Electronic Devices PDF

MOS Capacitor | MOS Capacitance C V
Curve
Under Digital Electronics The acronym MOS stands for
Metal oxide semiconductor.
An MOS capacitor is made of a semiconductor body or

substrate, an insulator and a metal electrode called a gate.
Practically the metal is a heavily doped n+ poly-silicon layer
which behaves as a metal layer. The dielectric material used
between the capacitor plates is silicon dioxide (SiO2). The
metal acts as one plate of the capacitor and the semiconductor
layer which may be n-type or p-type acts as another plate.
The capacitance of the MOS capacitor depends upon the

voltage applied on the gate terminal. Usually the body is
grounded when the gate voltage is applied.
The flat band voltage is an important term related to the MOS
capacitor. It is defined as the voltage at which there is no
charge on the capacitor plates and hence there is no static
electric field across the oxide. An applied positive gate voltage
larger than the flat band voltage (VGB > VFB) then positive
charge is induced on the metal (poly silicon) gate and negative
charge in the semiconductor. The only negative charged
electrons are available as negative charges and they
accumulate at the surface. This is known as surface
accumulation.
If the applied gate voltage is lower than the flat band voltage
(VGB < VFB) then a negative charge is induced at the
interface between the poly-silicon gate and the oxide and
positive charge in the semiconductor. This is only possible by
pushing the negatively charged electrons away from the
surface exposing the fixed positive charges from donors. This
is known as surface depletion.
The MOS capacitor is not a widely used device in itself.

However, it is part of the MOS transistor which is by far the
most widely used semiconductor device.
The typical capacitance-voltage characteristics of a MOS
capacitor
with
n-type
body
is
given
below,
Capacitance vs. Gate Voltage (CV) diagram of a MOS
Capacitor. The flatband voltage
(VFB) separates the
Accumulation region from the Depletion region. The threshold

voltage (VTH) separates the depletion region from the
inversion region.
P-I-N Photodiode | Avalanche Photo Diode

Under Digital Electronics
PIN Diode
PIN photodiode is a kind of photo detector, it can convert

optical signals into electrical signals.
This technology was invented in the latest of 1950s. There are

three regions in this type of diode. There is a p-region an
intrinsic region and an n-region. The p-region and n-region are
comparatively heavily doped than the p-region and n-region of
usual p-n diodes. The width of the intrinsic region should be
larger than the space charge width of a normal p-n junction.
The PIN photodiode operates with an applied reverse bias
voltage and when the reverse bias is applied, the space charge
region must cover the intrinsic region completely. Electron
hole pairs are generated in the space charge region by photon

absorption.
The switching speed of frequency response of photodiode is

inversely proportional to the life time. The switching speed
can be enhanced by a small minority carrier lifetime. For the
photo detector applications where the speed of response is
important, the depletion region width should be made as large
as possible for small minority carrier lifetime as a result the
switch speed also increases. This can be achieved PIN
photodiode as the insertion of intrinsic region the space charge
width larger. The diagram of a normal PIN photodiode is
given below.
Avalanche Photo Diode
Avalanche photo diode is a kind of photo detector which can

convert signals into electrical signals pioneering research
work in the development of avalanche diode was done mainly
in 1960s.
Avalanche photodiode structural configuration is very similar
to the PIN photodiode. A PIN photodiode consists of three
regionsa) p- region, b) intrinsic region, c) n-region.
The difference is that reverse bias applied is very large to
cause impact ionization. For silicon as the sc material, a diode
will need between 100 to 200 volts. Firstly electron- hole pairs
are generated by photon absorption in the depletion region.
These generate more electron hole pairs through impact
ionization. These are swept out of the depletion region
quickly, i.e, the transit time is very less.
Diode Characteristics
Semiconductor materials (Si, Ge) are used to form variety of

electronic devices. The most basic device is diode. Diode is a
two terminal P-N junction device. P-N junction is formed by
bringing a P type material in contact with N type material.

When a P-type material is brought in contact with N- type
material electrons and holes start recombining near the
junction. This result in lack of charge carriers at the junction
and thus the junction is called depletion region. Symbol of P-N
junction is given as:
Biased
i.e. when voltage is applied across the terminals of P-N

junction, it is called diode. Diode is unidirectional device that
allows the flow of current in one direction only depending on
the
biasing.
Forward Biasing Characteristic of Diode
When P terminal is more positive as compared to N terminal

i.e. P- terminal connected to positive terminal of battery and
N-terminal connected to negative terminal of battery , it is
said to be forward biased.
Positive
terminal of the battery repels majority carriers, holes, in Pregion and negative terminal repels electrons in the N-region
and push them towards the junction. This result in increase in
concentration of charge carriers near junction, recombination
takes place and width of depletion region decreases. As
forward bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to
reduce in width, and more and more carriers recombine. This
results in exponential rise of current.
Reverse Biasing Characteristic of Diode
In reverse biasing P- terminal is connected to negative

terminal of the battery and N- terminal to positive terminal of
battery . Thus applied voltage makes N-side more positive
than P-side.
Negative
terminal of the battery attracts majority carriers, holes, in Pregion and positive terminal attracts electrons in the N-region
and pull them away from the junction. This result in decrease
in concentration of charge carriers near junction and width of
depletion region increases. A small amount of current flow
due to minority carriers, called as reverse bias current or
leakage current. As reverse bias voltage is raised depletion
region continues to increase in width and no current flows. It
can be concluded that diode acts only when forward biased.
Operation of diode can be summarized in form of I-V diode
characteristics graph. For reverse bias diode, V<0, I = I
Where, V = supply voltage I = diode current I = reverse
saturation current For forward bias, V > 0, I = I (e - 1)
Where, V = volts equivalent of temperature = KT/Q =
T/11600 Q = electronic charge = 1.632 X 10 C K =
D
- 19
V/NV
Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 X 10 N = 1, for Ge = 2, for Si

- 23
As
reverse bias voltage is further raised, depletion region width
increases and a point comes when junction breaks down. This
results in large flow of current. Breakdown is the knee of
diode characteristics curve. Junction breakdown takes place
due to two phenomena:
Avalanche Breakdown(for V> 5V)
Under very high reverse bias voltage kinetic energy of

minority carriers become so large that they knock out
electrons from covalent bonds, which in turn knock more
electrons and this cycle continues until and unless junction
breakdowns.
Zener Effect (for V<5V)
Under reverse bias voltage junction barrier tends to

increase with increase in bias voltage. This results in very
high static electric field at the junction. This static electric

field breaks covalent bond and set minority carriers free
which contributes to reverse current. Current increases
abruptly and junction breaks down. Zener Diode |
Symbol and Application as Voltage Regulator

Before entering the topic we should briefly know about the
diodes, what is diode? It is basically made of semiconductors
which have two characteristics p - type and n - type. The p type and n - type semiconductors represent positive and
negative type semi conductors. In p type semiconductor
number of holes is excess and in n - type number of electrons
are greater than holes. When both of these types of
characteristics are present in a single crystal then it can be
termed as diode. The positive terminal of the, battery is
connected with the p - side and the negative side is
connected with the n-side. Now coming to zener diode it is
nothing but a simple diode connecting in reverse bias. It is
mainly a special property of the diode rather than any special
type of equipment. Clearance Zener invented this property of
the diode thats why it is named after him. The main principle
of this special property is that there is a breakdown in the
circuit if the voltage applied across a reversely biased it does
not allow the current to flow across it. Now as the voltage
across the diode is increased, the temperature increases and
the crystal ions vibrate with greater amplitude and all these
leads to the breakdown of the depletion layer(i.e, the layer at

the junction of p - type and n - type). And when the applied
voltage exceeds an specific amount zener breakdown takes
place.
Zener Diode Circuit
Zener Diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a

reverse bias, we have already stated that. A diode connected
in reverse bias positive in a circuit is shown below,
The circuit symbol of Zener diode is also shown below. For

convenience and understanding, it is used normally
Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look

through the graphical representation of the operation of the
zener diode. Normally it is called the V-I characteristics of a
general p - n junction diode.
Characteristics of a Zener Diode
The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the zener

diode. When the diode is connected in forward bias, this
diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias
voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage zener
breakdown voltage takes place. To make the breakdown
voltage sharp and distinct, the doping is controlled and the

surface imperfections are avoided. In the V-I characteristics
above V is the zener voltage, we can say. It is also the knee
voltage because at this point the current is the current is very
rapid.
z
Application of Zener Diode
As we have gone through the first part of the article we know

what is zener diode and what is the basic principle of
operation of it. Now the question arises where this type of
diodes are used. The main application of this type of diodes
are as voltage regulator.
Over voltage protector, as voltage reference.
We will discussed what is the application of zener diode as
voltage regulator, now we will discuss the other two points
briefly.
Overvoltage protection is done by using Zener diodes
because there is current flowing through the diode after the
reverse bias voltage exceeds a certain value. This circuit
provides safety for the equipment connected at the terminals.
Normally the current should not exceed normal valve but if
due to any fault in the circuit the current exceeds the maximum
allowable limit, the equipment of the system can be damaged
permanently. A SCR is used, by it the output voltage is
quickly cut down and a fuse blows which disconnects the input
source power. The circuit arrangement is shown below for

better
understanding,
Voltage references determine the constant supply of power,

current or voltage as the zener voltage works if the supply of
current is constant. Thats why to avoid unstable performance,
zener diodes are used where voltage reference is required like
ohmmeters, ammeters and voltmeters.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
The term regulator means which regulates or controls. Zener

diode can work as a voltage regulator if it is introduced in a
circuit. The output across the diode will be constant. It is
driven by a current source. As we know if the voltage across

the diode exceeds a certain value it would draw excessive
current from the supply. The basic diagram of zener diode as
voltage regulator is given below,
To limit the current through the Zener diode series resistance

