodic Protection

Introduction
Cathodic protection is an electrochemical technique for preventing corrosion of a metal exposed to an
electrolyte. The process involves application of DC electrical current to the metal surface from an
external source. The external source can be either a commercial power source or through connection
to sacrificial metals such as magnesium or aluminum. It is used extensively in preventing corrosion to
underground and submerged steel structures; such as pipelines, production well casings, and tanks.
Effective application of cathodic protection can provide complete protection to any exposed areas for
the life of the structure. The combination of an external coating and cathodic protection provides the
most economical and effective choice for protection of underground and submerged pipelines. For
bare or ineffectively coated existing pipeline systems, cathodic protection often becomes the only
practical alternative for corrosion protection.
Cathodic protection is a mandated requirement of federal and state regulations governing
underground transmission pipeline, gas distribution systems, and underground petroleum tanks.
These requirements include installation, monitoring, and maintenance of cathodic protection systems.

Process of Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection essentially means the reduction or elimination of corrosion on a metal surface by
forcing the metal to become a cathode. The two general types of cathodic protection systems are
impressed current and sacrificial. Both types of systems can effectively transfer the corrosion reaction
(oxidation) from the metal surface to an external anode. If all exposed parts of a structure become
cathodic with respect to the electrolyte, corrosion of the structure is eliminated.

Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection

Sacrificial cathodic protection occurs when a metal is coupled to a more reactive (anodic) metal. This
connection is referred to as a galvanic couple. In order to effectively transfer corrosion from the metal
structure, the anode material must have a large enough natural voltage difference to produce an
electrical current flow.
Effective application of cathodic protection can provide complete protection to any exposed areas for
the life of the structure. The combination of an external coating and cathodic protection provides the
most economical and effective choice for protection of underground and submerged pipelines. For
bare or ineffectively coated existing pipeline systems, cathodic protection often becomes the only
practical alternative for corrosion protection.

Three metals are commonly utilized for cathodic protection of steel. The selection of the anodic metal
is dependent upon resistivity and electrolyte. A general application guide for these metals are:

Magnesium - soil and freshwater applications

Zinc - low resistivity soils and saltwater

Aluminum - saltwater and limited freshwater applications

An advantage of sacrificial anode systems is the flexibility in application. Anodes can be installed in a
variety of applications and configurations. No outside power is required for cathodic protection to be
effective. Another advantage is the minimal maintenance required for these systems to function.
9

Disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems include the limited protection current available and limited
life. Sacrificial anodes are subject to rapid corrosion (consumption) and require replacement on a
regular basis. Typical design life of a pipeline system anode is five to ten years.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Impressed current cathodic protection involves the application of an external DC current through longlasting anodes. A typical source of power for an impressed current system is AC power converted to
DC by a rectifier.
In order to be effective, impressed current anodes must be designed for long life at high current
output. This requires selection of materials with very low corrosion (consumption) rates. The typical
expectation of impressed current anode life is over twenty years. Anode materials that have proven to
be suitable for impressed current systems include treated graphite, high silicon cast iron, mixed metal
oxide, and to a lesser extent platinum and magnetite. Anodes are normally installed in grouped
configurations in the electrolyte. These groupings (both horizontal and vertical) in an underground
application are called groundbeds. The groundbeds are connected to the power by a positive cable to
the power source. A negative cable connects the power source to the structure.

Advantages of impressed current systems include the unlimited current opportunities and longer life.
Impressed current systems are typically installed where the structure to be protected is large,
requiring higher levels of current.
Disadvantages include the requirement for an outside power source and higher maintenance
requirements. Outside power might come from sources such as commercial AC converted to DC
through a rectifier, thermoelectric generator, or solar panels. A significantly higher monitoring and
maintenance effort is required by comparison to sacrificial anode systems.

10

Cathodic Protection Applications

Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to most steel structures in consistent contact with a
corrosive electrolyte. Commonly protected structures include buried pipelines, underground tanks
(UST's), aboveground tank bottoms (AST's), well casings, internal surfaces of tanks and treating
vessels, and off-shore structures.

Underground Pipelines are the primary market for cathodic protection. Both sacrificial and
impressed current systems are used. Federal and state regulations require cathodic protection
for most petroleum or gas pipeline systems.

Underground Storage Tanks (UST's) used for fuel are now required by EPA to either have
functional cathodic protection systems or to be of a non-corrosive material. Both types of
systems are widely used.

Aboveground Storage Tank (AST's) bottoms can be protected from soil-side corrosion with
cathodic protection. Most major tank operators include cathodic protection in their corrosion
control program. Unique problems involved with tank applications include the difficulty of
distributing current uniformly over the tank bottom and monitoring the effectiveness of the
systems.

Production Well Casings usually require impressed current systems due to higher current
requirements. The economics of cathodic protection are excellent until production volumes
decline and fields near the end of their effective life. This application of cathodic protection is
common; but tends to be concentrated in established fields with known corrosion history.

Internal surfaces of tanks and vessels are commonly protected by cathodic protection
systems. With some exceptions, most of these utilize sacrificial anodes. Possible applications
range from heater-treaters, heat exchangers, water storage tanks, and hot water heaters.

Offshore structures such as production platforms, docks, and pipelines are almost always
protected with cathodic protection systems. Sacrificial anode systems with aluminum anodes
are the most common application.

Cathodic Protection Criteria

Cathodic protection is considered to be effective when active corrosion is transferred from the metal
surface to the installed anode. The effectiveness of the transference can be determined by electrical
measurements. Industry accepted criteria for effective protection using these measurements are fully
described in various NACE International publications including the Standard Recommended Practice
"RP0169-96 Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems".
Of the available techniques, the primary measurement used by industry to determine effectiveness of
protection is known as the -0.850 volt, pipe-to-soil potential criteria. This technique measures the
voltage difference between the protected structure and a copper-copper sulfate electrode placed in or
11

on the electrolyte near the structure. If the voltage difference is more negative than -0.850 volts, then
the structure is considered protected. If the value is more positive than -0.850 volts, the structure is
either unprotected or only partially protected. Normal values of unprotected steel in soil typically
range from -0.500 to -0.700 volts with respect to copper sulfate. The interpretation of pipe-to-soil
potentials requires consideration of the effects of measurement errors such as IR drop in the soil
between the pipe and the electrode. The most common consideration of this effect is through an
"instant off" measurement obtained by interrupting current sources. Other techniques include
potential measurement at permanent "coupon type test stations".
Design Considerations
There are four primary questions to be answered when designing a cathodic protection system.

