Bsme Thesis JFW

A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF DAMAGE ACCUMULATION
IN HETEROGENOUS STRUCTURES
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Purdue University
by
Jonathan Frederick Wenk
In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree
of
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
May 2003
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................iii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... vi
CHARPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1.1: Motivation............................................................................................................... 1
1.2: Damage in Composite Structures............................................................................ 2
1.2.1: Mechanisms and Accumulation........................................................................ 2
1.2.2: Damage in Military Applications...................................................................... 4
1.3 Review of Previous Work......................................................................................... 5
1.4: Thesis Statement ...................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: MODEL CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................... 8
2.1: Model Description ................................................................................................... 8
2.2: Defining Elements, Real Constants, and Materials ................................................. 9
2.3: Mesh and Boundary Conditions............................................................................. 10
2.4: Simulation of Damage ........................................................................................... 11
2.5: Analysis Types....................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 3: PRESENT RESEARCH............................................................................ 13
3.1: Mathematical Representation of Laminated Composites and Loading ................. 13
3.2: Modal Response of Laminated Composite Sheet.................................................. 15
3.3: Harmonic Forced Response ................................................................................... 19
3.3.1: Results of Damage Case 1 & 2 with Central Loading .................................... 21
3.3.2: Results of Damage Case 1 & 2 with Diagonal Loading................................. 29
3.3.3: Results of Damage Case 3 with Center and Diagonal Loading...................... 36
3.4: Force Profile as Applied to Impact Damage .......................................................... 41
3.5: Discussion of Damage Accumulation, with Examples.......................................... 42
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY, CONCLUSTIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH ..................................................................................................... 48
4.1: Summary and Conclusions .................................................................................... 48
4.2: Recommendations of Future Work........................................................................ 49
LIST OF REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 51
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Material Properties of Fiber Reinforced Composite ......................................... 8

Table 2.2: List of Layered Element Types in Ansys........................................................... 9
Table 3.1: Modal Frequency Results ................................................................................ 16
Table 3.2: Description of the Simulated Damage Cases................................................... 20
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Development of Damage in Composite Laminates (Talreja, 1986)................. 3

Figure 1.2: Failure process in laminate composite ............................................................. 3
Figure 1.3: Army Tank with Composite Armor ................................................................ 4
Figure 1.4: Cross-section View of Damaged Armor Composite ........................................ 5
Figure 2.1: Constraint and Load Condition of Baseline Model........................................ 11
Figure 3.1: Mode Shape of First Natural Frequency ........................................................ 16
Figure 3.2: Mode Shape of Second Natural Frequency.................................................... 17
Figure 3.6: Damage and Force Locations on Composite Sheet, Top View...................... 19
Figure 3.7: Layer 1 of Damage Case 1 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency ....... 22
Figure 3.8: Layer 1 of Baseline with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency .................. 22
Figure 3.9: Layer 2 of Damage Case 1 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency ....... 23
Figure 3.10: Layer 2 of Baseline with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency ................ 23
Figure 3.11: Layer 3 of Damage Case 1 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency..... 24
Figure 3.13: Layer 14 of Damage Case 1 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency... 25
Figure 3.14: Layer 14 of Baseline with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency .............. 25
Figure 3.19: Layer 1 of Damage Case 1 with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency .. 30
Figure 3.20: Layer 1 of Baseline with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency.............. 30
Figure 3.25: Layer 14 of Damage Case 1 with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency 33
Figure 3.26: Layer 14 of Baseline with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency............ 33
Figure 3.35: Layer 2 of Case 4 with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency................. 38
Figure 3.36: Layer 1 of Case 4 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency ................... 39
v
Figure 3.38: Force Profile of an Impact Load, Time and Frequency Based..................... 41
Figure 3.41: Stress Field from the Center Load, Layer Number vs. Frequency............... 44
Figure 3.42: Stress Field Generated from the Diagonal Load at the Damage Center....... 45
Figure 3.43: Stress Field from Diagonal Load, Stress vs. Frequency............................... 45
Figure 3.44: Stress Field from the Diagonal Load, Layer Number vs. Frequency........... 46
vi
ABSTRACT
Wenk, Jonathan Frederick, B.S.M.E, Purdue University, May 2003, A Finite Element
Analysis of Damage Accumulation in Heterogeneous Structures. Major Professor: Dr.
Douglas E. Adams, School of Mechanical Engineering
Since structures can be damaged during operation, organizations such as the
Department of Defense care a great deal about how long the material composition of a
structure will last. By basing regular maintenance programs on more reliable information
about the expected life of a structure, safety will be enhanced and costs during the life of
that structure will be reduced.
Moreover, the Department of Defense is primarily
interested in the reliability of so-called heterogeneous structures, such as laminated

composites. The focus of this project is to gain a fundamental understanding of the
nature of these laminated composites when subjected to specific damage cases and
ballistic like loads. But the nature of heterogeneous structures is not as intuitive as
homogeneous materials such as aluminum or steel.
In order to understand the
progression of the failure modes in a laminated composite, damage models were

constructed and analyzed using Ansys as the Finite Element package. The primary goal
is to be able to predict the progression and accumulation of damage in structures. The
approach was to model a healthy structure and then apply different damage scenarios in
reference to the healthy baseline structure in order to evaluate the shift in the stress
distribution. Damage can occur in several layers of a composite, in multiple locations
throughout its volume, and develops through several internal mechanisms. In this project
damage was consistently modeled as the absolute degradation of stiffness within specific
composite layers. The effects of these cases were assessed in terms of the local and
global changes that took place in the structure. Loads, such as those experienced from
ballistic impact, were modeled as distributed loads on the structures surface. The stress
field through the thickness of the sheet, as a function of frequency at several locations
throughout the composite, was calculated for several damage scenarios using finite
element modeling. By evaluating the distribution of stress around the damaged regions,
predictions
of
the
progression
of
damage
in
the
structure
were
made.
CHARPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1: Motivation
The safety and performance of all commercial, civil, and military structural
dynamic systems deteriorate with usage and time.
Current manual inspection and
maintenance scheduling procedures are time consuming, costly, insensitive to small