R is introduced whose value can be chosen from the following
equation
Resistor value (ohms) = (V1 - V2) / (zener current + load
current)
The above diagram is of a shunt regulators because the
regulating element is parallel to the load. The Zener diode
produce a stable reference voltage across the load which

fulfills the criteria of regulator.
Laser | Types and Components of Laser

LASER
The acronym LASER stands for Light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation.
It is a device which produce lights. These lights have no

existence in nature. The lights can be produced through a
process of optical amplification based on the stimulated
emission of electromagnetic radiation. It is different from
conventional light in three ways. First, the lights from LASER
contains only one color or wavelength-thats why it is called
monochromatic. Secondly, all the wavelengths are in phasebecause of this it is known as coherent. And thirdly, laser light
beams are very narrow and can be concentrated on one tiny
spot- this property makes it to be known as collimated. These
are also the characteristics of LASER.
For its operation, population inversion is much needed. When

a group of atoms or molecules exist with more no electrons in
an excited state than in lower energy states, population
inversion takes place. Now, when an electron is in an excited
state, it may decay to a empty lower energy state. If an
electron decays without external influence, emitting a photon,
that is known as spontaneous emission. But if the electron is
stimulated by a light wave (photon) and to emit a second wave
and return to the lower level, then it is known as stimulated
emission. Practically in stimulated emission, a photon hits an
electron and two photons are produced. Now, if a significant
population inversion exists, then stimulated emission can
produce significant amplification of light. Photons which are
produced in stimulated emission produce coherent light as they
have definite phase relationship.
The principle of laser was first discovered by Einstein in 1917

but it was not until 1958 that laser was successfully developed.
It has many important applications. They are used in common
consumer devices such as CD and DVD players, printers and
scanners. They are used in medicine for surgical purposes and
various skin treatments, and in industry for cutting and
welding materials. They are used in military and law

enforcement devices for marking targets and measuring range.
Lasers also have many important applications in scientific
research.
Components of LASER
Every LASER consists of three basic components. These are-a)

Lasing material or active medium.
b) External energy source.
c) Optical resonator.
a) The active medium is excited by the external energy

source(pump source) to produce population inversion. In the
gain medium that spontaneous and stimulated emission of
photons takes place, leading to the phenomenon of optical
gain, or amplification. Semiconductors, organic dyes, gases
(He, Ne, CO2, etc), solid materials ( YAG, sapphire(ruby)

etc.) are usually used as lasing materials and often LASERs
are named for the ingredients used as medium.
b) The excitation source, pump source provides energy which
is needed for the population inversion and stimulated emission
to the system. Pumping can be done in two ways - electrical
discharge method and optical method. Examples of pump
sources are electrical discharges, flash lamps, arc lamps, light
from another laser, chemical reactions etc.
c) Resonator guide basically provides the guidance about the
simulated emission process. It is induced by high speed
photons. Finally, a laser beam will be generated.
In most of the systems, it consists of two mirrors. One mirror
is fully reflective and other is partially reflective. Both the
mirrors are set up on optic axis, parallel to each other. The
active medium is used in the optical cavity between the both
mirrors. This arrangement only filters those photons which
came along the axis and others are reflected by the mirrors
back into the medium, where it may be amplified by
stimulated emission.
Types of LASER
There are many types of LASERs available for different

purposes. Depending upon the sources they can be described
as below.
A) Solid State LASER:
In this kind of LASERs solid state materials are used as active
medium. The solid state materials can be ruby, neodymiumYAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) etc.
B) Gas LASER:
These LASERs contain a mixture of helium and Neon. This
mixture is packed up into a glass tube. It acts as active
medium. We can use Argon or Krypton or Xenon as the
medium. CO2 and Nitrogen LASER can also be made.
C) Dye or Liquid LASER:
In this kind of LASERs organic dyes like Rhodamine 6G in
liquid solution or suspension used as active medium inside the
glass tube.
D) Excimer LASER:
Excimer LASERs (the name came from excited and dimers)
use reactive gases like Chlorine and fluorine mixed with inert
gases like Argon or Krypton or Xenon. This LASERs produce
light in the ultraviolet range.
E) Chemical LASER:
A chemical laser is a LASER that obtains its energy from a

chemical reaction. Examples of chemical lasers are the
chemical oxygen iodine laser (COIL), all gas-phase iodine
laser (AGIL), and the hydrogen fluoride laser, deuterium
fluoride laser etc.
F) Semiconductor LASER:
In these lasers, junction diodes are used. The semiconductor is
doped by both the acceptors and donors. These are known as
injection laser diodes. Whenever the current is passed, light
can be seen at the output.
Half Wave Diode Rectifier

Electric current flows through a p - n junction diode when it is
forward biased and we get output current through the load.
Let, we supply a sinusoidal voltage Vin = Vsint as a source

voltage. Now, if the input voltage is positive, the diode is
forward biased and when that is negative, the diode is in
reverse bias condition.
When the input voltage is positive, i.e, for the positive cycle of
the input voltage, the current flows through the diode. So, the
current will flow through the load also and we obtain output
voltage across the load. But for the negative half cycle of the
input, the p-n junction get reverse biased and no current flows
through the diode as a result we obtain zero current and zero
voltage across the load.
Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier
The basic diagram of half wave diode rectifier is given below,
For
For
negative
positive
half
half
cycle
cycle
Input voltage and Output Voltage Waveforms
Now, different parameters for half wave rectifier is given

below
The average of load current (Idc) :
Let,
Ripple
the
load
factor
current
of
be
half
iL
wave
Imsint,
rectifier,
The rms value of the load current (Irms ),
Full Wave Diode Rectifier

The diode works only when it is in forward bias, only the
current flows through p-n junction diode and output current
across the load is found.
If two diodes are connected in such a way that one diode

conducts during one half of the input voltage and the other one
conducts during the next half of the cycle, in a unidirectional
can flow through the load during the full cycle of the impact
voltage. This is known as full wave rectifier.
According to the diagram given below a center tapped

transformer D1, and D2 are two p-n junction diodes with
similar characteristics D1 conducts for negative half of the
output voltage. Thus we get output voltage and the output
current for the entire input cycle.
Circuit Diagram of Full Wave Diode Rectifier
The circuit diagram of the full wave diode rectifier given

below,
Full wave rectification can also be achieved using a bridge

rectifier which is made of four diodes.
According to the
figure, when D1 and D3 are forward biased, they conduct but
D2 and D4 and on D1 and D3 are reverse biased in both cases
load current in the same direction.
Bridge rectifier has several advantages over simple full wave
rectifier. It performance and efficiency is better than that of
the simple full time rectifier.
Input Voltage & Output Voltage Waveform
Now, different parameters for half wave rectifier is given

below
The average of load current (Idc) :
Let, the load current be iL = Imsint
Ripple factor of half wave rectifier,
Bipolar Junction Transistor or BJT | N-P-N

or P-N-P Transistor Application Theory
Biasing Amplifier
In 1947 J. Barden, W. Bratterin and W. Shockley invented

transistor. The term transistor was given by John R. Pierce.
Through initially it was called the solid state version of the
vacuum triode, but the term transistor has survived. As we
will go through the topic, we will know about the transistor,
mainly bipolar junction transistor or BJT. Nowadays the use
of BJTs has declined towards CMOS technology in the design
of ICs. The word transistor is derived from the words
Transfer & Resistor it describes the operation of a BJT i.e.
the transfer of an input signal from a low resistance circuit to
a high resistance circuit. This type of transistor is made up of
semiconductors. We know that silicon (Si) & Germanium (Ge)
are the examples of semiconductors. Now, why this is called
junction transistor? The answer lies behind the construction.
We already know what is p - type and n - type
semiconductors. Now, in this type of transistor any one type
of semiconductors is sandwiched between the other type of
semiconductor. For example, an n - type can be sandwiched
between two p - type semiconductors or similarly one p - type
can be sandwiched between two n - type semiconductors.
These are called p - n - p and n - p - n transistors respectively.
We will discuss about them later. Now as there are two
junctions of different types of semiconductors, this is called
junction transistor. Its called bipolar because the
conduction takes place due to both electrons as well as holes.
Definition of BJT
A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal

semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which is
able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled
device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the
collector and the emitter. A signal of small amplitude if
applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the
collector of the transistor. This is the amplification provided
by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of DC
power supply to carry out the amplification process.
The basic diagrams of the two types of bipolar junction

transistors
mentioned
above
are
given
below.
From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three
parts named emitter, base and collector. JE and JC represent
junction of emitter and junction of collector respectively. Now
initially it is sufficient for us to know that emitter based

junction is forward biased and collector base junctions is
reverse biased. The next topic will describe the two types of
this transistors.
N-P-N Bipolar Junction Transistor
As started before in n - p - n bipolar transistor one p - type

semiconductor resides between two n - type semiconductors
the diagram below a n - p - n transistor is shown
Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively

and VEB and VCB are emitter base voltage and collector base
voltage respectively. According to convention if for the
emitter, base and collector current IE, IB and IC current goes
into the transistor the sign of the current is taken as positive
and if current goes out from the transistor then the sign is
taken as negative. We can tabulate the different currents and
voltages inside the n - p - n transistor.
Transistor type
n-p-n
IE
IB
IC
P-N-P Bipolar Junction Transistor
Similarly for p - n - p bipolar junction transistor a n-type

semiconductors is sandwiched between two p-type
semiconductors. The diagram of a p - n - p transistor is shown
below
For p - n - p transistors, current enters into the transistor

through the emitter terminal. Like any bipolar junction
transistor, the emitter base junction is forward biased and the
VEB
collector base junction is reverse biased. We can tabulate the

emitter, base and collector current, as well as the emitter base,
collector base and collector emitter voltage for p - n - p
transistors also.
Transistor type
p-n-p
Working Principle of BJT
IE
IB
IC
Figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region