How much current is necessary?

What source of direct current should be used?

How should installation be designed?

How can effectiveness be measured?

Limitations of cathodic protection must be recognized during the design process. Cathodic protection
will be effective only on metal surfaces in continual contact to the electrolyte. Above-ground structures
will not be protected. The distribution of current to desired areas becomes difficult in congested or
remote areas. Examples include multiple pipeline right-of-ways and storage tank bottoms.
Multiple variables should be considered during the design process. Two primary factors include the
effectiveness of an external coating and resistivity of the electrolyte. The existence of a high quality
coating minimizes current requirements of a structure and greatly influences the design. Electrolyte
resistivity affects the choice between sacrificial and impressed current as well as the type of
groundbed.
Other design factors include foreign system interference, power availability, maintenance
requirements, and economics.

Practical Galvanic Series

Metal

Volts

Commercially pure magnesium

-1.75

Magnesium alloy (6% AL, 3% An, 0.15% Mn)

-1.6

Zinc

-1.1

Aluminum alloy (5% zinc)

-1.05

Commercially pure aluminum

-0.8

Mild steel (clean & shiny)

-0.5 to -0.8
12

Mild steel (rusted)

-0.2 to -0.5

Cast Iron (not graphitized)

-0.5

Lead

-0.5

Mild steel in concrete

-0.2

Copper, brass, bronze

-0.2

High silcon cast iron

-0.2

Mill scale on steel

-0.2

Carbon, graphite, coke

+0.3

Typical potential normally observed in neutral soils and water, measured with respect to copper/copper sulfate reference electrode.
Copyright 1991 by NACE International. Reprinted from Corrosion Engineers Reference Book with permission by NACE. All rights
reserved.

Galvanic Anode Technical Data

mA/ft2

mA/m2

Sulfuric acid pickle (hot)

35,000

380,000

Sea water - Cook Inlet

35 - 40

380 - 430

mmm North Sea

8 - 15

90 - 160

mmm Persian Gulf

7 - 10

80 - 110

mmm U.S. - West Coast

7-8

80 - 90

mmm Gulf of Mexico

5-6

50 - 60

mmm Indonesia

5-6

50 - 60

Soil

1-3

10 - 30

0.1

0.003

0.03

0.0003 or less

0.003 or less

Environment

Poorly coated steel in soil or water

Well coated steel in soil or water
Very well coated steel in soil or water

Copyright 1991 by NACE International. Reprinted from Corrosion Engineers Reference Book with permission by NACE. All rights
reserved.

Comparison of Reference Electrodes

Reference
Electrode
Copper/Copper
Sulfate

To convert reference potential

Structure/electrolyte potential
measurements to the
Voltage
equivalent to 0.850 volts with
equivalent potential with
Difference
respect to copper/copper sulfate respect to copper/copper
sulfate
0

-0.850 volt

Silver/Silver
Chloride

-50 mv

-0.800 volt

Subtract 0.050 volts

Standard
Calomel

-70 mv

-0.780 volt

Subtract 0.070 volts

13

Zinc

-1100 mv

+0.250 volts

Subtract 1.10 volts

Comparison of different electrodes @ 25 C

Resistance and Resistivity

Approximate Resistivity of Water

Where:
T is ppm dissolved solids
R is resistance in ohm-cm.
Resistance of a Single Rod Anode to Earth(1)

Resistance of Multiple Vertical Anodes to Earth(1)

(1)

Derived from H.B. Dwight Equations

Rough Indications of Electrolyte Corrosivity vs. Resistivity
Ohm - Cm

Corrosivity

Below 100

Extremely corrosive

100 - 1,000

Very corrosive
14

1,000 - 2,500

Corrosive

2,500 - 7,500

Moderately corrosive

7,500 - 15,000

Mildly corrosive

Over 15,000

Progressively less corrosive

SACRIFICIAL CATHODIC PROTECTION

Galvanic Anode Properties

Efficiency
(%)

Energy Capability
(Ah/lb)

Consumption Rate
(lb/Ay)

Potential vs CuCuSO4
(volts)

Zinc

95

335

23.5

-1.10

Aluminum (Al, Zn, In)

85

1150

6.5

-1.10

Magnesium (H-1 Alloy)

50

500

8.7

-1.45

Magnesium (High Potential Alloy)

50

500

8.7

-1.70

Anode

Magnesium Anode Review

Introduction
Magnesium anodes are the primary sacrificial anode used for underground cathodic protection. There
is a great deal of technical information and many publications detailing the application of magnesium
anodes. This review is intended to provide summary information and brief guidelines in the selection
of anodes.
Magnesium Alloy
Two alloys are commonly used for cathodic protection applications. These alloys are generically
known as High-Potential Magnesium and H-1 alloy. High potential alloys are produced from primary
magnesium refined from saltwater. This alloy provides the maximum output with open circuit voltage
exceeding -1.70 volts relative to copper sulfate. H-1 alloy also known as AZ-63 is produced from
secondary magnesium sources through recycling facilities. This alloy provides a much lower driving
voltage in the range of -1.40 volts relative to copper sulfate. The selection of alloy requires
consideration of current requirements, soil resistivity, and costs. In most cases where current demand
requires the use of multiple anodes, high potential alloy is the most economical choice.
Standard chemistry requirements for the two alloys are:
High Potential Anode Chemistry
15

Per ASTM B843 Industry Standard for high

potential magnesium anodes
Aluminum

0.01% max

Manganese

0.50 - 1.3%

Copper

0.02% max

Silicon

0.05% max

Iron

0.03% max

Nickel

0.001% max

Others, each

0.05% max

Magnesium

Remainder

Element

H-1 Magnesium Alloy Chemistry

Content %
Grade A Grade B* Grade C

Aluminum

5.3-6.7

5.3-6.7

5.3-6.7

Zinc

2.5-3.5

2.5-3.5

2.5-3.5

Manganes
e

.15 Min.