variations in structural health, and prone to error in severe and mild operating
environments. For these reasons there is an urgent economic and technological need to
develop better methods of evaluating structural integrity and reliability.
More
specifically, there is a need to better predict the life of dynamic systems that are
composed of complex materials such as composites. The application of such materials as
load bearing and surface structures has increased significantly over the past 20 years
because composites are both strong and lightweight.
Another major attribute of
composite materials is their extraordinary fatigue strength, as compared to homogeneous

materials. In this respect, composites can be exposed to a broad array of load conditions.
A prime example of an extreme case is the use of composites in the armor plating of
military vehicles such as tanks. Materials used in this application must be capable of
withstand substantial transient loads, such as that from a ballistic impact. In order to
understand the life expectancy of the material, experimental testing and predictive
analysis must be conducted in parallel. The nature of failure in composite materials is far
more complex than in homogeneous materials. This complexity is actually one of the
factors associated with composites resilience under cyclical loading. Unlike metallic
materials where failure modes are usually related with cracking or yielding, laminated
composites have several others, delamination being one of the most frequently
encountered modes (Reddy, Rehfield, Haag, 1984). Thus, a fundamental understanding
of the composition and material properties of composites is necessary. If an accurate
prediction can be made about the reliability of a composite material system after it has
been damaged, then proper maintenance can be administered.
2
1.2: Damage in Composite Structures
1.2.1: Mechanisms and Accumulation

When structures are subjected to high amplitude or repeated loads, the strength
and integrity of the material can become compromised.
This reduction in mechanical
resilience can eventually lead to the failure of the structure over time with usage. In
heterogeneous materials, there are several mechanisms that can lead to the failure of the
structure. Composites can be more sensitive to loading, such as an impact, because they
absorb energy mainly through fracture mechanics rather than elasticity or plasticity
(Cantwell, Curtis, Morton, 1984). As various load conditions are applied to a composite
element, the internal makeup can become damaged with mechanisms such as matrix
cracking, delamination, fiber breakage, and local buckling. Primary matrix failure modes
are characterized by cracks that run parallel to the fiber in plies that are not aligned with
the principal tensile loading direction. Secondary matrix failure causes cracks that extend
into adjacent plies, thus initiating delamination. A delamination, also called debonding,
is a crack that extends within the resin rich (matrix material) interface between plies that
may contain different fiber orientations. It has been observed that delamination only
occurs in the presence of matrix cracks.
As delamination damage accumulates the
material characteristics change until ultimately the structure fails in the form of fiber
breakage (Talreja, 1986). Figure 1.1 shows the characteristic progression of damage in a
laminated composite. In the locations where failure begins to occur, the stiffness is
reduced and the surrounding material must carry the load. Because the fibers are the load
bearing material within a composite, when they fail the structure is permanently
compromised. Failure takes place in stages, where one damage event can lead to a
sequence of failures inside of the material as shown in the stress-strain curve in Figure
1.2. Failures within a ply are referred to as intralaminar and failures between layers are
referred to as interlaminar. Each plateau in Figure 1.2 is a basic representation of a
failure within a ply in a composite sheet. As consecutive ply failures occur, the end result
is an overall failure of the composite laminate. The figure implies that the failure within
3
a ply is sudden. But in reality the failure is progressive as mechanisms such as matrix
cracking occur gradually rather than suddenly (Sun, 2003).
Figure 1.1: Development of Damage in Composite Laminates (Talreja, 1986)
Figure 1.2: Failure process in laminate composite
4
Structural failures in composite materials can be initiated by several means. They
can occur as manufacturing anomalies during initial construction. In some cases the
failure is gradual due to load conditions such as low amplitude fatigue. Failure can also
be immediate and catastrophic from high energy loading such as impacts.
In most
gradual cases, the overall strength is not compromised until a significant number of load
bearing fibers have failed.
1.2.2: Damage in Military Applications

The military is utilizing composite materials as armor plating in robust vehicles,
such as the tank shown in Figure 1.3. These vehicles can experience high transient loads
from ballistic impacts, but are also exposed to cyclic loading during use in the field. In
structural composites impact damage may not cause immediate failure. This damage
may, however, give rise to subsequent failure under service loads (Cantwell, Curtis,
Morton, 1984). An example of the severe damage that can occur in ballistic loaded
structures is shown in Figure 1.4.
The focus of this project is on the response of
composite sheets as they are exposed to large distributed loads. The result of these loads
is the complete elimination of load bearing capability in that region. For armor on a tank,
this loss in residual strength can lead to a catastrophic event.
Armor and weapon systems

undergo ballistic impacts
Figure 1.3: Army Tank with Composite Armor
Delamination and
debonding
Figure 1.4: Cross-section View of Damaged Armor Composite
1.3 Review of Previous Work