(See transistor biasing), the BE junction is forward biased
whereas the CB junction is reversed biased. The width of the
depletion region of the BE junction is small as compared to
that of the CB junction. The forward bias at the BE junction
reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow
from the emitter to base. As the base is thin and lightly doped
it consists of very few holes so some of the electrons from the
emitter (about 2%) recombine with the holes present in the
base region and flow out of the base terminal. This
constitutes the base current, it flows due to recombination of
electrons and holes (Note that the direction of conventional
current flow is opposite to that of flow of electrons). The
remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse
biased collector junction to constitute the collector current.
Thus by KCL,
VEB
The base current is very small as compared to emitter and

collector current.
Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The operation

of a p-n-p transistor is same as of the n-p-n, the only difference
is that the majority charge carriers are holes instead of
electrons. Only a small part current flows due to majority
carriers and most of the current flows due to minority charge
carriers in a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority carrier
devices.
Equivalent Circuit of BJT
A p-n junction is represented by a diode. As a transistor has

two p-n junctions, it is equivalent to two diodes connected
back to back. This is called as the two diode analogy of the
BJT.
Bipolar Junction Transistors Characteristics
The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base.

Before knowing about the bipolar junction transistor
characteristics, we have to know about the modes of
operation for this type of transistors. The modes are i)
Common Base (CB) mode
ii) Common Emitter (CE) mode

iii) Common Collector (CC) mode
All three types of modes are shown below
Now coming to the characteristics of BJT there are different

characteristics for different modes of operation. Characteristics
is nothing but the graphical forms of relationships among
different current and voltage variables of the transistor. The
characteristics for p - n - p transistors are given for different
modes and different parameters.
Common Base Characteristics

Input Characteristics
For p - n - p transistor, the input current is the emitter current

(IE) and the input voltage is the collector base voltage (VCB).
As the emitter - base junction is forward biased, therefore the

graph of IE Vs VEB is similar to the forward characteristics of a
p - n diode. IE increases for fixed VEB when VCB increases.
Output Characteristics
The output characteristics shows the relation between output

voltage and output current I is the output current and
collector base voltage and the emitter current I is the input
current and works as the parameters. The figure below shows
the output characteristics for a p - n - p transistor in CB mode.
C
As we know for p - n - p transistors IE and VEB are positive and

IC, IB, VCB are negative. These are three regions in the curve,
active region saturation region and the cut off region. The
active region is the region where the transistor operates
normally. Here the emitter junction is reverse biased. Now the
saturation region is the region where both the emitter collector
junctions are forward biased. And finally the cut off region is
the region where both emitter and the collector junctions are
reverse biased.
Common Emitter Characteristics

Input characteristics
IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base - Emitter
Voltage) is the input voltage for CE (Common Emitter) mode.
So, the input characteristics for CE mode will be the relation
between IB and VBE with VCE as parameter. The characteristics

are shown below
The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a

forward biased of p - n diode. But as VCB increases the base
width decreases.
Output characteristics
Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph
between collector current (IC) and collector - emitter voltage
(VCE) when the base current IB is the parameter. The
characteristics is shown below in the figure.
Like the output characteristics of common - base transistor CE

mode has also three regions named (i) Active region, (ii) cutoff regions, (iii) saturation region. The active region has
collector region reverse biased and the emitter junction
forward biased. For cut-off region the emitter junction is
slightly reverse biased and the collector current is not totally
cut-off. And finally for saturation region both the collector and
the emitter junction are forward biased.
Application of BJT
BJT's are used in discrete circuit designed due to availability of

many types, and obviously because of its high
transconductane and output resistance which is better than
MOSFET. BJT's are suitable for high frequency application
also. Thats why they are used in radio frequency for wireless
systems. Another application of BJT can be stated as small

signal amplifier, metal proximity photocell, etc.
Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier
To understand the concept of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Amplifier, we should look through the diagram of a p-n-p
transistor first.
Now as the input voltage is changed a little, say Vi of the

emitter - base voltage changes the barrier height and the
emitter current by IE. This change in emitter current develops
a voltage drop VO across the load resistance RL, where,
VO = - RLIC
VO gives the output voltage of the amplifier. There is a
negative sign because of the collector current gives a voltage
drop across RL with polarity opposite to the reference polarity.
The voltage gain AV for the amplifier is given the ratio
between the output voltages VO to the input voltage Vi, so,
IC / IE = AI is called the current gain ratio of the transistor.

From the figure diagram shown above we can see that an
increase in the emitter voltage reduces the forward bias at the
emitter junction thus decreases the collector current. It
indicates that the output voltage and the input voltage are in
phase. Now, finally the power gain Ap of the transistor is the
ratio between the output power and the input power
Tunnel Diode and its Applications

The application of transistors is very high in frequency range
are hampered due to the transit time and other effects. Many
devices use the negative conductance property of
semiconductors for high frequency applications. Tunnel diode
is one of the most commonly used negative conductance
devices. It is also known as Esaki diode after L. Esaki for his
work on this effect.
This diode is a two terminal device. The concentration of

dopants in both p and n region is very high. It is about 1024 1025 m-3 the p-n junction is also abrupt. For this reasons, the
depletion layer width is very small. In the current voltage
characteristics of tunnel diode, we can find a negative slope

region when forward bias is applied. Quantum mechanical
tunneling is responsible for the phenomenon and thus this
device is named as tunnel diode.
The doping is very high so at absolute zero temperature the

Fermi levels lies within the bias of the semiconductors. When
no bias is applied any current flows through the junction.
Characteristics of Tunnel Diode
When reverse bias is applied the Fermi level of p - side

becomes higher than the Fermi level of n-side. Hence, the
tunneling of electrons from the balance band of p-side to the
conduction band of n-side takes place. With the interments of
the reverse bias the tunnel current also increases. When
forward junction is a applied the Fermi level of n - side
becomes higher that the Fermi level of p - side thus the
tunneling of electrons from the n - side to p - side takes place.
The amount of the tunnel current is very large than the
normal junction current. When the forward bias is increased,
the tunnel current is increased up to certain limit. When the
band edge of n - side is same with the Fermi level in p - side
the tunnel current is maximum with the further increment in
the forward bias the tunnel current decreases and we get the
desired negative conduction region. When the forward bias is

raised further, normal p-n junction current is obtained which
is exponentially proportional to the applied voltage. The V - I
characteristics of the tunnel diode is given,
The negative resistance is used to achieve oscillation and often

Ck+ function is of very high frequency frequencies.
Tunnel Diode Symbol
Tunnel Diode Applications
Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast

and in microwave frequency range. It was the quantum
mechanical effect which is known as tunneling. It is ideal for
fast oscillators and receivers for its negative slope
characteristics. But it cannot be used in large integrated
circuits thats why its an applications are limited.
When the voltage is first applied current stars flowing through
it. The current increases with the increase of voltage. Once the
voltage rises high enough suddenly the current again starts
increasing and tunnel diode stars behaving like a normal diode.
Because of this unusual behavior, it can be used in number of
special applications started below.
Oscillator circuits :Tunnel diodes can be used as high
frequency oscillators as the transition between the high
electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to create

oscillation as high as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativity
oscillation up to 100 GHz in a appropriate digital circuits.
Used in microwave circuits: Normal diode transistors do not
perform well in microwave operation. So, for microwave
generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are. In microwave
waves and satellite communication equipments they were used
widely, but now a days their uses is decreasing rapidly as
transistor for working in wave frequency area available in
market.
Resistant to nuclear radiation :Tunnel diodes are resistant to
the effects of magnetic fields, high temperature and
radioactivity. Thats why these can be used in modern military
equipment. These are used in nuclear magnetic resource
machine also. But the most important field of its use satellite
communication equipments.
Tunnel Diode Oscillator
Tunnel diode can make a very stable oscillator circuit when

they are coupled to a tuned circuit or cavity, biased at the
centre point of negative resistance region. Here is an example
of tunnel diode oscillatory circuit.
The tunnel diode is losing coupled to a tunable cavity. By

using a short, antenna feed probe placed in the cavity off
centre loose coupling is achieved. To increase the stability of
oscillation and achieve o/p power over wider bandwidth loose
coupling is used. The range of the output power produced is
few hundred micro-watts. This is useful for many microwave
application. The physical position of the tuner determining the
frequency of operation. If the frequency of operation is
changed by this method, that is called mechanical tuning.
Tunnel diode oscillators can be tuned electronically also.
Tunnel diode oscillators which are meant to be operated at

microwave frequencies, generally used some form of
transmission lines as tunnel circuit. These oscillators are useful
in application that requires a few millwatts of power, examplelocal oscillators for microwave super electrodyne receiver.
MOSFET Circuits
MOSFET which has become the most commonly used three

terminal devices brings revolution in the world of electronic
circuits. Without MOSFET, the design of integrated circuits
seems impossible nowadays.
These are quite small and their process of manufacturing is

very simple. The implementation of both analog and digital
circuits integrated circuits is successfully done because of the
characteristics of MOSFET, strong> MOSFET circuits can be
analyzed in two ways-large signal model small signal model.
The large signal model is nonlinear. It is used to solve for the