.15 Min.

.15 Min.

Silicon

.10 Max.

.20 Max.

.30 Max.

Copper

.02 Max.

.05 Max.

.10 Max

Nickel

.002 Max

.003 Max

.003 Max

Iron

.003 Max.

.003 Max.

.003 Max.

Other
Impurities

.20 Max.

.20 Max.

.30 Max.

Magnesium Remainder Remainder Remainder

* The H-1 alloy supplied is Grade B.
Fabrication
Magnesium anodes are generally provided with a low resistivity backfill surrounding the anode. The
backfill material provides a uniform environment for the anode and enhances performance by
extending life and lowering the local resistivity. The prepared backfill consists of a mixture of 75%
gypsum, 20% bentonite, and 5% sodium sulfate. Gypsum is primarily a filler material, bentonite
absorbs and retains moisture, and sodium sulfate lowers backfill resistivity. The backfill is contained
around the anode using cloth bags. The packaged anode is installed directly into the soil and then
connected to the structure by a wire. Anodes are normally provided with ten (10) foot of #12 AWG
wire.

16

Current Output
Current output is controlled by three factors:

Soil resistivity - Current output increases as soil resistivity decreases. Generally magnesium
anodes are installed in relatively low resistivity soils. Economic application decreases
significantly in soil resistivities exceeding 5,000 ohm-cm. Practically, magnesium anodes are
not effective above 10,000 ohm-cm.

Anode surface area - Current output is proportional to surface area. As the surface area
increases, current output increases. Increased surface area is usually achieved by increasing
the length of the anode.

Alloy potential - High potential anodes have open circuit potentials approximately 20-25%
higher than H-1 alloy. (-1.75 volts versus -1.40 volts). This creates a higher anode current and
results in a lower total anode requirement.

Anode current output is calculated using Ohm's Law:

I = current in amperes
V = potential differential in volts
R = anode resistance in ohms
The voltage difference is the protected potential of -0.85 volts subtracted from the open circuit
potential of the anode. For high potential anodes, the difference is -0.9 volts. For H-1 alloy, the
difference is -0.55 volts.
Resistance to earth can be calculated by Dwight's Equation:

R = resistance in ohms
= soil resistivity in ohm-cm
L = anode length in feet
d = anode diameter in feet
Tefankjian, in his article "Application and Maintenance of Control Facilities" offers a simple process for
determining anode current output with consideration of coating, potential, and multiple anode
17

installation. The process involves calculation of anode current for a single high-potential anode
installed 10' away from a bare pipeline using the formula:

Step 1: For a well-coated pipeline, the constant of 150,000 should be reduced 20% to 120,000.
Step 2: Select anode size correction factor from Table 1.

Anode Weight
(pounds)

Standard
Anodes

Factor
(f)

3D3

(packaged)

0.53

5D3

(packaged)

0.60

9D3

(packaged)

0.71

17D3

(packaged)

1.00

20D2

(packaged)

1.60

32D3

(packaged)

1.06

48D5

(packaged)

1.09

Step 3: Select potential correction factor from Table 2.

P/S

Magnesium

-0.70

1.14

-0.80

1.07

-0.85

1.00

-0.90

0.93

-1.00

0.79

-1.10

0.64

-1.20

0.50
18

Step 4: Calculate anode current output with formula.

Step 5: Adjust for multiple anode installation by application of adjustment factors in Table 3.
No. of
Anodes
in
Parallel

ADJUSTING FACTORS
Anode Spacing in Feet
5'

10'

15'

20'

1.839

1.920

1.946

1.964

2.455

2.705

2.795

2.848

3.036

3.455

3.625

3.714

3.589

4.188

4.429

4.563

4.125

4.902

5.223

5.411

4.652

5.598

6.000

6.232

5.152

6.277

6.768

7.036

5.670

6.964

7.536

7.875

10

6.161

7.643

8.304

8.679

As Tefankjian states in his article, the above process should be used only as a guide to estimate
current output.

Anode Life and Efficiency

Life of a magnesium anode is directly proportional to its current efficiency. Magnesium anode alloys
have a nominal efficiency of 50%. However, significant variation from this efficiency will directly impact
anode life. It is not uncommon for anodes meeting all chemistry requirements to still exhibit
efficiencies much lower than the nominal 50%. Anode efficiency should be a critical part of the anode
specification. Minimum efficiency should not fall below 45%.
In his book "Control of Pipeline Corrosion", Peabody provides a formula for calculation of anode life.

D. A. Tefankjian in his article, "Application and Maintenance of Control Facilities" offers the following
formula for calculating anode life.

19

Table of Current Output and Life Estimates

The following table provides estimates of current output and life for a single high potential anode, assuming a well-coated
pipeline with an 85% effective use of the metal.

9D3
17D3
20D2
32D5
48D5
Soil
Resistivit Outpu Life Outpu Life Outpu Life Outpu Life Outpu Life
y
year
year
year
year
year
t
t
t
t
t
ohm-cm

mA

mA

mA

mA

mA

1000

122

3.6

163

260

166

208

11

2000

61

81

10

130

83

19

104

22

3000

41

11

54

15

87

11

55

28

69

34

4000

31

14

40

20

65

15

41

38

52

45

5000

24

18

33

25

52

19

33

47

41

56

6000

20

22

27

31

43

22

28

55

35

67

7000

17

25

23

36

37

26

24

65

30

78

8000

15

29

20

41

33

30

21

75

26

90

9000

14

32

18

46

29

33

18

86

23

101

10000

12

36

16

51

26

37

16

94

21

112

15000

54

11

77

17

56

11

141

14

168

20000

72

102

13

74

188

10

224

Design Process
Design of magnesium anode systems requires a thorough evaluation of the application with
consideration of the important variables. Once these variables are measured or assumed, the
process typically is divided into the following steps.

Calculate exposed surface area - This requires an assumption of coating quality. A high
quality coating can provide protection to over 99% of the total surface area. A conservative
assumption of coating efficiency is 95%.

Calculate total current requirements - This requires an assumption of current density. The
typical range of current density for steel in common soils is 1 to 3 milliamperes per square foot
of exposed surface. A conservative assumption is 2 milliamperes per square foot.