Understanding the effects of damage on composites has been the focus of many
studies in the engineering community. Only a few of those studies are mentioned here.
Engblom and Havelka (1991) used a combined analytical and experimental approach to
develop models of damaged composite structures. The experimentation was intended to
quantify the effects of the four major damage mechanisms on the variations in stiffness
and damping characteristics. The data gained from the experiments was used to improve
existing finite element based damage models, as well as improve predictions of changes
in material properties. The result of the research indicates the effects of delamination and
matrix cracking can greatly affect the residual properties and dynamic characteristics of
laminated composites. In order to differentiate between the various failure mechanisms,
failure criteria, developed by other researchers, were incorporated in the assessment of
the damage.
Hashin (1980) developed a stress based failure criteria to distinguish
between fiber and matrix failure modes. Lee (1982) used a similar stress based criteria to
distinguish delamination from other failure modes.
Yen, Cassin, Patterson, and Triplett (1997) conducted a progressive failure
analysis of thin walled composite tubes under low energy impact. This study was also a
comparative study of experimental and analytical analyses. The failure criteria developed
therein was integrated into an explicit dynamic analysis code for failure prediction of the
composite tubes. The results provided a good correlation with experimental data of
6
impact force histories and certain critical damage modes.
Also, the code predicted
nonlinear behavior due to the progression of local damage, within the macroscopic
continuum.
Talreja (1986) developed an internal state variable model, which was used to
determine the overall stiffness properties and intensity of damage in individual modes.
This relationship shows that intralaminar damage reduces all the elastic moduli for
damage with general orientations and changes the initial orthotropic symmetry of a
laminate. But the interlaminar damage does not change the symmetry, only the moduli.
This model represents the effects of matrix cracking on stiffness reduction by evaluating
the development of crack size within the ply. Then, the model characterizes the damage
modes as vectorial quantities that incorporate the geometrical properties of the damage
entities.
Cantwell, Curtis, and Morton (1984) conducted low energy impact and fatigue
testing on carbon fiber laminates. It was found that the effects of impact reduce the
residual strength of the laminate. The effects of various impact energies were studied, as
well as the effects of fatigue on the impacted samples as a further measure of residual
strength. Efforts were made to show that the integration of woven fabric into the stacking
sequence, in place of individual alternating plies, significantly improved the materials
impact performance. The stacking sequence plays a major role in determining the impact
resistance of a composite panel.
Reddy, Rehfield, and Haag (1984) performed experimental and analytical
analyses of laminated composite sheets with prescribed delaminations of know shape and
size in order to assess the effect of such flaws on the structural behavior. Two different
finite element models were constructed to model the delamination. The first simply
reduced the number of beam elements used to connect the plies together. The second,
that is most similar to this project, decreased the modulus of affected elements within the
model. Thus weakening the structure in those areas. The results of the finite element
model provide conservative estimates of behavioral degradation when compared to the
experimental results.
7
1.4: Thesis Statement
It can be very beneficial to control the location and extent of damage using finite
element analysis when evaluating the performance of a structure under loading.
In this research, the effects of various damage cases, load input locations, and
frequency spectra on the dynamic response of a laminated composite sheet will be
presented. Material properties and dynamic characteristics will be used to generate a
realistic finite element model with which to run the analyses. The results of this model
will be used to provide insight into the progression and accumulation of damage within
the plies of the composite sheet.
By evaluating the response of the model using
information about future dynamic loading, predictions will be made with regard to the
internal stress distributions.
8
CHAPTER 2: MODEL CONSTRUCTION
Before constructing the finite element model of the composite material, time was
dedicated to learning the abilities and functions of Ansys, the software used for the
project. Prior use of other finite element packages proved valuable in learning Ansys, but
modeling composite materials is more difficult than modeling isotropic materials such as
steel. The Help Index and Tutorials were the primary resource in becoming familiar with
the layout of Ansys.
2.1: Model Description

The goal of this project is to analytically model a composite sheet, similar to those
tested by the Department of Defense, and apply simplified ballistic loads to the sheet.
Using dimensions and material specifications from test specimens and reference texts, a
finite element model was constructed in Ansys.
The model was based on a 20-ply
composite sheet with S2 Glass/Epoxy for the fiber and matrix material in each of the
plies. The laminated sheet is symmetric about the mid-plane with a stacking sequence of
[(0/90)10]s . This sequence means that the plies alternate between zero and 90 degrees
relative to the fixed global coordinate system. The overall dimensions used for this
model are 4ft x 3ft x 0.25in, which is 1.219m x 0.914m x 6.35mm in metric. The
thickness of each ply is uniform at 0.0125in or 0.3175mm. The material properties (Sun,
2003) used in modeling the sheet are listed in Table 2.1.
Material
S2
Glass/Epoxy
Ex
GPa
43.3
Ey
GPa
12.7
Ez
GPa
12.7
u xy
GPa
0.29
uyz
GPa
0.5
u xz
GPa
0.29
Gxy
GPa
4.5
Gyz
GPa
2
Gxz
GPa
4.5
Table 2.1: Material Properties of Fiber Reinforced Composite
sten r
GPa g/cm3
1.7 1.8
9
2.2: Defining Elements, Real Constants, and Materials
There are several steps that must be taken in order to properly define the
composition of a composite structure within Ansys. First is the selection of the element
type. Ansys offers five element types, which are listed in Table 2.2, which can be used to
define layered composites.
Type Name
Description Name
Description
Shell99
Linear Layered Structural Shell
8-node, 3-D shell, 6-DOF per node,

up to 250 layers
Shell91
Nonlinear Layered Structural Shell 8-node, 3-D shell, 6-DOF per node,
up to 100 layers
Shell181
Finite Strain Shell
4-node, 3-D shell, 6-DOF per node,

up to 255 layers with large strain
Solid46
3-D Layered Structural Solid
8-node, 3-D solid, 3-DOF per node,

up to 250 layers
Solid191
Layered Structural Solid
20-node, 3-D solid, 3-DOF per

node, up to 100 layers
Table 2.2: List of Layered Element Types in Ansys

Due to the simple geometry of the model and the assumption of linear response in
this project, the Shell99 elements were selected. These elements are designed to model
thin to moderately thick plate and shell structures, with a side-to-thickness ratio of 10 or
greater. It is this fact that allowed for the generation of a moderately fine mesh, as
opposed to a very fine mesh that takes longer to solve. Once the element type has been
selected the material properties, layer orientation, and layer thickness must be defined
within each element.
In Ansys these properties are set using real constants.
Real
constants are user-defined element characteristics, which represent the configuration of

the element. The first step is to define the materials that will be used in the model.
Possible materials are accessed through the material models section of Ansys. In this
10
dialog window, the orthotropic mechanical properties can be set for any number of
materials. In the real constant dialog window, the preliminary option is to define the
number of layers in the model. Once the number of layers is specified, the composition
of each individual layer is defined. Each layer can be represented by any one of the
material models that have been defined. The layer orientation is defined as the direction
of the layer coordinate system relative the global coordinate system, and the orientation is
defined by entering the angle between the x-axes of each coordinate system. Finally the
thickness of each individual layer can be defined to meet the specifications of the
composite. There may be as many real constants as are necessary to accurately represent
the structure being modeled.
2.3: Mesh and Boundary Conditions