de values of the device currents and voltage. The small signal
model can be derived based on the linearization of large signal

model. The cut-off region, the triode region and the saturation
region these are the three regions of operation MOSFET.
When gate to source voltage (VGS) is less than threshold
voltage (Vtn), the device is in cut off region. When MOSFET
is used as an amplifier, it is operated in saturation region. It is
in triode or cut off region when it is used as a switch.
MOSFET Driver Circuits
For helping MOSFETs to maximize the turn on and turn off

time, the driver circuits are needed. If the MOSFET takes
relatively long time going in and out of conduction, then we
cannot use the advantage of using MOSFETs. This will cause
MOSFET to heat up and device will not function properly.
MOSFET drivers can often use bootstraps circuit to create
voltages to drive the gate to a higher voltage than the
MOSFETs supply voltage.
Practically the gate of MOSFET acts like a capacitor to the
driver, or the driver can turn on or off MOSFET very rapidly,
by charging or discharging the gate respectively.
MOSFET Switching Circuits
MOSFET works in three regions cut off region triode region

and saturation region. When MOSFET is in cut off triode
region, it can work as switch.
MOSFET switching circuits consists of two main partMOSFET (works as per transistor) and the on/off control
block. MOSFET passes the voltage supply to a specific load
when the transistor is on. In most of the cases n-channel
MOSFETs are preferred over p-channel MOSFETs for several
advantages.
In a MOSFETs switching circuit the drain is connected
directly to the input voltage and the source is connected to the
load. For turning on n-channel MOSFET, the gate to source
voltage must be greater than the threshold voltage must be
greater than the threshold voltage of the device. For p channel
MOSFET the source to gate voltage must be greater than the
threshold voltage of the device. MOSFET behaves as a better
switch than BJT because the offset voltage does not exist in
MOS switches.
MOSFET Inverter Circuits
Inverter circuit is one of the fundamental building blocks in

digital circuit design. The inverters can be applied directly to
the design of logic gates and other more complex digital
circuits. The transfer characteristics of an ideal inverter is
shown below.
Early MOS digital circuits were made using p-MOSFET. But

with the advancements of microelectronics technology the
threshold voltage of MOS can be controlled and an MOS
technology becomes dominant, as the majority carries of nMOS, i.e electrons are twice faster than the holes, the majority
carriers of p-MOS, so the inverter circuits also using n-MOS
technology until CMOS technology arrived. Here we discuss
three types of MOS inverter circuits.
Resistive load n-MOS inverters : it is the simplest MOSFET
inverter circuits, it has a load resistance R and n-MOS
transistor connected in series between supply voltage and
ground
as
shown
below.
If Vin is less than the threshold voltage of the n- MOS the

transistor is off. The capacitor can be changed to supply
voltage and the output voltage equals to the supply voltage.
When the input is greater than the threshold voltage of the
transistor and we get zero voltage at output its disadvantages
is that it occupies large area IC fabrication.
Active load n MOS inverter : Here we use n MOS transistors
as active load instead of resistor. There are two kinds of
transistors in the circuit pull down transistor to pull the output
voltage to the lower supply voltage (usually OV ) and pull up
transistor to pull the output voltage to the upper supply
voltage. in the following circuit, we can see a pull up and pull
down n MOSFET. The gate of the pull up is shorted to supply

voltage
to
make
it
always
on.
CMOS inverter: The CMOS inverter is built using an n MOS

p MOS pair sharing a common gate. P channel transistor is
used as pull up transistor and v channel transistor is used as
pull
down
transistor
When Vin is less than the threshold of n MOS the n MOS turns
off but p MOS turns on. The capacitor thus will be charged to
supply voltage and we obtain equals to supply at output.
when Vin is greater than the threshold of n MOS the n MOS
turns on but p MOS turns off. The capacitor thus will be
discharged to supply voltage and we obtain voltage equals to
zero at output.
The advantages are CMOS inverters circuit dissipates power
only during switching event. And in the voltage transfer curve
we observe sharp transition. But in fabrication extra process
steps are required.
Energy Bands of Silicon
Silicon is a kind of semiconductor material whose number of

free electrons is less than conductor but more than that of
insulator. For having this unique characteristics, silicon has a
vast application in the field of electronics. There are two kinds
of energy band in silicon which are conduction band and
valance band. A series of energy levels having valance
electrons forms the valance band in the solid. At absolute 0K
temperature the energy levels of the valance band is filled with
electrons. This band contains maximum amount of energy
when the electrons are in valance band, no current flows due to
such electrons.
Conduction band is the higher energy level band which is of

minimum amount of energy. This band is partially filled by the
electrons which are known as the free electrons as they can
move anywhere in the solid. These electrons are responsible
for current flowing. There is a gap of energy between the
conduction band and the valance band. This gap of energy is
called forbidden energy gap. Actually this determines the
nature of a solid. Whether a solid is metal, insulator or

semiconductor in nature, the fact is determined by the amount
of forbidden energy gap. Partially there is no gap for metals
and very large gap for insulators. For semiconductors the gap
is neither very large nor the bands get overlapped. Silicon has
forbidden gap of 1.2 ev at 300K temperature.
We know that in silicon crystal, covalent bond exists. Silicon

is neutrally charged. When an electron breaks away from its
covalent bond, a hole is created behind it. As temperature
increases more, more electrons jump into conduction band and
more holes are created in the valance bond.
Energy Band Diagram of Silicon
Energy band diagram of silicon shows the levels of energies

of electrons in the material. There are two kinds of energy
band, valance band and conduction band. Valance electrons
occupy the valance band with highest energy level. Free
electrons are in conduction band with minimum amount of
energy. Valance and conduction bands are separated by the
amount of energy known as the forbidden energy gap. This
amount is nearly 1.2 ev at 300 K. In intrinsic silicon, the Fermi
level lies in the middle of the donor atoms, it becomes n-type
when Fermi level moves higher i.e. closer to conduction band.
When intrinsic silicon is doped with acceptor atoms, it

becomes p - type and Fermi level moves towards valance
band.
Energy Bands Diagram of Intrinsic Silicon
Intrinsic Silicon and Extrinsic Silicon

Intrinsic Silicon
A pure semi conductors material which has impurity is do

pent atom and no lattice defects is known as intrinsic silicon.
The electrical conductivity of this type of silicon is entirely
dependent on thermally generated carrier.
Silicon is a very important element semiconductor. Silicon is a

group IV material. In its outer orbit it has four valance
electrons which are held by covalent bonds with the valance
electrons of four nearest silicon atom. These valance electrons
are not available for electricity. So, at OK intrinsic semi
conductor behaves like an insulator. When temperature rises
some valance electrons break covalent bonds thermal energy.
This vacancy in the band caused by a free electron creates a
hole. The electrons gain sufficient energy to jump to
conduction band from valance band and leave a hole in the
valance band. This energy is equal to 1.2 ev in room
temperature (at 300K) which is equal to the band gap energy.
In the intrinsic silicon crystal, the no of holes is equal to the

no. of free electrons. New electrons whole pairs are generated
by gaining thermal energy but at the same time some are lost
due to recombination.
In equilibrium condition, the electron concentration and the
hole concentration p are equal and they are equal to the
intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon nickel i.e, n = p = ni.
The
atomic
structure
is
shown
below.
Extrinsic Silicon
A pure semiconductor material having impurity in its crystal is

known as extrinsic silicon. Intrinsic semiconductor can be
turned in to extrinsic semiconductor when it is doped with
controlled amount of dopants. It is doped with donor atom
(group V elements) it becomes n-type semiconductor. And it
is doped with acceptor atoms (group III elements) it becomes
p-type semiconductor.
Let a small amount of group V element is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor crystal. The examples of group V elements are
p, as sb, etc. They have 5 valance electrons. When they

displace a Si atom, the 4 valance electrons made co-valance
bonds with neighboring atoms leaving some free electron. The
energy necessary for silicon this purpose is about 0.05 ev. This
kind of impurity is named as donor. The silicon known as ntype semiconductors as the electrons are negative charged
particles.
The Fermi energy level moves closer to the conduction band in
the n-type semiconductors. Here the no. of free electrons is
increased over intrinsic concentration of electrons and no. of
holes is decreased over intrinsic hole concentration. Electrons
are majority charge carriers.
If a small amount of group III elements is added to a intrinsic
semiconductor crystal, then they displace a silicon atom, group
III elements like AI,B, IN have three valance electrons. These
three electrons make covalent band with neighboring atoms
creating a hole. These kinds of impurity atoms known as
acceptors.
The
semiconductor
in
known
as
p-type
semiconductor as the hole is assumed to be positively charged.

The Fermi energy level mover down, closer to the valance
bond in p-type semiconductors. Here the number of holes is
increased and the number of electrons is decreased over the
intrinsic
carrier
concentration
of
silicon.
In
p-type
semiconductors holes are the majority charge carriers.

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration of Silicon
When an electron jumps from valance band to conduction

band because of thermal excitation, free carriers are created
in both bands-electrons in conduction band and holes in
valance band. The concentration of these carriers is known as
intrinsic carrier concentration. Practically in pure or intrinsic
silicon crystal. The no. of holes p. They are equal to intrinsic
carrier concentration ni.
Therefore, n = p =n
i
The no. of these carriers depends upon the band gap energy.
For silicon the band gap energy is 1.2 ev at 298K intrinsic
carrier concentration in silicon increases with the increase of
temperature.
Intrinsic carriers concentration in silicon is given by,
ni
Here
9.38
X
T
1019(T/300)2exp(=
6884/T)
temperature
The intrinsic carrier concentration at 300K is 1.01 X 1010 cm-3.