Calculate anode current output - Using previous discussed formulas, calculate anode output
considering the effect of coating, soil resistivity, alloy selection, and anode spacing. Several
anode sizes should be evaluated.

Select anode size based on life - Once anode current outputs have been calculated, the
appropriate anode size can be selected by evaluating the projected life. Typical design lives
range from 10 to 20 years.
20

Calculate total anode quantity - Divide the total current requirement in amperes by the
calculated anode output in amperes. The result is the estimated total number of anodes
required.

Determine anode location and configuration - This is primarily based on local site
conditions and an even distribution of current from the anodes.

Design Process
Design of magnesium anode systems requires a thorough evaluation of the application with
consideration of the important variables. Once these variables are measured or assumed, the
process typically is divided into the following steps.

Calculate exposed surface area - This requires an assumption of coating quality. A high
quality coating can provide protection to over 99% of the total surface area. A conservative
assumption of coating efficiency is 95%.

Calculate total current requirements - This requires an assumption of current density. The
typical range of current density for steel in common soils is 1 to 3 milliamperes per square foot
of exposed surface. A conservative assumption is 2 milliamperes per square foot.

Calculate anode current output - Using previous discussed formulas, calculate anode output
considering the effect of coating, soil resistivity, alloy selection, and anode spacing. Several
anode sizes should be evaluated.

Select anode size based on life - Once anode current outputs have been calculated, the
appropriate anode size can be selected by evaluating the projected life. Typical design lives
range from 10 to 20 years.

Calculate total anode quantity - Divide the total current requirement in amperes by the
calculated anode output in amperes. The result is the estimated total number of anodes
required.

Determine anode location and configuration - This is primarily based on local site
conditions and an even distribution of current from the anodes
Bare Pipe Chart

Soil Resistivity in ohm-cm

1K

Anode Recommendation

48# 48# 32# 17# 17# 9# 9# 9# 9# 9#

Nominal Output in milliamperes

208 104 55

40

33

20 17 15 14 12

Nominal Life in years

11

20

25

22 25 29 32 36

Pipe
inch

O.D.
inch

Surface
Area
Ft2/L.F.

Current
Reqmt.
mA/L.F.

2K

22

3K

28

4K

5K

6K 7K 8K 9K 10K

Nominal Anode Spacing in feet

21

2.275

0.60

1.19

175

87

46

34

28

17 14 13 12

10

4.50

1.18

2.36

88

44

23

17

14

6.625

1.73

3.47

60

30

16

12

10

8.625

2.26

4.51

46

23

12

10

10.75

2.81

5.63

37

18

10

12

12.75

3.34

6.67

31

16

14

14.00

3.66

7.33

28

14

16

16.00

4.19

8.37

25

12

18

18.00

4.71

9.42

22

11

20

20.00

5.23

10.47

20

10

22

22.00

5.76

11.51

18

24

24.00

6.28

12.56

17

26

26.00

6.80

13.61

15

28

28.00

7.33

14.65

14

30

30.00

7.85

15.70

13

32

32.00

8.37

16.75

12

34

34.00

8.90

17.79

12

36

36.00

9.42

18.84

11

Calculated values based on current density of 2 milliamperes per square foot.

Coated Pipe Chart

Soil Resistivity in ohm-cm

1K

2K

3K

5K

6K

7K

8K

9K 10K

Anode Recommendation

48#

48#

32# 17# 17#

9#

9#

9#

9#

9#

Nominal Output in milliamperes

208

104

55

40

33

20

17

15

14

12

11

22

28

20

25

22

25

29

32

36

Nominal Life in years

Pipe
inch

O.D.
inch

Surface
Area

Current
Reqmt.

4K

Nominal Anode Spacing in feet

22

Ft2/L.F.

mA/L.F.

2.275

0.60

0.06

3494 1747 924 672 554 336 286 252 235 202

4.50

1.18

0.12

1766

883

467 340 280 170 144 127 119 102

6.625

1.73

0.17

1200

600

317 231 190 115

98

87

81

69

8.625

2.26

0.23

922

461

244 177 146

89

75

66

62

53

10

10.75

2.81

0.28

739

370

196 142 117

71

60

53

50

43

12

12.75

3.34

0.33

623

312

165 120

99

60

51

45

42

36

14

14.00

3.66

0.37

568

284

150 109

90

55

46

41

38

33

16

16.00

4.19

0.42

497

248

131

96

79

48

41

36

33

29

18

18.00

4.71

0.47

442

221

117

85

70

42

36

32

30

25

20

20.00

5.23

0.52

397

199

105

76

63

38

32

29

27

23

22

22.00

5.76

0.58

361

181

96

69

57

35

30

26

24

21

24

24.00

6.28

0.63

331

166

88

64

53

32

27

24

22

19

26

26.00

6.80

0.68

306

153

81

59

49

29

25

22

21

18

28

28.00

7.33

0.73

284

142

75

55

45

27

23

20

19

16

30

30.00

7.85

0.79

265

132

70

51

42

25

22

19

18

15

32

32.00

8.37

0.84

248

124

66

48

39

24

20

18

17

14

34

34.00

8.90

0.89

234

117

62

45

37

22

19

17

16

13

36

36.00

9.42

0.94

221

110

58

42

35

21

18

16

15

13

Calculated values are based on current density of 2 milliamperes per square foot.
Calculated values based on a coating efficiency of 95%

Underground Anode Installation Instructions

Galvanic anodes are installed on underground pipelines to provide localized cathodic
protection for that segment of line. The amount of protection derived from an anode is
dependent upon several variables including coating quality, line size, and soil resistivity.
Underground anodes are generally installed in a packaged form, with the anode
surrounded by a prepared backfill. The installation process is generally the same for all
anode sizes. A preferred method of installation is with the anode connected to the pipe
23

through a test station. This configuration permits monitoring of anode performance. The
other method of installation is to directly connect the anode wire to the pipe.
Anodes may be installed either horizontally or vertically. A minimum separation distance
of 5' is desirable to maximize the performance of the anode. This separation can be
achieved either horizontally or vertically depending on local conditions. In most cases,
anodes should be installed no shallower than pipe depth. In dry soils, additional depth
may enhance anode performance by reaching lower resistivity soil. Wetting the anode
with approximately five gallons of water after installation will activate the anode faster
and provide initial current output data.

IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION

Impressed Current Anode
History
The origins of cathodic protection date to the days of Sir Humphry Davy with the use of sacrificial
anodes on ship hulls. Virtually all of the early efforts in cathodic protection were related to sacrificial
anode systems. In one of the first documented attempts to use impressed current, Thomas Edison
tried to apply current onto ship hulls in the 1890's. He had trouble with selection of suitable anode
materials and power supplies. It wasn't until the 1920's that the commercial use of impressed current
systems appears to have begun.
The development and use of impressed anode materials has gone through three general phases.
Prior to World War II, the principal anode materials were iron, steel, and carbon. After World War II,
graphite and cast iron anodes were developed. The 1960's brought on the development of
24

dimensionally stable anodes. These anodes include the precious metals and ceramic anode
materials. The development of new anode materials continues. Even today however; many of the
early anode materials are still in widespread use.
Reactions
Anodic reactions occur at the surface of anodes in a corrosion cell. Although there are several
possible reactions, gas evolution is the primary oxidation effect of impressed current systems. The
two primary anodic reactions in impressed current systems are chlorine evolution and oxygen
evolution. Chlorine evolution occurs when an anode is in the presence of chloride ions. This reaction
will predominate in seawater and high chloride environments.
The chlorine evolution reaction is:
2CL
Cl2 + 2eChlorine gas then reacts with water to form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid.
Oxygen evolution occurs in low chloride ion concentrations or when sulfate ions are present. This
occurs in underground applications where chloride ion depletion and restriction of ion migration allows
the oxygen evolution reaction to dominate.
The oxygen evolution reactions are:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e&
2SO4 + 2H2O
2H2SO4 + O2 + 4eThese anodic reactions decrease the pH of the solution in the vicinity of the anode. Anodic
consumption of coke carbon particles also contribute to lowering pH of the anode environment.
Anodic environments with a pH as low as 1.0 have been observed. In order to be effective, anode
materials must be resistant to acid attack.
2H2O

Anode Material
Effective impressed current anodes should possess the following qualities:

Good electrical properties

Mechanically tough

Economical

Easily formed into useable shapes

Low consumption rates through wide range of environments

Any material possessing these properties could be used as an impressed current anode. Materials
that have been utilized in commercial applications are:

Steel
25

Graphite

Cast Iron

Platinum

Mixed Metal Oxide

Conductive Polymer

Lead

Magnetite

Steel
The first known appearance of iron or steel as an anode were installations of iron
"wastage plates" in the early 1900's in condensers and boilers. Although unintentional,
steel acted as an anode on some early DC traction systems. Many of the corrosion
failures experienced on these systems were due to DC current discharge from the rails.
Probably the first planned use of steel as an anode was in the 1930's. Scrap steel was
commonly used, either in the form of old railroad rails or used pipe.
Steel anodes can take many forms. Scrap materials include buried structures which have
been abandoned in place; such as pipelines or well casings. Scrap pipe, tubing, or
railroad rails are commonly used. Any shape is capable of use; however, massive shapes
are more conducive to practical use.
26

A major problem in the use of steel as an anode is maintaining electrical connections.

Multiple connections are typically used. Methods of protecting the connections and
maintaining electrical continuity includes coating the structure in the vicinity of
connection and continuous coating strips along the length of the anode. The
consumption rate of steel is approximately 20 pounds per ampere year. Complete
consumption of anode material is not typically achieved because of non-uniform
corrosion and the difficulty of maintaining electrical connection. There is no established
maximum recommended current density.
Steel can be used in horizontal, vertical, or deep groundbeds, with or without
carbonaceous backfill. With proper application, steel will perform well as an anode
material. The major disadvantages of steel as an anode material are:

Anodic corrosion product films may build up on anode surface, increasing the resistance to earth. This
effect may be partially overcome by installation in carbonaceous backfills.

Preferential corrosion may occur in the area of the connection.

Maintaining electrical connections.

Large mass requirements.

Although most people would consider the use of steel as an anode as outmoded; there
are operators who currently use steel in groundbeds with successful results.

Graphite
Graphite anodes have been used for impressed current systems since the 1930's. Although the
development is not attributed to a specific application, it probably resulted from the early recognition
of carbon as a possible anode material.
Graphite anodes are made from ground petroleum coke mixed with a coal tar pitch binder. The
mixture is heated and extruded into cylinders. After extrusion, the cylinders are cooled in special vats,
placed in an oven, packed in a mixture of sand and petroleum coke, and heated to approximately 900
degrees Celsius to fully carbonize the pitch binder. The sand-petroleum coke packing material aids
heat transfer and supports the anode during its plastic stage. After cooling in a reducing atmosphere,
the anodes are stacked in an Atchison or graphite furnace between two electrodes, covered with
petroleum coke and an insulating sand layer, and single phase 60 Hz AC is passed through the pile.
This process raises the temperature of the anodes to approximately 2600 degrees Celsius and
completes the graphitization process.
The produced graphite material used for anodes typically has the following properties:
Electrical Resistivity Maximum resistivity 10
micro ohm-meters
Mechanical Strength Compression - 3000
27