When using Shell99 elements, the mesh density is governed by the side-tothickness ratio requirement, which is ten. In this model, the length was split into 26
elements and the width was split into 20 elements. This resolution provides an element
side length of roughly 0.0463m. With the thickness of the sheet at 6.35mm, the actual
side-to-thickness ratio of the model is approximately 7.6.
This ratio is below the
specification of 10, but was used anyway to allow for a slightly finer mesh that would be
more sensitive to the response of the model. If there were an application in which the
mesh density needs to be finer, then the use of Solid46 elements would be more suitable.
These elements are typically used for thicker plate structures.
Several types of constraints and loads were applied to the model. In order to
assess the response of the composite model under various conditions, the loads and
constraints were assigned in different configurations. In each of the simulations, all of
the edges of the plate were constrained in all six degrees of freedom. This was done to
emulate the boundary effects if a piece of a composite were taken out of a larger,
continuous part. The force on the plate was applied as a distributed load over an area of
0.0247m2 (45 nodes) with a value of 50N per node. The total force on the plate is 2250N,
which is approximately 505lbf. This value is a reasonable estimate of loading from a
ballistic impact. A comparison was done to evaluate the dynamic effects of a point load,
11
instead of a distributed load. A point load is able to excite more of the natural modes in a
structure, but the stress effects were unrealistic. The baseline boundary conditions are
shown in Figure 2.1. The load was applied in both the center of the plate and in locations
diagonal to the center. The re-location of the loading distribution was done to excite the
natural modes of the plate and avoid over constraining the plate in all of the simulations.
The loading conditions used in each of the simulations are outlined and discussed in
Chapter 3.
Figure 2.1: Constraint and Load Condition of Baseline Model
2.4: Simulation of Damage

The method used to simulate damage in the composite model was to assume that
the modulus and shear modulus were nearly zero at the location of damage. In order to
12
avoid singularity issues during calculation, the properties were not set exactly to zero.
For all damage cases, the material properties assigned to that location were as follows:
E x = Ey = E z = 100Pa
Gxy = Gyz = G xz = 50Pa
u xy = uyz = u xz = 0.3
These properties are significantly less than those of a healthy structure. The strength in
damaged regions is decreased by a factor of 10 8, which essentially acts as zero. These
properties represent the effect of a total failure of the load carrying capability of that
region. The initial effects of damage are difficult to model. For example no stiffness
reduction is assumed after primary matrix failure occurs. This is because transverse
matrix cracks alone usually do not have a significant effect on the laminate stiffness.
Damage characteristics were set in Ansys by using several options. First, the
material properties were created in the material models. This material definition was then
entered into a new real constant at the specific layers in which damage was desired. In
this project, the layer orientation and layer thickness were held constant in the damaged
cases. Then, the damaged region of elements was assigned the characteristics of the new
real constant. This task is accomplished in Ansys by modifying the element attributes in
that region and re-assigning the real constant number.
By using this methodology,
damage can be applied in exact locations, at any element on the sheet and in any ply.
This technique is similar to that used in previous research (Yen, Cassin, Patterson, and
Triplett, 1997).
2.5: Analysis Types
Several types of analysis were conducted to assess the structural performance of
the composite sheet. Modals were performed to discover the first five natural frequencies
and mode shapes of the model.
A static analysis was done to find the maximum
deflection due to the applied distributed load. The main analysis used to assess the
effects of damage was the harmonic forced response. Several damage scenarios were
simulated, including the re-location of the applied force and damaged regions. The
results of these analyses are outlined in Chapter 3.
13
CHAPTER 3: PRESENT RESEARCH
3.1: Mathematical Representation of Laminated Composites and Loading

The response and characteristics of laminated composites are governed by many
equations. A laminated plate with a thickness that is small compared to the lateral
dimensions has displacement components u, v, and w that are functions of x, y, and z.
These equations are expanded in terms of the power series of z.
Because the
displacements are small, only the first two terms in the series are retained. The first terms
are identified as the displacement components of the mid-plane, the second terms
represent the linear relationship with the deformation in the z direction:
u ( x, y, z ) = u 0 ( x, y ) + z x ( x, y )
v( x, y, z) = v 0 ( x , y ) + z yx ( x, y)
(3.1)
w ( x, y, z ) = w0 ( x, y)
In general, the stress-strain relation, {} and {}, of a lamina (ply) is governed by the
elastic compliance matrix [S], which is the inverse of the elastic constant matrix [C]:
{}=[C]-1{}=[S]{}
(3.2)
Where the matrix [S] is determined by the mechanical properties of the lamina:
(3.3)
14
The stress-strain relation for orthotropic materials is simplified due to the
symmetric property of the compliance matrix and follows the relationship:
(3.4)
Although the strains are continuous over the thickness of the laminate, the stresses
in the laminae are discontinuous across the interfaces due to the different material
properties resulting from different fiber orientations.
For the kth lamina, the stress
components are given by (Sun, 2003)

(3.5)
In equation 3.5 [Q] represents the reduced stiffness, a term similar to the elastic
constants, which is the inverse of the elastic compliance. The strains are described by the
in-plane strain and curvatures due to bending in the sheet.
Typically, the strains
associated with bending have the most significant effect. In composites this is influenced
by the stacking sequence of the laminae.
When evaluating the strength within a lamina, there are several criteria that can be
used.
One such criterion is the Maximum Stress Criterion, which compares the
maximum tensile strength in the fiber direction, transverse to the fiber direction, in-plane
shear strength to the state of stress found in the structure.
15
Another important factor to be taken into account are the effects of fatigue on a
structure. The following equation is taken from the Modified-Goodman model of fatigue
life, where the stress in the structure is represented by a mean and alternating value:
m a
1
+
=
S ut S f
Nf
(3.6)
In terms of characterizing the force input to the system, for this project the force is
assumed to be from a ballistic impact. The desired force input or time of contact can be
found from the impulse-momentum equation:
F t = mv
(3.7)
Assuming a perfectly elastic collision, the time of contact can be found by rearranging
the equation 3.7:
t=
2 mv 2
F
(3.8)
Where m represents the mass of the projectile, v represents the velocity, and F is the force
it imparts. The use of this equation is discussed further in section 3.4.
3.2: Modal Response of Laminated Composite Sheet