But the previously accepted value is 1.5 X 1010 cm-3.
MOSFET | Working Principle of p-channel

n-channel MOSFET
MOSFET stands for metal oxide semiconductor field effect

transistor. It is capable of voltage gain and signal power gain.
The MOSFET is the core of integrated circuit designed as
thousands of these can be fabricated in a single chip because of
its very small size. Every modern electronic system consists of
VLST technology and without MOSFET, large scale
integration is impossible.
It is a four terminals device. The drain and source terminals

are connected to the heavily doped regions. The gate terminal
is connected top on the oxide layer and the substrate or body
terminal is connected to the intrinsic semiconductor.
MOSFET has four terminals which is already stated above,

they are gate, source drain and substrate or body. MOS
capacity present in the device is the main part. The conduction
and valance bands are position relative to the Fermi level at the
surface is a function of MOS capacitor voltage. The metal of
the gate terminal and the sc acts the parallel and the oxide
layer acts as insulator of the state MOS capacitor. Between the
drain and source terminal inversion layer is formed and due to

the flow of carriers in it, the current flows in MOSFET the
inversion layer is properties are controlled by gate voltage.
Thus it is a voltage controlled device.
Two basic types of MOSFET are n channel and p channel
MOSFETs. In n channel MOSFET is current is due to the flow
of electrons in inversion layer and in p channel current is due
to the flow of holes.
Another type of characteristics of clarification can be made of
those are enhancement type and depletion type MOSFETs. In
enhancement mode, these are normally off and turned on by
applying gate voltage. The opposite phenomenon happens in
depletion type MOSFETs.
Working Principle of MOSFET
The working principle of MOSFET depends up on the MOS

capacitor. The MOS capacitor is the main part. The
semiconductor surface at below the oxide layer and between
the drain and source terminal can be inverted from p-type to
n-type by applying a positive or negative gate voltages
respectively. When we apply positive gate voltage the holes
present beneath the oxide layer experience repulsive force
and the holes are pushed downward with the substrate. The
depletion region is populated by the bound negative charges,
which are associated with the acceptor atoms. The positive
voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain

regions in to the channel. The electron reach channel is
formed. Now, if a voltage is applied between the source and
the drain, current flows freely between the source and drain
gate voltage controls the electrons concentration the
channel. Instead of positive if apply negative voltage a hole
channel will be formed beneath the oxide layer.
Now, the controlling of source to gate voltage is responsible
for the conduction of current between source and the drain. If
the gate voltage exceeds a given value, called the three voltage
only then the conduction begins.
The current equation of MOSFET in triode region is -
Where, un = Mobility of the electrons Cox = Capacitance of the

oxide layer W = Width of the gate area L = Length of the
channel VGS = Gate to Source voltage VTH = Threshold voltage
VDS = Drain to Source voltage.
P-Channel MOSFET
MOSFET which has p - channel region between source any

gate is known as p - channel MOSFET. It is a four terminal
devices, the terminals are gate, drain, source and substrate or
body. The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and
the substrate is in n-type. The current flows due to the flow of
positively charged holes thats why it is known as p-channel

MOSFET. When we apply negative gate voltage, the electrons
present beneath the oxide layer, experiences repulsive force
and they are pushed downward in to the substrate, the
depletion region is populated by the bound positive charges
which are associated with the donor atoms. The negative gate
voltage also attracts holes from p+ source and drain region in
to the channel region. Thus hole which channel is formed now
if a voltage between the source and the drain is applied
current flows. The gate voltage controls the hole
concentration of the channel. The diagram of p- channel
enhancement and depletion MOSFET are given below.
N-Channel MOSFET
MOSFET having n-channel region between source and

drain is known as n-channel MOSFET . It is a four terminal
device, the terminals are gate, drain and source and
substrate or body. The drain and source are heavily doped
n+ region and the substrate is p-type. The current flows
due to flow of the negatively charged electrons, thats why
it is known as n- channel MOSFET. When we apply the
positive gate voltage the holes present beneath the oxide
layer experiences repulsive force and the holes are pushed
downwards in to the bound negative charges which are

associated with the acceptor atoms. The positive gate
voltage also attracts electrons from n+ source and drain
region in to the channel thus an electron reach channel is
formed, now if a voltage is applied between the source and
drain. The gate voltage controls the electron concentration
in the channel n-channel MOSFET is preferred over pchannel MOSFET as the mobility of electrons are higher
than holes. The diagrams of enhancements mode and
depletion
mode
are
given
below.
p-n Junction Diode and Characteristics of pn Junction

P-N junction diode is the most fundamental and the simplest

electronics
device.
When
one
side
of
an
intrinsic
semiconductor is doped with acceptor i.e, one side is made ptype by doping with n-type material, a p-n junction diode is
formed. This is a two terminal device. It appeared in 1950s.
P-N junction can be step graded or linearly graded. In step

graded the concentration of dopants both, in n - side and in p side are constant up to the junction. But in linearly graded
junction, the doping concentration varies almost linearly with
the distance from the junction.
When the P-N diode is in unbiased condition that is no voltage

is applied across it, electrons will defuse through the junction
to p - side and holes will defuse through the junction to n - side
and they combine with each other. Thus the acceptor atom
near the p - side and donor atom near n side are left
unutilized. An electron field is generated by these uncovered

charges. This opposes further diffusion of carriers. So, no
movement of region is known as space charge or depletion
region.
If, we apply forwards bias to the p-n junction diode. That
means if positive side of the battery is connected to the p
side, then the depletion regions width decreases and carriers
flow across the junction. If the bias is reversed the depletion
width increases and no charge can flow across the junction.
P-N Junction Diode Characteristics
Let's a voltage V is applied across a p-n junction and total

current I, flows through the junction. It is given as. I =
I [exp(eV/K T) - 1]
S
Here, IS = reverse saturation current e = charge of electron =

emission co-efficient KB = Boltzmann constant T =
temperature
The current voltage characteristics plot is given below.
The
current
voltage
characteristics
When V is positive the junction is forward biased and when V

is negative, the junction is reversing biased. When V is
negative and less than VTH, the current is very small. But when
V exceeds VTH, the current suddenly becomes very high. The
voltage VTH is known as threshold or cut in voltage. For
Silicon diode VTH = 0.6 V.
At a reverse voltage corresponding to the point P, there is
abrupt increment in reverse current. The PQ portion of the
characteristics is known as breakdown region.
P-N Junction Band Diagram
For an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level EF lies near the

conduction band edge. EC but for an p - type semiconductor,
EF lies near the valance band edge EV
Now, when a p-n junction is built, the Fermi energy EF attains

a constant value. In this scenario the p-sides conduction band
edge. Similarly nside valance band edge will be at higher
level than Ecn, n-sides conduction band edge of p - side. This
energy difference is known as barrier energy. The barrier
energy is EB = Ecp - Ecn = Evp - Evn
If
we
apply forward bias voltage V, across junction then the barrier

energy decreases by an amount of eV and if V is reverse bias
is
applied
the
barrier
energy
increases
by
eV.
P-N Junction Diode Equation
The p-n junction diode equation for an ideal diode is given

below
I = IS[exp(eV/KBT) - 1]
Here, IS = reverse saturation current e = charge of electron KB
= Boltzmann constant T = temperature
For a normal p-n junction diode, the equation becomes
I = IS[exp(eV/KBT) - 1]
Here, = emission co-efficient, which is a number between 1
and 2, which typically increases as the current increases.
Objective Questions on P-N Junction Diode
JFET or Junction Field Effect Transistor

The junction field effect transistor or JFET is one of the

simplest transistors from the structural point of view. It is a
voltage controlled semiconductor device. In this, the current
is carried by only one type of carriers. So, it is a unipolar
device. It has a very high input electrical resistance.
JFET consists of a doped Si or GaAs

bar. There are ohmic contacts, the two ends of the bar and
semiconductor junction on its two sides. If the semiconductor
bar is n - type, the two sides of the bar is heavily doped with p
- type impurities and this is known as n - channel JFET. On the
other hand if the semiconductor bar is p- type, the two sides
of the bar is heavily doped with n - type impurities and this is
known as p- channel JFET. When a voltage is applied between
the two ends, a current which is carried by the majority
carriers of the bar flows along the length of the bar.
There are several terminals in JFET. The terminal through

which the majority carrier enter the bar and the terminal
through which they leave are known as source (s) and drain
(D) respectively. The heavily doped region on the two sides is

known as the gate (G).
In junction field effect transistor, the junction is a reverse

biased. As a result, depletion regions form, which extend to
the bar. By changing gate to source voltage, the depletion
width can be controlled. So, the effective cross section area
decreased with increasing reverse bias. So, the drain current is
a function of the gate to the source voltage:
Now days JFET is obsolete. Its applicants are limited to circuit

design. Where it can be used an amplifier and as a switch both.
N-Channel JFET
A semiconductor bar of
n-type material is taken & ohmic contacts are made on either
ends of the bar. Terminals are brought out from these ohmic
contacts and named as drain & source as shown in the figure
below. On the other two sides of the n-type semiconductor
bar, heavily doped p-type regions are formed to create a p-n
junction. Both these p-type regions are connected together
via ohmic contacts and the gate terminal is brought out as
seen below. Figure below shows the n-channel & p-channel
JFET with symbols. The arrow on the gate indicates the
direction of the current. Current flows through the length of
the n-type bar (channel) due to majority charge carries which
in this case are electrons. When a voltage is applied between
the two ends, a current which is carried by the majority
carriers electrons flows along the length of a bar. The majority
carriers enter the bar through the source terminal and leave
through the drain terminal. The heavily doped regions of the