pounds per square inch

Flexural - 2600 pounds per
square inch.
Density
99.26 pounds/ft.3
Thermal Conductivity 88 BUT/hr. ft. F.
Porosity
Less than 5%
Coefficient of thermal 0.72 x 10-6/F
expansion
Most anode shapes are cylindrical rods. The common sizes used are a 3" diameter x 60" length and a
4" diameter x 80" length. Square cross section graphite anodes have also been used. Extremely large
shapes up to 24" x 72" have been used for offshore application.
Treatment
The produced graphite anode has a porosity of less than 5%. The anode life is improved significantly
by filling the pores with an insulating material. This impregnation reduces the tendency for
electrochemical activity to occur in the pores of the anode itself. It also acts as a barrier against
moisture intrusion which can cause deterioration of the anode and the anode connection. The most
common materials used for graphite treatment are wax, linseed oil, or resin. Use of untreated graphite
anodes for any application is not recommended.
Paraffin wax has been successfully used for graphite anode treating for many years. The wax
material is in a solid form at ambient temperature. Treating is accomplished by heating the wax to
over 200F and submerging anodes in the melted wax. Although treatment time can vary with
temperature, moisture content, etc., complete impregnation of 4" diameter rods can normally be
accomplished in a 24 hour exposure.
After cooling, the wax within the anode solidifies and remains stable under most environmental
conditions. Because the wax is a solid at normal temperatures, there is no tendency for the material
to leach out of the anode.
Linseed oil has also been widely used as an anode impregnant. The normal treatment procedure
involves submersion of anodes in heated linseed oil in an autoclave under pressure conditions.
Typically, the anodes are placed in the treatment vessel and a vacuum is drawn to remove all air from
the anode pores. Preheated double boiled linseed oil is introduced into the vessel until the anodes
are completely covered. The vessel is then pressurized and temperature maintained until complete
impregnation is achieved. This process normally takes 2 to 4 hours. Since the oil is liquid at normal
temperatures; this treatment material will have a tendency to leach or ooze out of the anode over a
period of time. This effect is visible through the oil film on the surface of the treated anode.
For extremely severe service applications, graphite anodes can be treated with a phenolic resin
material. Phenolic resin sets up very hard. Typical properties of the graphite anode are only slightly
affected by the resin treating except for a 40% increase in flexural strength. Anodes are surfaced to
remove any skin layers and placed in an autoclave. A vacuum is drawn to remove air from the pores
in the graphite. While vacuum is maintained, resin is pumped into the autoclave. After all anodes are
completely submerged with the liquid resin, pressure is applied to ensure filling the pores with resin.
Excess resin is drained from the autoclave and anodes are heat treated to polymerize or cure the
resin within the graphite pores. Finally the anode surface is again surfaced to remove surface resin
that could electrically insulate the anode from its environment. Proper impregnation with resin
28

requires specialized handling equipment. In addition, there are some toxicity problems with the resin
components. As a result, resin impregnation is normally only performed by the graphite manufacturer.

Fabrication
Each graphite anode is normally provided with an individual cable of varying length. There have been
numerous methods and procedures for connecting cable to graphite anodes. These range from a
simple tamped lead connection to threaded metallic connectors. One of the methods most commonly
used is a lead ferrule which is sized to the hole drilled in the anode. The ferrule is soldered to the
anode cable and inserted in the hole. The ferrule is then expanded by a pneumatic or hydraulic tool
which imposes a longitudinal force of up to 1800 pounds on the ferrule. This method results in
connections with pull-out strengths exceeding that of the cable.
Graphite anodes can be end connected or center connected. End connections are made by drilling a
6" to 8" deep hole from one end. Holes can be easily drilled with hand tools. Center connections are
accomplished by drilling a hole to the longitudinal center of the anode from one end. This procedure
requires more sophisticated gun drill type tools to maintain the hole in the center of the anode.
Following cable connection, the annular space around the cable must be filled with a high quality
electrical sealant. Common sealants are asphaltic electrical potting compounds. Care must be
exercised to insure the compound is at the proper pouring temperature and that there are no voids or
air pockets within the cavity. Anode caps such as epoxy or heat shrinkable caps are commonly used
for additional protection.
Graphite anodes can be prepackaged in steel canisters with carbonaceous backfill. Common canister
sizes are 8" x 72", 8" x 84", 8" x 96", 10" x 84", 10" x 96", 12" x 84", and 12" x 96".
Design Parameters
Published values of graphite consumption range from 0.25 pounds per ampere-year to 5 pounds per
ampere-year. Where oxygen evolution is the primary anode reaction, anode treatment should
decrease consumption rate by at least 20%. Where chlorine evolution is the primary reaction,
treatment should decrease consumption rate by at least 50%.
In free flowing seawater and in some other applications where chlorine is the primary gas evolved at
the anode, the graphite consumption rate should be in the 0.5 pound per ampere year range. In
neutral soil or fresh water service, consumption rates may increase to 2.0 pounds per ampere year.
Consumption rates are significantly lowered by surrounding the anode with a carbonaceous backfill.
The decrease in consumption can be in the order of 75%. A design consumption rate of graphite in a
coke breeze backfill is 1 lb/Amp-Year. The recommended maximum current density is 0.50 amperes
per square foot in a coke breeze backfill.

Applications
Graphite is one of the most commonly used impressed current anode material for underground
applications. Underground applications include deep, shallow vertical, or horizontal ground beds with
carbonaceous backfill.
29

Operation of anodes at higher than recommended outputs can cause an extremely low pH
environment at the anode surface; resulting in a breakdown of the coal tar pitch binder. When this
occurs, large sections of graphite can "slough" off the anode. Premature failures of untreated anodes
have been reported as a result of water penetration through the body of the anode to the metallic lead
wire connection. Electrolytic current flow between the connector and the anode will cause corrosion of
the connector; resulting in connection failure. Some early failures of graphite anodes occurred prior to
anode installation as a result of thermal expansion of the anode connector and/or the connection
sealing compound. These failures occurred under conditions that resulted in temperatures in excess
of 140 F. The majority of anode fabricators now use methods and materials that eliminate this
problem.
The use of carbonaceous backfill materials is highly recommended with graphite anodes. Accelerated
corrosion rates can occur when the oxygen evolution reaction predominates. Carbonaceous backfills
can act as an extended anode; minimizing the effects of increased consumption rates.