The first step in evaluating the response of the laminated composite sheet was to
perform a modal analysis.
To remain consistent, the plate was set with the same
boundary conditions that were used for the harmonic forced response. All four edges of
the sheet were fully constrained in all degrees of freedom.
The first five natural
frequencies and modes shapes were found for the healthy sheet. The frequencies are
listed in Table 3.1 and the mode shapes are shown in Figures 3.1 through 3.5.
Reliability and damage accumulations are based, primarily, on low frequency
events. This critical role of low frequency response was the motivation for assessing
only the first five modes of the composite. In some cases, the higher modes do have a
contribution to the magnitude of the response in the lower frequencies. In this project,
those contributions were not taken into consideration.
16
Mode Number
Frequency (Hz)
36.97
62.83
87.22
106.16
108.13
Table 3.1: Modal Frequency Results
Figure 3.1: Mode Shape of First Natural Frequency
17
Figure 3.2: Mode Shape of Second Natural Frequency
Figure 3.3: Mode Shape of Third Natural Frequency
18
Figure 3.4: Mode Shape of Forth Natural Frequency
Figure 3.5: Mode Shape of Fifth Natural Frequency
19
3.3: Harmonic Forced Response
In order to perform the harmonic forced response it was important to know the
natural frequencies and mode shapes so that the force input and damage could be applied
in the most effective locations. For this project, there were five damage cases that were
evaluated with the load applied at two different locations. The distributed force described
in section 2.3, was applied either at the center of the sheet or diagonal to the center in the
upper left corner of the sheet. The damage and force locations are shown in Figure 3.6.
In this figure, the squares represent the regions in which damage occurs, and the circles
represent the distributed forces.
Load 2
Load 1
Damage Case
1, 2, and 5
Damage Case 2
Damage Case 3
Damage Case 4
Figure 3.6: Damage and Force Locations on Composite Sheet, Top View
20
The damage simulated within the composite layers was based on research of laminates in
which the failure modes that occurred were primarily sub-surface. This is typically the
result that forms from impact loading. Each of the damage cases is outlined in Table 3.2.
The results of each of the damage cases are presented in the following section. All
results were found within a frequency range of 30 to 115 Hz. This range was determined
by the first and last natural mode of the sheet.
Damage Case
1
Description of Damage Cases

A 4x4 region of elements in the top right corner with layers 413
failed, and layers 13 and 1420 healthy
Two 4x4 regions of elements in the top right corner and bottom left
corner with layers 413 failed, and layers 13 and 1420 healthy
A 6x6 region of elements in the top right corner with layers 413
A 4x4 region of elements in the center of the sheet with layers 413
A 4x4 region of elements in the top right corner of the sheet with
layers 417 failed, and layers 13 and 1820 healthy
(Deeper failure, with more layers)
Table 3.2: Description of the Simulated Damage Cases
When the model was prepared to run in the harmonic forced response, several key
factors were set. The force was applied as a step load to ensure that the load amplitude
was maintained for all of the sub-steps in the frequency range. The load was applied with
a zero phase angle. Also, a constant damping ratio of 0.1 was applied to the entire model.
The geometry of the damage regions was created as squares due to limitations in the
mesh density of the model. For this reason, the stress was not evaluated in the corners of
the damage regions, due to stress concentration that can occur in sharp geometries.
21
3.3.1: Results of Damage Case 1 & 2 with Central Loading
The first set of damage cases were conducted with the loading at the center of the
sheet. By applying the load in this location, the natural modes that are associated with
displacement at the center node of the sheet are excited. In this particular application,
modes 1 and 5 are the most susceptible. The following figures show the magnitude of
stress versus frequency from selected layers within the composite. These are compared
to the results of a healthy baseline sheet with the same loading. The plots are generated
from data calculated at the same node in the center of the damaged region.
The
presentation of the plots is on an individual basis, due to the limitations in the output
capabilities of Ansys.
22
Figure 3.7: Layer 1 of Damage Case 1 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency
Figure 3.8: Layer 1 of Baseline with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency
23
24
25
26
27
28
Figures 3.7 through 3.12 are the results for the first three layers of the composite,
which are located just above the damage. Figures 3.13 through 3.18 are the results of the
three layers just below the damaged region. The loading that is applied to the sheet is
normal to the surface, which induces bending stress in the sheet. The overall trend of the
stress, as it is distributed through the layers, is that it decreases from the outer surfaces to
the mid-plane. But due to the damage, the stress in the first three layers increases
because of the reduction in the local cross-sectional area. The stress in the three layers
just below the damage decreases with respect to the baseline. The remaining layers
below the damage are not shown, as the magnitude of stress is equivalent to that of the
baseline. Also, the peak stress in bottom four layers do not exceed that of the top three
layers, so the results are not presented here.
Figures 3.7 through 3.18 are derived from the results of the first damage case, but
are also representative of the second damage case. Upon review of the results from the
second case, the response due to this load input is the same at this location through the
thickness of the sheet. The main difference is the distribution of stress in the area that
surrounds the damage, as opposed the area above and below. As the sheet is viewed from
the top, the view shown in Figure 3.6, the stress distribution in the region above and to
the right of the damage is the same for case 1 and 2. At these locations the stress is
higher than the baseline in layers 1 through 10 and is the same in layers 11 through 20.
These regions are between the damage and the edge constraints, thus the increased stress
in the top layers at these locations could be caused by the boundary conditions. The main
difference in the stress distribution for case 1 and 2 is in the regions below and to the left
of the damage. In case 2, the stress is higher than case 1 in all of the layers in these
regions. The magnitude of stress in this region exceeds that found in the center of the
damage region, for both cases. This is caused by the reduction in stiffness in the second
diagonal region. As the load is applied to the sheet, the material is pulled toward the
center. In the second damage case the material around the damage in the top right corner
has weakened support from the left side of the plate. This increases the deflection in the
sheet, thus increasing the strain and stress.
29
As the loading path changes in the composite, due to ply failure, the stress will
rise and the damage will progress further. In the first case the damage will progress up,
into the layers above the original damage, as well as through the top layers toward the
constraints. In the second case the damage will progress toward the load, as well as the
layers above the original damage.
Besides changes in the magnitude of stress in the sheet, there is also a slight shift
in the frequency at which the peak stresses occur. Modals were also conducted on the
damaged sheets, in order to account for the shift in frequency caused by the damage.
Mode 4 was the most significantly affected, due to the location of excitation in this mode.
For the first damage case, the frequency at this mode shifted down 1 Hz. For the second
damage case, the frequency shifted down 2 Hz. The other modes were mildly affected.
3.3.2: Results of Damage Case 1 & 2 with Diagonal Loading