n-type bar are known as the gates.
The gate source junctions is reverse is biased as a result
depletion regions from which extend to the bar by changing
gate to source voltage effective cross sectional area decreases
with the function of the gate to source voltage.
P-Channel JEFT
p-channel JFET consists

of a p-type silicon or GaAs. Two sides of the bar is heavily
doped with n-type impurities. When a voltage is applied
between the two ends, a current which is carried by the
majority carrier holes flow along the length of a bar.
The gate source junction is reverse biased as a result depletion
regions form, which extend to the bar by changing gate to
extend to source voltage the depletion width can be controlled.
The effective cross sectional area decreased with increasing
reverse bias, so the drain current is the function of the gate to

source voltage.
Biasing of JFET
The gate to source p-n junction of a JFET is always reverse

biased and supply voltage is given across the drain to source
terminal.
Operation of Junction Field Effect Transistor or JFET
Operation with gate to source voltage = 0 If an n-channel JFET

is biased as explained above and the gate to source voltage is
kept zero, due to the positive drain to source voltage few
electrons which are available for conduction in the n-type
material will start flowing from the narrow passage (channel)
from source to drain. This current is called as drain current. As
the channel has some finite resistance it will cause some
voltage drop across the channel. Hence the depletion region
of the p-n junction starts increasing and penetrates more into
the n-type material as it is lightly doped. Due to this the width

of the channel available for conduction is reduced. The
penetration of the depletion region into the n-type region
depends on the reverse bias voltage. Maximum drain current
I will flow through the device when the channel is widest
i.e. when V is zero.
D(MAX)
GS
Operation with negative gate to source voltage As a negative

voltage is applied to the gate to source p-n junction the
depletion region increases and penetration of the depletion
region into the n-type channel further increases. If the
negative gate to source voltage is further increased the
depletion region spreads more and more inside the n-type
bar. Due to this less and less number of charge carries
(electrons) can pass through the channel and the drain
current reduces. Hence with increase in negative gate to
source voltage drain current reduces. At a certain value of this
voltage the depletion region from both the ends will increase
and touch each other and the drain current will become zero.
This gate to source voltage at which drain current is cutoff is
called as V . As seen the V controls I . Hence, JFET is a
voltage controlled device. The relationship between I and V
GS(OFF)
GS
GS
is given by Shockleys equation

Where, V is the pinch off voltage which is the value of drain
to source V at which drain current reaches its constant
saturation value. Any further increase in V does not affect I .
P
DS
DS
JEFT Characteristics or Junction Field Effect Transistor Characteristics
In this characteristics we can find three regions,

1) The linear or the ohmic region: Here the drain to source
voltage is small and drain current in nearly proportional to the
drain to source voltage. When a positive drain to source
voltage is applied, this voltage increases from zero to a small
value, the depletion region width remain very small and under
this condition the semi conductor bar behaves just like a
resistor. So, drain current increases almost linearly with drain
to source voltage.
ii) The saturation of the active region: Here the drain current is
almost constant and it is not dependent on the drain to source
voltage actually. When the drain to source voltage continuous
to increase the channel resistance increases and at some point,
the depletion regions meet near the drain to pinch off the
channel. Beyond that pinch off voltage , the drain, current
attains saturation.
iii) The breakdown voltage: Here the drain current increases

rapidly with a small increase of the drain to source voltage.
Actually for large value of drain to source voltage, a
breakdown of the gate junction takes place which results a
sharp increase of the drain current.
Transfer characteristics The graphical characteristics plot of
the saturation drain current against the gate to source voltage is
known as the transfer characteristics of JFET. It can be
obtained from static characteristics very easily. The transfer
characteristics of an n- channel is shown below.
JFET as Switch
The junction field effect transistor (JFET) can be used as an

electronically controlled switch to control electric power to a
load.
JFETs are normally on (NO) devices. They are normally
saturated devices. When a reverse bias is applied between gate
and source, the depletion regions of that junction expand and
pinching off the channel through which current flowing takes
place. If the channel is pinched the current does not flow the
device will be in switched off condition.
By this process junction field effect transistor can be used as
switches. But now days their application is obsolete. An
example of JFETs acting as a switch and the corresponding
circuit is given below.
Applications of JFET
The junction field effect transistor has many application in the

field of electronics and communication.
Some of these applications are stated below.
1. Low noise and high input impedance amplifier:Noise is an undesirable disturbance which interferes with the
signals information - greater the noise less the information.
Energy electronics device cause some amount of noise. If FET
s is used at the front end, we get less amount of amplified
noise at the output. Now, it has very high input impedance. So,
it can be used in high input impedance amplifier.
2. Buffer amplifier:- Buffer amplifier should have very high

input impedance and low output impedance. Because of high i
/ p impedance and low output impedance, FET acts as great
buffer amplifier. the common drain mode can be used in this
purpose.
3. R.F. Amplifier:JFET is good in low current signal operation as it is a voltage
controlled semiconductors device. It has very low noise level.
So, it can be used as RF amplifier in receiver sections of
communication field.
4. Current source:Here all the supply voltage appears across load. If the current
tries to increase very much, the excessive load a current drives
the JFET in to active region. Thus JFET acts as a current
source .
5. Switch:JFET may be used as an on / off switch controlling electrical
power
to
load.
An
example
is
given
below
Chopper :- When a source wave is applied to the gate of JFET

witch, the chopper operation can be done using JFET.
6. Multiplexer:-
Analog multiplexer circuit can be made using JFETs. An

example
is
given
below.
LED or Light Emitting Diode

In modern era we are highly familiar with the term LED. It

stands for light emitting diode. These are mainly used for
making indicators and various other types of lightning. In 1962
first this type of light appeared to the market. Which was low
intensity red light, now the modern versions of this type of
lights are visible, ultraviolet, inferred etc.
In LED electrical energy is converter in to optical energy.

These are example of electro-luminescence, the process in
which emission of photos takes place by the recombination of
excess electrons and holes in a direct band gap semiconductor.
The main advantages of using these are the low energy
consumption, longer lifetime, strong build, smaller size etc.
Working of LED or Light Emitting Diode
In LED s the electrical energy

is converted in to optical energy. The main mechanism of
working is injection electro luminescence. In injection electro
luminescence, the carrier are injected zacross a p-n junction.
Now the recombination of excess electrons and the holes can
result photon emission if the semiconductor used, is a direct
band gap semiconductor. In direct band gap semiconductor,
transition between the two allowed bands can take place with
no change in crystal momentum.
When across the p-n junction, a voltage is applied then

electrons and the holes are injected across the depletion region
and they become excess minority carriers. These recombine
with majority carriers when these minority carriers diffuse this
in to neutral semiconductor region. This recombination
process in direct band gap material results the emission of
photons. The output photon intensity is directly proportional to
the ideal diode diffusion current which is proportional to the
recombination rate.
The wave length of output optical signals depends upon the
band gap energy. The output wave length can be engineered
within certain limits by using compound semiconductors, so
that a particular color can be observed, provided the output is
in visible range.
Application of LED or Light Emitting Diode
Today almost everywhere LEDs lights are used and the

application of LED is huge. First we are going to see through
the list, then we will categorize the application of these.
In motorcycle and bicycle lights. In traffic lights and signals.
In message displaying boards. In light bulbs and many more.
Now, practically if we sit to list all the applications it will be a
non-ending list. So, here we are classifying the use in to some
parts.
i) Indicators and signs:- these are mainly used in traffic
signals, exit signs, light weight message, displaying box etc
ii) Lighting:- Light Emitting Diode lamps have become
highly popular and as the energy consumption is very low for
them, they are also being made by LED s. In 2001, the Italian
village Torraca was the first place to convert all its lighting to
LED. In television and computer/laptop displaying, LEDs are
used.
iii) Non visual application:- Communication, sensor are the
main area of non visual application of LEDs.
Advantages of LED or Light Emitting Diode
If anybody compares LEDs to other illumination methods

present in the market now days it will be found that LED
lighting in by far the most saving solution. In modern era of
technology, there is an up gradation from analog to digital.