Cast Iron
Iron containing a high silicon percentage was developed in the early 1900's. The cast material was
extremely hard and brittle. It was first seriously considered for impressed current anode application in
the early 1950's. It was introduced as an anode material in 1954. A subsequent modification to the
alloy in 1959 produced better anode performance characteristics. This alloy consisted of the addition
of 4.5% chromium. This anode material has been widely used and accepted in the industry.
High silicon chromium cast iron is a solid, non-porous material. This alloy consists of a matrix of
silico-ferrite in which the majority of the carbon is in the form of graphite flakes at grain boundaries.
Adding chromium results in eliminating graphite.
The produced cast iron material used for anodes typically has the following mechanical properties:
Electrical Maximum resistivity 72
Resistivity: micro ohm-cm
Mechanical Compression - 100000
Strength: pounds per square inch
Flexural - 15000 pounds
per square inch.
Coefficient of 0.72 x 10-6/F
thermal expansion:

30

The standard metallurgical composition of cast iron anodes conforms to ASTM Standard A518-86
Grade 3 as follows:
Silicon: 14.20-14.75%
Chromium: 3.25-5.00%
Carbon: 0.70-1.10%
Manganese: 1.50% maximum
Copper: 0.50% maximum
Molybdenum: 0.20% maximum

This alloy is cast by several methods including sand mold casting, chill-casting, and centrifugal
casting. A variety of anode shapes and sizes are available. The most common anode shapes are
cylindrical tubes and solid bars in lengths up to 84", diameters from 1" to 6", and weights up to 280
pounds. The standard length for the solid bar anodes is 60". The standard length for tubular shapes is
84".

Fabrication
Each cast iron anode is normally provided with an individual cable of varying length. Cast iron anodes
are provided in both end-connected and center-connected configurations. The solid bar anodes are
cast with a hole at one end to accommodate a connecting cable. Center-connections are used for
cylindrical tube shapes. There have been numerous methods and procedures for connecting cable to
cast iron anodes. The most common connector for solid anodes is a poured and tamped lead
connection in the cast hole. Center-connected anodes utilize a one or two piece lead assembly
attached to the interior center of the anode.
Following cable connection, the annular space around the cable is filled with a high quality electrical
sealant. Common sealants are asphaltic electrical potting compounds. Care must be exercised to
insure the compound is at the proper pouring temperature and that there are no voids or air pockets
within the cavity. Anode caps such as epoxy or heat shrinkable caps are commonly used for
additional protection. Cast iron anodes can be prepackaged in steel canisters with carbonaceous
backfill. Common canister sizes are 8" x 72", 8" x 84", 8" x 96", 10" x 84", 10" x 96", 12" x 84", and
12" x 96".
Design Parameters
The reported consumption rate is between 0.2 and 1.2 pounds per ampere-year. The controlling
factor appears to be the environment. Manufacturer recommendations for anodes surrounded by
carbonaceous backfill is 0.7 pounds per amp-year. Current densities should be limited to
approximately 1 ampere per square foot.
Applications
High silicon cast iron anodes are widely used in underground applications in both shallow and deep
31

groundbeds. Although the performance is improved with coke breeze; its use is not critical. This
material is also widely used in freshwater and saltwater environments.
The performance of cast iron as an anode is dependent upon the formation of a thin layer of silicon
dioxide on the surface of the anode. Oxidation of the alloy is necessary to form this protective film.
Silicon-chromium cast iron is highly resistant to acid solutions. It does not perform particularly well in
alkaline environments or in the presence of sulfate ions.
There have been some reports of early failure when silicon iron anodes are exposed to environments
in which both sulfate and chloride ions are present. Other cases are reported where these anodes
increase significantly in resistance when exposed to drying conditions. It is thought that this condition
interferes with the formation of the conductive silicon dioxide film.

Platinized Titanium / Niobium

The first published results on the use of platinized titanium as anode were in 1958. Further
development of the anode material has resulted in the use of superior substrates other than titanium.
Its use has gone through several phases; however, it is recognized for its superior anodic properties.
Platinum is an excellent anode material due to its high conductivity and low consumption rate.
However, because of its high cost, it is not economical to use platinum by itself. Platinum is made
practical for use by cladding or electroplating a thin layer of platinum over a lower cost substrate. This
also extends the effective anode surface area. The substrate must also have the ability to form an
insulating oxide film under anodic conditions. The two substrate materials most commonly used are
titanium and niobium.
Titanium and niobium both form insulating oxide films when exposed to anodic conditions. Titanium is
less expensive; however, it has a much lower breakdown potential than niobium. The titanium oxide is
reported to break down at anodic potentials in the 10V range. The niobium film is resistant to
breakdown up to 80V. Niobium is also a much better electrical conductor than titanium. Niobium is
normally used with a copper core. This reduces the cost and also provides a much better electrical
conductivity.
Platinum coated anodes are available as rod, wire, sheet, tube, strip, and mesh. Rod and wire sizes
normally range from 0.031 inches to 1". Platinum thicknesses range from 25 micro-inches to 1000
micro-inches.
Connection to platinum coated anodes depends upon the anode shape. Wire type anodes normally
use a soldered connection. Rod anodes generally have a drilled, threaded connection to the substrate
material.
32

The mechanism of deterioration of a platinum based anode is consumption of the platinum coating.
Rate of consumption is controlled by many factors, primarily environment and current density. The
consumption rate of platinum in seawater is approximately 8 mg/A-yr. In fresh and brackish waters,
consumption is 2 to 3 times greater at low current densities (10 A/sq. ft). At high current densities,
consumption is much higher.
The use of platinum is now primarily limited to water environments. Its predominant use is probably in
fresh water tank applications; with secondary applications such as condenser water boxes, reinforced
concrete, process equipment, docks, etc. Anode manufacturers indicate that platinum can be
successfully used underground, both in surface beds and deep anode beds. However, most operators
experience has been negative. There have been numerous reports of anode failures when installed
underground. The primary failure mechanism is felt to be excessive consumption in small areas and
loss of substrate oxide. This could be a result of non-uniform electrolyte resistivities and/or non-linear
current distribution in the anode conductor core. Platinum has performed well in water applications. It
is probably the most widely used impressed anode material in fresh water applications such as
storage tanks and condensers.