The second set of damage cases were conducted with the load applied at a
location diagonal to the center of the plate, as indicated in Figure 3.6. By applying the
load in this location, the natural modes that are associated with displacement in the top
left corner of the sheet are excited. In this particular application, modes 2 and 4 are the
most susceptible. The following figures show the magnitude of stress versus frequency
from selected layers within the composite. These are compared to the results of a healthy
baseline sheet with the same loading conditions. The data is taken from the center node
of the damaged region, same as the data from center-loaded cases.
30
Figure 3.19: Layer 1 of Damage Case 1 with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency
Figure 3.20: Layer 1 of Baseline with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency
31
32
33
34
35
36
For damage cases 1 and 2, with the load applied in the top left corner, the
frequencies at which the peak stresses occur have shifted.
The trend of the stress
distribution through the layers is similar to those noted for the center loading cases. This
load also puts the sheet in bending, which causes the stress to decrease between the outer
surface and the mid-plane of the sheet. The stress in the top three layers is higher in both
cases as compared to the baseline. The stress in the layers below the damage is less than
that found in the baseline, but as the layers progress toward the very bottom the
magnitude of the stresses are equal to that of the baseline. In these cases, when the plate
is viewed from the top, the stress to the left of the damage is decreased in the top five
layers and is the same as the baseline in the remaining layers. This indicates that the
loading path for this input force is through the layers above the damage and between the
damage and the edge constraints. These will be the areas in which the damage progresses
into a worse state.
In comparing the results from the central loaded sheet and the diagonal loaded
sheet, the stresses are within the same order of magnitude. The maximum stress occurs
around 37 Hz in the central loaded cases, with a magnitude of about 72 MPa. But, it
should be noted that around 107Hz, the stress is about 66 MPa. In the diagonal loaded
sheet, the maximum stress occurs around 63 Hz with a magnitude of about 60 MPa, and
at 106 Hz the stress is about 50 MPa. To avoid high fatigue stress, the first and forth
modes of the sheet should not be excited if damage is located in the either of the
excitation locations. Therefore, the central load is more detrimental to the health of the
sheet, in terms of the peak stress at higher frequencies and the larger distribution of high
stress areas around the damage.
3.3.3: Results of Damage Case 3 with Center and Diagonal Loading

In damage case 3, the area of the damaged region in the corner of the sheet is
enlarged. For both the central and diagonal load cases, the stress at the center of the
damaged region, through each layer, is nearly identical to that of damage case 1. But,
37
when the sheet is viewed from the top, the stress in the area just below the damaged
region increases significantly as compared to the baseline, or damage cases 1 and 2.
38
The increase in stress, seen in Figures 3.33 and 3.34, is brought about by the shift
in the load path of the material in this area of the sheet. Since the damage is enlarged, the
area surrounding the damage has to accommodate the load even more than in cases 1 and
2. This becomes the dominant area in which the damage will develop further. As the
damage region continues to widen, the stress at the boundaries of the damage will
continue to rise, thus perpetuating the failure within the composite.
In terms of a frequency shift, due to the reduction in stiffness, modes 3 and 5 are
shifted down 1 Hz, and mode 4 is shifted down 1.5 Hz. As the damaged region grows
larger, the more influence it will have on other mode shapes.

In this case, the elements at the center of the sheet were modeled with damage.
The center load was applied right over the damaged region. But in the case of the
diagonal load, the damage was still applied at the center of the sheet, as opposed to
beneath the load. This allowed for the comparison of the stresses induced by direct
loading versus the stresses induced by an excited mode. Due to the extreme variation in
the results from the center load and diagonal load, one of the plots produced from the
diagonal load are presented and only two of the center load results are presented.
Figure 3.35: Layer 2 of Case 4 with Diagonal Loading, Stress vs. Frequency
39
Figure 3.36: Layer 1 of Case 4 with Central Loading, Stress vs. Frequency
40
The peak stresses occur at the same frequency of 37 Hz. The higher frequency
mode is not as prevalent when the damage is present in the center of the sheet. The
magnitude of stress in Figure 3.36 is the largest of any other data taken from the Ansys
modeling, with a value of about 210 MPa. For this case, the stress rises around the entire
damage region. As the load is applied directly to the damage, the load path is through all
layers and in all directions away from the damage. In this particular case, the composite
sheets will failure quicker with the load applied to the damage location. In other cases,
such as notches at the base of a cantilever, the part will fail quicker if the load is applied
farther away from the notch.

The damage modeled in cases 1 through 4 was based on the non-symmetric
failure of 10 consecutive layers, within a specified region. In case 5, the depth of the
damage was increased to 14 layers and was symmetric about the mid-plane of the sheet.
For this case, the stresses in the layers above and below the damage are essentially the
same, within symmetric layers (i.e. the first and last layers with the same orientation of
zero). The center-loaded case displayed a maximum stress in the first and twentieth layer
is about 69 MPa at 107 Hz, and the maximum stress in the second and nineteenth layer is
about 72 MPa at 37 Hz. In the diagonal-loaded case, the maximum stress in layers 1 and
20 was 65 MPa at 63 Hz, and the maximum stress in layer 2 and 19 was 50 MPa at 107
Hz. These magnitudes are higher than those found in the top layers of cases 1 and 2.
This is because the stress is distributed evenly in the reduced areas above and below the
damage. These areas act as equal load carrying paths.
41
3.4: Force Profile as Applied to Impact Damage
The characteristics and location of the forces applied to composite structures can
have a significant effect on the life of that structure. The relation of the impact time step
and the activated frequency band is simply f =1/dt, the shorter the time step, the broader
the frequency range that is excited. Figure 3.38 shows the time step for three different
unit impact loads, which are 8 ms, 48 ms, and 178 ms.
Figure 3.38: Force Profile of an Impact Load, Time and Frequency Based
The time steps used in Figure 3.38 produce initial frequency bands of 125 Hz, 20.8 Hz,
and 5.6 Hz, respectively. Each of frequency bands, that are associated with a given input
time step, represent the envelope in which energy is absorbed into the system. It should
be noted that at the anti-nodes in the frequency plot, there is not energy absorbed into the
system. Therefore, if a resonance falls on one of those frequencies, the excess energy
42
that is generated from that mode will not be absorbed by the system. Conversely, as an
example, the 8 ms impact would excite the first five modes of the modeled composite
sheet. Because each stress peak would be located within the first frequency band (shown
in blue), all of the energy from those modes would be absorbed into the system. It is
situations like this that must not occur in order to avoid the progression of damage in the
structure.
When damage accumulates in a structure the dynamic characteristics, such as
natural frequency, change with time and use. If the frequency of a mode that was once
outside of the absorption band decreases, the energy from that mode will then be
absorbed if the input remains the same.
Reliability forecasting is based on lower
frequency phenomenon. In this project the response of the composite sheet changed with
respect to the input location and frequency. Because the inner layers of composites
absorb the energy from impacts, the damage was modeled therein. The model was set up
as a linear system; therefore the input force and stress at any location are related in this
manner. If the force input were to increase, the stress in the sheet would increase
proportionally to the input.
3.5: Discussion of Damage Accumulation, with Examples