You can say LED is digital light which has huge advantages
over conventional analog lights. The main advantages are
briefly described below.
(1) Size :- Sizes of Light Emitting Diodes are from 3 mm to 8
mm long. The small size allows them to be used in small
spaces where tube lights cannot be used. Because of its small
size, various designs can be made very simply.
(2) Larger lifetime :- This is the number one benefit of LEDs
lights. As an example a high power white LEDs life time is
projected to be 35,000 to 50,000 hours. Where as an
incandescent bulbs life time is 750 to 2,000 hours. For
compact fluorescent bulbs, the life time is 8,000 to 10,000
hours. Actually unlike standard lighting LEDs do not burn out.
They just gradually fade.
(3) Lower temperature: - LED's mechanism does not consists
of any step to produce heat. In conventional lights, the
production of heat are very common fact. They waste most of
their energy as heat. They remain cool.
(4) Energy efficiency :- Light Emitting Diode is todays most
energy efficient way of lighting its energy efficiency is nearly
80% to 90% whereas traditional lights have 20% energy
efficiency, 80% is lost, as heat. More over the quality of

lighting is very good.
(5) Design flexibility :- LEDs can be merged in any shape or
combination. They can be used in singly as an irony. Single
LED can be operated, resulting in a dynamic control of light.
Superb lighting effects of different colors can be achieved by
well designed LED illumination system.
(6) Ecologically friendly:- LED lights do not contain any toxic
chemical. They do not leave any toxic material and 100%
recyclable. Their illuminations are close to no UV emission.
The solid package of it can be designed to focus its light also.
(7) Color:- LEDs can be emit light of intended color this is
done by charging the compositions of the solid state materials
doping without using any color filter.
(8) On/off time:- Light Emitting Diodes can be operated very
quickly. They can be used in frequent on/off operation in
communication devices.
Theory of Semiconductor
The materials can be classified on the basis of energy gap
between their valence band and conduction band. The
valence band is the band consisting of free valence electron
and the conduction band is empty band. Conduction takes
place when an electron jumps from valence band to
conduction band and the gap between these two bands is

energy gap. Wider the gap between the bands, higher the
energy it requires to shift the electron to conduction band.
In case of conductors, this energy gap is absent or in other

words conduction band and valence band overlap each other.
Thus electron requires minimum energy to jump from valence
band, e.g. Silver, Copper and Aluminium. In insulators, this
gap is very large. Therefore, it requires large amount of energy
to shift an electron from valence to conduction band. Thus
insulators are poor conductors of electricity, e.g. mica,
diamond.
Semiconductors have energy gap in between conductors and

insulators (~1 eV) and thus require energy more than
conductors but less than insulators. They dont conduct
electricity at low temperature but as temperature increases
conductivity increases e.g. silicon and germanium. This is the
most basic theory of semiconductor.
The materials that are neither conductor nor insulator with

energy gap of about 1 eV (electron volt) are called
semiconductors. Most common type of materials that are used
as semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si)
because of their property to withstand high temperature. For Si
and Ge energy gap is given as,
1. Eg = 1.21 - 3.6 X 10-4T eV (for Si)
2. Eg = 0.785 - 2.23 X 10-4T eV (for Ge)
Where, T = absolute temperature in oK
Assuming room temperature to be 300 oK, Eg = 0.72eV for Ge
and 1.1eV for Si.
At room temperature resistivity of semiconductor is in
between insulators and conductors. Semiconductors show
negative temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. its resistance
decreases with increase in temperature.
Both Si and Ge are elements of IV group i.e. both elements
have 4 valence electrons. Both form covalent bond with
neighbouring atom. At absolute zero temperature both behave
as insulator i.e. the valence band is full while conduction band
is empty but as temperature is raised more and more covalent
bonds break and electrons are set free and jump to conduction
band.
Energy band diagram of a semiconductor. CB is the
conduction band and VB is the valence band. At 0 K, the VB
is full with all the valence electrons.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
As per theory of semiconductor, semiconductor in its pure

form
is
called
as
intrinsic
semiconductor.
In
pure
semiconductor number of electrons (n) is equal to number of

holes (p) and thus conductivity is very low as valence
electrons are covalent bonded. In this case we write n = p = ni,
where ni is called the intrinsic concentration. It can be shown
that ni can be written
ni = n0T3/2 exp(-VG /2VT)
Where, n0 is a constant, T is the absolute temperature, VG is

the semiconductor band gap voltage, and VT is the thermal
voltage.
The thermal voltage is related to the temperature by VT = kT/q
Where, k is the Boltzmann constant (k = 1.381 10 23 J/K).
In intrinsic semiconductors conductivity () is determined by
both electrons (e) and holes (h) and depends on the carrier
density. e = nee h = peh Conductivity, = e + h = nee +
peh = Ne (e + h) Where n, p = numbers of electrons and
holes respectively. h, e = mobility of free holes and electrons
respectively N = n = p e = charge on carrier
Extrinsic Semiconductors
As per theory of semiconductor, impure semiconductors are

called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductor is
formed by adding a small amount of impurity. Depending on
the type of impurity added we have two types of
semiconductors: N - type and P-type semiconductors. In 100
million parts of semiconductor one part of impurity is added.
N-type Semiconductor
In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are electrons

and minority carriers are holes. N - type semiconductor is
formed by adding pentavalent ( five valence electrons)
impurity in pure semiconductor crystal, e.g. P. As, Sb.
Four of the five valence electron of pentavalent impurity forms

covalent bond with Si atom and the remaining electron is free
to move anywhere within the crystal. Pentavalent impurity
donates electron to Si thats why N- type impurity atoms are
known as donor atoms. This enhances the conductivity of pure
Si. Majority carriers are electrons therefore conductivitry is
due to these electrons only and is given by, = nee
P-type Semiconductors
In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are holes and

minority carriers are electrons. P- type semiconductor is
formed by adding trivalent ( three valence electrons) impurity
in pure semiconductor crystal, e.g. B, Al Ba.
Three of the four valence electron of tetravalent impurity

forms covalent bond with Si atom. This leaves an empty space
which is referred to as hole. When temperature is raised
electron from another covalent bond jumps to fill this empty
space. This leaves a hole behind. In this way conduction takes
place. P- type impurity accepts electron and is called acceptor
atom. Majority carriers are holes and therefore conductivity is
due to these holes only and is given by, = neh
Diode | Working Principle and Types of

Diode
What is a Diode?
A diode is a simple electrical device that allows the flow of

current only in one direction. So it can be said to act
somewhat like a switch. A specific arrangement of diodes can
convert AC to pulsating DC, hence it is sometimes also called
as a rectifier. It is derived from "di-ode " which means a
device having two electrodes. The symbol of a p-n junction

diode is shown below, the arrowhead points in the direction
of conventional current flow.
The
p-n
junction is a basic building block in any semiconductor device.

It is formed by joining a p type (intrinsic semiconductor doped
with a trivalent impurity) and n type semiconductor (intrinsic
semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity) together
with a special fabrication technique such that a p-n junction is
formed. Hence it is a device with two elements, the p-type
forms anode and the n-type forms the cathode. These terminals
are brought out to make the external connections.
Working Principle of Diode
What happens Inside the p-n Junction Diode?
The n side will have large number of electrons and very few
holes (due to thermal excitation) whereas the p side will have
high concentration of holes and very few electrons. Due to
this a process called diffusion takes place. In this process free
electrons from the n side will diffuse (spread) into the p side
and combine with holes present there, leaving a positive
immobile (not moveable) ion in the n side. Hence few atoms
on the p side are converted into negative ions. Similarly few
atoms on the n-side will get converted to positive ions. Due to
this large number of positive ions and negative ions will
accumulate on the n-side and p-side respectively. This region
so formed is called as depletion region. Due to the presence
of these positive and negative ions a static electric field called
as "barrier potential" is created across the p-n junction of the
diode. It is called as "barrier potential" because it acts as a
barrier and opposes the flow of positive and negative ions
across the junction.
To make use of this p-n junction diode we have to apply an

external DC voltage to it. Applying an external DC voltage to
the diode is called as biasing. If the p-side (anode) is
connected to the positive terminal of the supply and the n-side
(cathode) to the negative terminal of the supply, the diode is
said to be forward biased. In the same way if the n-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the supply and the p-side
to the negative terminal of the supply, the diode is said to be
reversed biased. Most of the times a resistance has to be
connected in series with it to limit the current flowing through

the diode. This is the working principle of diode.
What happen When the Diode is Forward Biased?
When the diode is forward biased, due to the negative

terminal on the n-side, electrons from the n-side are pushed
towards the p-region. Similarly due to positive voltage on the
p-side of the diode, Holes from the p-region are pushed
towards n-side. Due to this the electrons will start converting
the positive ions in the p-region into neutral atoms and holes
will start converting the negative ions in the n-region to
neutral atoms. Hence width of the depletion region starts
reducing due to reduction in the barrier potential. (As the
atoms in the depletion region are getting converted into
neutral atoms less and less charged ions remain in this region
with increase in supply voltage, hence width decreases.) This
keeps happening and at a certain point the depletion region
collapses and there is no opposition to the flow of current.
Hence large number of electrons and holes will cross the
junction and make the current to flow from anode to
cathode. Hence, forward biased electrical resistance of diode
is very small and hence there is a small voltage drop (Practical
condition, ideally there should be 0 forward resistance) across
it. Its value for silicon diode is about 0.7 V. Thus the p-n
junction diode will allow a current to pass through it only
when it is forward biased.
What happens in the Reverse Biased Condition?
When the diode is reverse biased the hole from the p-side will
get attracted towards the negative terminal of the supply and
electrons from the n-side are attracted towards the positive
terminal. Hence the process of widening of the depletion
region takes place and hence more and more opposition to
the flow of current takes place.
Hence,
ideally the reverse biased resistance of the diode is infinite and
no current flows from the diode when it is reversed biased.
Due to large reverse biased voltage, suddenly large current
will flow through the reverse biased voltage. Due to this large
power gets dissipated in the diode which may damage it
permanently.
Types of Diode
The types of diode are as follow- 1) Zener diode 2) P-N

junction diode 3) Tunnel diode 4) Varractor diode 5)
Schottky diode 6) Photo diode 7) PIN diode 8) Laser diode
9) Avalanche diode 10) Light emitting diodeLight
Dependent Resistor | LDR & Working