Mixed Metal Oxide

Mixed metal oxide anodes have been used in groundbeds since the early 1980's. The anodes were
originally developed in Europe in the 1960's for use in the chlor-alkali industry. This material consists
of a high purity titanium substrate with an applied coating consisting of a mixture of oxides. The
titanium serves as a support for the oxide coating. Titanium functions as a "valve metal" which form
thin, self-healing, adherent oxide films which are acid resistant and resist the passage of anodic
current. The oxide is formed on the titanium substrate by thermal decomposition of precious metal
salts that have been applied onto the substrate.
Four configurations of these anode materials have been used for underground applications. These
are tubular, wire or rod, mesh or net, and strips. Common tubular anode sizes are 1.6 cm and 2.5 cm
diameter tubes, 50 cm and 100 cm long. Wire/rod anodes range in diameter from 1.5 to 12 mm.
Expanded mesh anodes made from thin gauge titanium strip have been used in confined spaces.
This form of anode operates at much lower current density, typically less than 0.5 amps per square
meter. Anode strips with widths less than 50 mm have been used in confined spaces.
Several different connection designs have been utilized. The tubular anodes are attached to a
conductor cable using a mechanical or welded center connection. Multiple anodes are often attached
to a single cable creating anode strings. Wire/rod anodes and mesh/strip anodes have generally used
crimped end connections that are sealed with tape, heat shrink, and epoxy materials.
Both tubular anodes and wire/rod anodes are commonly packaged in steel canisters ranging in length
from 3' to 10' and in diameter from 2" to 6". The anodes are surrounded by fine carbonaceous coke
breeze backfills in these containers.
Anode properties include high electrical conductivity, low consumption rate, and a high surface area
to catalyze oxidation reactions. Consumption rates of the anode oxide are on the order of 1 mg per
33

amp year for a chlorine evolution environment such as seawater. For an oxygen evolution
environment, consumption rates are on the order of 5 mg per amp year.
Maximum recommended current densities for underground application with a coke breeze backfill
material is 100 A/sq. m (9.3 A/sq.ft). This current density relates to a design life of 20 years. Current
densities for muds and freshwater may be reduced by over half, depending upon temperature and
life.
Mixed metal oxide anodes are now commonly used in underground, and water environments. They
are also the predominant anode material used for protection of tank bottoms when installed with nonconductive secondary containment liners.
There have been some instances of bed drying which have resulted in increased groundbed
resistance. There have also been failures with anodes on strings where soil resistivity varied within
the groundbed. This may be more of a concern in deep anode bed applications. Variations in
resistivity can result in widely varying currents among the anodes. This has lead to accelerated
consumption of anodes that were operating at current densities exceeding manufacturer's
recommendation.
Generation of chlorine has led to attack of the standard cable insulation used for tubular anodes. In
these cases, a dual extrusion cable material is utilized.
Conductive Polymer
This anode material has been available since the early 1980's. The anode material consists of a
continuous semiconducting polymer material extruded on a copper wire. The active anode
component is carbon contained in a polymer matrix. It is a flexible wire-like anode and is provided on
continuous rolls. The material has an outer diameter of 1/2" with an inner core of #6 AWG stranded
copper wire. The anode is also provided prepackaged in carbonaceous backfill. The package is a
nylon sheath containing the anode and backfill, provided on continuous rolls. Connections of the inner
copper core to a main cable are normally with mechanical crimped connectors. The ends of the
anode and connections are normally sealed with manufacturer-provided heat shrink enclosures.
The manufacturers recommended maximum current density for the conductive polymer anode is 16
milliamperes per lineal foot, when installed underground. When this material is used in long-line
parallel applications, the attenuation of current in the conductor must be considered. Typically, a
heavy gauge parallel copper cable is installed with the anode and multiple connections are made at
regular spacings along the anode length. This material is used extensively for long line anode system
installed parallel to pipelines in areas where coating has deteriorated or where sub-surface conditions
do not permit efficient current distribution from conventional current sources. It is normally installed
with a surrounding carbonaceous backfill. Conductive polymer anodes have also been installed in
confined areas such as between tank bottoms and non-conductive secondary containment liners.
Conductive polymer anodes can provide uniform low-current density output over their entire lengths.
Reports have generally been very good. There are some reports of failures in areas where the wirelike anode was not installed in carbonaceous backfill and accelerated consumption of the carbon
occurred. These cases have almost all been related to excessive current discharge in low resistivity
wet areas such as creek or stream crossings.

34

Application Table
The selection of an impressed current anode should be based upon a thorough evaluation of the
application. Items of consideration include environment, current requirements, life requirements,
space, and economics. There is probably no anode material that is optimum or even capable of
effectively meeting the requirements of every situation. The anode materials developed within the
past 30 years certainly expand the arsenal of the corrosion engineer. However, for underground
application; the use of materials such as graphite and high silicon cast iron still far exceed those of
the newer materials.
IMPRESSED CURRENT ANODE APPLICATION CHART
Anode

Soil with Coke

Soil without Coke

Freshwater

Saltwater

Steel

Graphite

HISI Cast Iron

X
X

Platinum

X
X

Mixed Metal Oxide

Conductive Polymer

35

Anode Comparison Table

Anode

Environment Consumption
Rate
lb/amp-year

Design
Current
Density

Size

Weight Surface
pounds
Area
Sq Ft.

amps/SqFt

Steel
Graphite

HISI Cast Iron

Platinum

20.0

None

Soil

1.0

0.5

Freshwater

2.0

NR

Saltwater

0.5

2.0

Soil

0.7

1.0

Freshwater

1.0

2.5

Saltwater

0.5

2.5

Soil

NR

NR

36

Max*
Design
Output
(soil) Amps

3" x 60"

30

4.0

2.0

4" x 80"

72

7.3

3.6

1.5" x 60"

27

2.0

2.0

2" x 60"

44

2.6

2.6

2" x 60"

60

2.7

2.7

3" x 60"

110

4.0

4.0

4.5" x 60"

220

5.5

5.5

2.2" x 84"

50

4.2

4.2

2.6" x 84"

64

4.9

4.9

3.8" x 84"

95

7.0

7.0

4.8" x 84"

122

8.8

8.8

Mixed Metal Oxide

Conductive Polymer

Freshwater

8 mg/A-yr

50

Saltwater

8 mg/A-yr

50

Soil

5 mg/A-yr

10

Freshwater

5 mg/A-yr

10

Saltwater

1 mg/A-yr

50

Soil

16 ma per LF

Freshwater

3 ma per LF

Saltwater

NR

* based on coke breeze backfill

37

1.6 x 50 cm

NA

0.275

2.5

1.6 x 100 cm

NA

0.56

5.0

2.5 x 50 cm

NA

0.44

4.0

2.5 x 100 cm

NA

0.88

8.0