As composite structures are exposed to numerous loads, such as ballistic impacts,
the composition of the material becomes damaged. From the analyses conducted, it can
be seen the severity of that damage can affect the outlying areas of the structure. The
location of the damage, as well as the location and duration of the loading, can ultimately
lead to the failure of the structure. In damage case 1, discussed in section 3.3.1, the stress
at the center of the damaged region was measured through the thickness as a function of
frequency.
The stress field generated at the damaged location by the center load
condition is shown in Figures 3.39 through 3.41.
43
Figure 3.39: Stress Field Generated from the Center Load at the Damage Center
Figure 3.40: Stress Field from Center Load, Stress vs. Frequency
44
Figure 3.41: Stress Field from the Center Load, Layer Number vs. Frequency
The stress field measured through the thickness of the composite as a function of
frequency, due to the diagonal loading of damage case 1, is shown in Figures 3.42
through 3.44. Extracting the data from a specific node in the finite element model, and
then storing it in MATLAB generated the plots in this section. This data was then
processed to form the continuous stress field through the composite.
45
Figure 3.42: Stress Field Generated from the Diagonal Load at the Damage Center
Figure 3.43: Stress Field from Diagonal Load, Stress vs. Frequency
46
Figure 3.44: Stress Field from the Diagonal Load, Layer Number vs. Frequency
Each set of results are based on the magnitude of the real and imaginary part of
the Von Mises Equivalent stress response due to the load input on the sheet. The Von
Mises Equivalent Stress is represented here, but the principal stresses in each direction,
within each layer can also be calculated as well. The principal stress could be more
beneficial in that they could be compared to the tensile strength in the fiber direction and
transverse fiber direction of each layer. Heterogeneous materials, like composites, do not
have a single value for their yield or ultimate strength. Rather, their strength varies from
layer to layer.
In terms of damage accumulation, the damage that was modeled in each of these
cases was the failure of the ten consecutive plies in a square region of 4x4 elements. The
damaged area is indicated by the deep blue color in the center of the layer number vs.
frequency plots, which means there is no stress in this region. It can be seen from the
results that the frequency and layer of the peak stress shift when the load is applied to a
different location. As the different natural modes are excited, the progression of the
47
damage will take place in the layers that show the highest stresses. The damage case
with the load at the center of the plate has the largest overall magnitude of stress, as well
as the largest peak at the higher frequency mode. This can be a major concern in terms o
the fatigue that will take place from having a larger oscillating stress. Both have the
largest stresses in the in the top three layer of the composite. But in comparing the
results, the case that is more beneficial to the one being protected by the composite sheet
would be the impact at the location diagonal to the center. There are several reasons for
this:
1. The peak stress, overall, is not as large
2. The high frequency mode does not have the largest stress
3. The lowest mode is not as excited
The last reason is based on the load time step. The larger the time step of the impact, the
more both cases benefit. In the case where the load is applied diagonal to the center, the
first mode would not be excited by a 25 ms impact, but the center load case would.
The damage accumulates as failures persist within the matrix and the fiber, as the
maximum stress for that ply is exceeded the more failure will occur.
48
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY, CONCLUSTIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH
4.1: Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 1 outlined the benefits of utilizing heterogeneous materials, such as
composites, in a broad array of applications. It also specified the need for a deeper
understanding of the failure mechanisms in composites. If accurate predictions can be
made about the life expectancy of these materials, then reliability during use and in
maintenance will increase. The damage mechanisms that occur inside of composites can
be broken down into four major contributors; matrix cracking, delamination, fiber
breakage, and local buckling.
These mechanisms interact with one another, thus
producing progressive damage accumulation.

Past research has been done to in both experimental and analytical testing of
various composite structures. Theses studies focused on the mathematical representation
of damage in composites and also in measure the progression of damage in composite
systems. Many of the analytical models used failure criteria such as Hashin or Hill-Tsai.
Chapter 2 focused on the techniques used to generate the finite eleme nt model in
Ansys, as well as the data used to represent the physical part. Much time was spent
learning how to create a realistic model using the tools within Ansys. The model was
based on a 20-ply laminated composite made of S2 Glass/Epoxy. The benefit of S glass
is that it is made of magnesium aluminosilicate and offers higher tensile strength than E
glass. Realistic loads were applied to simulate a ballistic load.
Chapter 3 presented the results of the damage cases and load conditions. There
were 5 damage cases in which the damage was re-located or re-sized. The loading
conditions were based on a distributed load that was either in the center of the composite
sheet of diagonal to the center. Numerous plots were generated in Ansys, to visually
show the distribution of stress within each composite layer. A consistent pattern was
seen in the damage cases in which the damage was not symmetric about the mid-plane.
In these cases the stress in the top layers, just above the damage, were higher than those
49
just below. This is attributed to the reduction in the local cross-sectional area. In some
cases the stress around the damage area would increase or decrease.
The areas of
increase indicate the load-carrying path of the structure in that region. All of the damage
cases were compared to a healthy baseline.
Some of the data from the first damage case was stored in MATLAB, in order to
generate plots of the stress field through the thickness of the composite. This data was
then used to describe the progression and accumulation of damage in the composite.
Also, the force profile used as the input for loading a composite sheet was discussed in
terms of its effects on stress when applied at different time steps and at different
magnitudes.
In conclusion, by using stress as a measure of the load-carrying path, predictions
can be made about where the damage will grow. The effects of the force location and
size were found to have a significant impact on the response of the composite sheet. The
finite element model can be used as a means of evaluating the change in the stress
distribution due to damage in multiple locations within a composite sheet. Also, the
affects of applying the load in different locations provided valuable insight as to the
levels of stress in the composite at different frequencies. The load applied at the center of
the damage location generated the largest stress in each of the damage cases. This
excited the highest mode, of those looked at, which can lead to higher fatigue in the
composite
4.2: Recommendations of Future Work

The present research has demonstrated that FEA is a valuable tool for comparing
the affects of damage and loading location on the response of a composite laminate. But
there is still much work that can be pursued in this area, in terms of other loading and
boundary conditions. Also, there are issues that need further investigation.
The use of the reduced stiffness properties to represent the damaged regions
should be verified with further research.
The load can be applied in more locations or at different magnitudes.
50
The frequency range of the harmonic forced response can be shifted to evaluate
higher modes.
Transient analyses can be run to apply a true time step load to the composite; also
transient results can be generated into transfer functions for the composite.
A different metric could be looked, instead of stress, as means of evaluating the

progression and accumulation of damage.
51
LIST OF REFERENCES
[1] Cantwell, W. J., Curtis, P. T., and Morton, J., Impact and Subsequent Fatigue
Damage Growth in Carbon Fibre Laminates, International Journal of Fatigue,Vol. 6,
No. 2, April 1984, pp.113-118.
[2] Craig, R. R., Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Edition New York, New York: John Wiley
& Sons 2000.
[3] Engblom, J. J., Havelka, J. J., Combined Analytical/Experimental Approach for
Developing Structural Model of Damaged Composite Structures, AIAA Conference,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA-91-1085-CP, 1991.
[4] Hashin, Z., Failure Criteria for Unidirectional Fiber Composites, Journal of
Applied Mechanics, V 47, 1980, pp. 329-334.
[5] Hertzberg, R. W., Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials,
4th Edition New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons 1996.
[6] Lee, J. D., Three Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of Damage Accumulation in
Composite Laminates, Computers and Stuctures, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1982, pp. 335-350.
[7] Reddy, A. D., Rehfield, L. W., and Haag, R. S., Influence of Prescribed
Delaminations on Stiffness-Controlled Behavior of Composite Laminates, Effects of
Defects in Composite Materials, ASTM STP 836, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1984, pp. 71-83.
[8] Sun, C. T., Mechanics of Composite Materials and Laminates, Lecture Notes A&AE
555, Spring 2003, Purdue University.
[9] Talreja, R., Stiffness Properties of Composite Laminates with Matrix Cracking and
Interior Delamination, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 25, No. 5/6, 1986, pp.
751-762.
[10] Thompson, W. T., Dahleh, M. D., Theory of Vibration with Applications, 5th Edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall 1998.
[11] Yen, C., Cassin, T., Patterson, J., Triplett, M., Progressive Failure of Thin Walled
Composite Tubes Under Low Energy Impact, U.S Army Missile Command, 1997.
52

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A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF DAMAGE ACCUMULATION

In Partial Fulfillment of the

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................iii

Table 2.1: Material Properties of Fiber Reinforced Composite ......................................... 8

Figure 1.1: Development of Damage in Composite Laminates (Talreja, 1986)................. 3

Moreover, the Department of Defense is primarily

interested in the reliability of so-called heterogeneous structures, such as laminated

In order to understand the

progression of the failure modes in a laminated composite, damage models were

Current manual inspection and

maintenance scheduling procedures are time consuming, costly, insensitive to small

Another major attribute of

composite materials is their extraordinary fatigue strength, as compared to homogeneous

1.2.1: Mechanisms and Accumulation

This reduction in mechanical

As delamination damage accumulates the

Figure 1.1: Development of Damage in Composite Laminates (Talreja, 1986)

Figure 1.2: Failure process in laminate composite

1.2.2: Damage in Military Applications

The focus of this project is on the response of

Armor and weapon systems

Figure 1.3: Army Tank with Composite Armor

Figure 1.4: Cross-section View of Damaged Armor Composite

1.3 Review of Previous Work

Hashin (1980) developed a stress based failure criteria to distinguish

Also, the code predicted

By evaluating the response of the model using

2.1: Model Description

The model was based on a 20-ply

Table 2.1: Material Properties of Fiber Reinforced Composite

Linear Layered Structural Shell

8-node, 3-D shell, 6-DOF per node,

Finite Strain Shell

4-node, 3-D shell, 6-DOF per node,

3-D Layered Structural Solid

8-node, 3-D solid, 3-DOF per node,

Layered Structural Solid

20-node, 3-D solid, 3-DOF per

Table 2.2: List of Layered Element Types in Ansys

In Ansys these properties are set using real constants.

constants are user-defined element characteristics, which represent the configuration of

2.3: Mesh and Boundary Conditions

This ratio is below the

Figure 2.1: Constraint and Load Condition of Baseline Model

2.4: Simulation of Damage

Gxy = Gyz = G xz = 50Pa

By using this methodology,

A static analysis was done to find the maximum

3.1: Mathematical Representation of Laminated Composites and Loading

For the kth lamina, the stress

components are given by (Sun, 2003)

Typically, the strains

3.2: Modal Response of Laminated Composite Sheet

To remain consistent, the plate was set with the same

The first five natural

Table 3.1: Modal Frequency Results

Figure 3.1: Mode Shape of First Natural Frequency

Figure 3.2: Mode Shape of Second Natural Frequency

Figure 3.3: Mode Shape of Third Natural Frequency

Figure 3.4: Mode Shape of Forth Natural Frequency

Figure 3.5: Mode Shape of Fifth Natural Frequency

Description of Damage Cases

3.3.2: Results of Damage Case 1 & 2 with Diagonal Loading