Principle of LDR
What is a Light Dependent Resistor or a Photo Resistor?
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a

device whose resistivity is a function of the incident
electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive
devices. They are also called as photo conductors, photo
conductive cells or simply photocells. They are made up of
semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are
many different symbols used to indicate a LDR, one of the
most commonly used symbol is shown in the figure below.
The arrow indicates light falling on it.
Working Principle of LDR
A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo

conductivity. Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon in
which the materials conductivity (Hence resistivity) reduces
when light is absorbed by the material.
When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the
electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material are
excited to the conduction band. These photons in the incident
light should have energy greater than the band gap of the
semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the
valence band to the conduction band. Hence when light having
enough energy is incident on the device more & more
electrons are excited to the conduction band which results in
large number of charge carriers. The result of this process is
more and more current starts flowing and hence it is said that
the resistance of the device has decreased.This is the most
common working principle of LDR
Characteristics of LDR
LDRs are light dependent devices whose resistance decreases

when light falls on them and increases in the dark. When a
light dependent resistor is kept in dark, its resistance is very
high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. It can be as
high as 1012 . And if the device is allowed to absorb light its
resistance will decrease drastically. If a constant voltage is
applied to it and intensity of light is increased the current
starts increasing. Figure below shows resistance vs.
illumination curve for a particular LDR.
Photocells or LDRs are non linear devices. There sensitivity

varies with the wavelength of light incident on them. Some
photocells might not at all response to a certain range of
wavelengths. Based on the material used different cells have
different spectral response curves.
When light is incident on a photocell it usually takes about 8 to
12ms for the change in resistance to take place, while it takes
seconds for the resistance to rise back again to its initial value
after removal of light. This phenomenon is called as resistance
recovery rate. This property is used in audio compressors.
Also, LDRs are less sensitive than photo diodes and photo
transistor. (A photo diode and a photocell (LDR) are not the
same, a photo-diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device
that converts light to electricity, whereas a photocell is a

passive device, there is no p-n junction in this nor it converts
light to electricity).
Types of Light Dependent Resistors:
Based on the materials used they are classified as: i) Intrinsic
photo resistors (Un doped semiconductor): These are pure
semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium.
Electrons get excited from valance band to conduction band
when photons of enough energy falls on it and number charge
carriers increases.
ii) Extrinsic photo resistors: These are semiconductor
materials doped with impurities which are called as dopants.
Theses dopants create new energy bands above the valence
band which are filled with electrons. Hence this reduces the
band gap and less energy is required in exciting them.
Extrinsic photo resistors are generally used for long
wavelengths.
Construction of a Photocell
The structure of a light dependent resistor consists of a light

sensitive material which is deposited on an insulating
substrate such as ceramic. The material is deposited in zigzag
pattern in order to obtain the desired resistance & power
rating. This zigzag area separates the metal deposited areas
into two regions. Then the ohmic contacts are made on the
either sides of the area. The resistances of these contacts
should be as less as possible to make sure that the resistance
mainly changes due to the effect of light only. Materials
normally used are cadmium sulphide, cadmium selenide,
indium antimonide and cadmium sulphonide. The use of lead
and cadmium is avoided as they are harmful to the
environment.
Applications of LDR
LDRs have low cost and simple structure. They are often
used as light sensors. They are used when there is a need to
detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light
meter. Used in street lamps, alarm clock, burglar alarm
circuits, light intensity meters, for counting the packages
moving on a conveyor belt, etc. Op-amp | Working
Principle of Op-amp
An operational amplifier or OP-AMP is a DC-coupled voltage
amplifier with a very high voltage gain. Op-amp is basically a
multistage amplifier in which a number of amplifier stages are

interconnected to each other in a very complicated manner.
Its internal circuit consists of many transistors, FETs and
resistors. All this occupies a very little space. So, it is packed in
a small package and is available in the Integrated Circuit (IC)
form. The term OP-AMP is used to denote an amplifier which
can be configured to perform various operations like
amplification, subtraction, differentiation, addition,
integration etc. Example is the very popular IC 741. The
symbol and its actual appearance in the IC form is show
below. The symbol appears as an arrowhead which signifies
that the signal is flowing from output to input.
Input & Output Terminals of an OP-AMP
An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal.

The op-amp also has two voltage supply terminal as seen
above. It has a differential input and a single ended output.
The terminal marked as negative (-) is called as an inverting
terminal And the terminal marked as positive (+) is called as a
non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier. If we
connect an input signal at the inverting terminal (-) of the op-
amp than the amplified output signal is radians (180) out of

phase with respect to the applied input signal, whereas if an
input is connected to the non-inverting terminal (+) than the
output signal obtained will be in phase i.e. it will have no
phase shift with respect to the input signal.
Power Supply for an OP-AMP
As seen from the circuit symbol above it has two input power
supply terminals +V and V . For the operation of an op-amp
a dual polarity DC supply is essential. In the dual polarity
supply the +V is connected to the positive supply of one
power source or battery and the V terminal is connected to
the negative supply of another source. However few op-amps
can also operate on a single polarity supply. Note that there is
no common ground terminal in the op-amps hence the
ground has to be established externally.
CC
CC
CC
CC
Working Principle of Op-amp
Open Loop Operation
As said above an op-amp has a differential input and single

ended output. So, if two signals are applied one at the
inverting and another at the non-inverting terminal, than an
ideal op-amp will amplify the difference of the two applied
input signals applied. The difference of the two applied input

signals is called as differential input voltage. The output of an
op-amp is given by the equation:
Where, V0 is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp.

AOL is the open-loop gain for the given op-amp and is constant
(ideally). For the IC 741 it is 2 x 105. V1 is the voltage at the
non-inverting terminal. V2 is the voltage at the inverting
terminal. VD = (V1-V2) is the differential input voltage.
It is clear from the above equation that the output will be nonzero if and only if the differential input voltage is non-zero,
and will be zero if both V_1 and V_2 are equal. Note that this
is an ideal condition, practically there are small imbalances in
the op-amp. The open-loop gain of an op-amp is very high
hence, very small applied differential input voltage will be
amplified to a very large value.
Also note that it is true that if we apply a very small
differential input voltage it is amplified to a very large value
but this very large value at the output cannot go beyond the
supply voltage of the op-amp. Hence it is not violating the law
of conservation of energy.
Closed Loop Operation
The above explained operation of the op-amp was for openloop i.e. without a feedback. In the closed loop configuration
a feedback is introduced. This feedback is a part of an output
signal fed back to the input. Hence, at the input where the
feedback is given two signals will be simultaneously present.
One of them is the original applied signal and the other is the
feedback signal. The fed back signal can be in phase or out of
phase with the original applied signal. If the original applied
signal and the feedback signal are in phase with each other
than it called as a positive feedback or a regenerative
feedback. If the applied signal and the feedback signal are out
of phase with each other than it is called as a negative
feedback or a degenerative feedback. Each type of feedback,
negative or positive has its own advantages and
disadvantages. The output of a closed loop op-amp is given by
the equation:
Where, V0 is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp.
ACL is the closed loop gain of the op-amp which is determined
by the feedback circuit connected to the op-amp. VD = (V1-V2)
is the differential input voltage.
The feedback is said to be positive if part of the signal from
the output terminal is given back to the non-inverting (+)
terminal of the op-amp. Positive feedback is used in
oscillators.
The feedback is said to be negative if part of the signal from

the output terminal is given back to the inverting (-) terminal
of the op-amp. Negative feedback is used when op-amps are
to be used as amplifiers. This is above most common working
principle of an op-amp.
Ideal OP-AMP Characteristics
An ideal op-amp is expected to have the following

characteristics: 1.Infinite voltage gain (So that maximum
output is obtained) 2.Infinite input resistance (Due to this
almost any source can drive it) 3.Zero output resistance (So
that there is no change in output due to change in load
current) 4.Infinite bandwidth 5.Zero noise 6.Zero power
supply rejection ratio (PSSR=0) 7.Infinite common mode
rejection ratio (CMMR=)
Practical OP-AMP
None of the above given parameters can be practically

realized. A practical or real op-amp has some unavoidable
imperfections and hence its characteristics differ from the
ideal one. A real op-amp will have non-zero and non-infinite
parameters.
Applications
The integrated op-amps offers all the advantages of ICs

such as high reliability, small size, cheap, less power
consumption. They are used in variety of applications such

as Inverting & Non-inverting amplifiers, Unity gain buffer,
Summing amplifier, Differentiator, Integrator, Adder,
Instrumentation amplifier, Wien bridge oscillator, Filters
etc. Regulated Power Supply
Today almost every electronic device needs a dc supply for its
smooth operation and they need to be operated within
certain power supply limits. This required dc voltage or dc
supply is derived from single phase ac mains. A regulated
power supply can convert unregulated an ac (alternating
current or voltage) to a constant dc (direct current or
voltage). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the
output remains constant even if the input changes. A
regulated DC power supply is also called as a linear power
supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various
blocks. The regulated power supply will accept an ac input
and give a constant dc output. Figure below shows the block
diagram of a typical regulated dc power supply.
The basic building blocks of a regulated dc power supply are

as follows:
1. A step down transformer 2. A rectifier 3. A DC filter 4. A

regulator
Operation of Regulated Power Supply
Step Down Transformer
A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the
ac mains to the required voltage level. The turns ratio of the
transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required
voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an

input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectification
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which

carries out the rectification process. Rectification is the
process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (dc) quantity. The input to a rectifier is
ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating dc. Usually a
full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both
the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification). Figure
below shows a full wave bridge rectifier.
bridge
rectifier
consists of four p-n junction diodes connected in the above

shown manner. In the positive half cycle of the supply the
voltage induced across the secondary of the electrical
transformer i.e. VMN is positive. Therefore point E is positive
with respect to F. Hence, diodes D3 and D2 are reversed biased
and diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased. The diode D3 and D2
will act as open switches (practically there is some voltage

drop) and diodes D1 andD4 will act as closed switches and will
start conducting. Hence a rectified waveform appears at the
output of the rectifier as shown in the first figure. When
voltage induced in secondary i.e. VMN is negative than D3 and
D2 are forward biased with the other two reversed biased and a
positive voltage appears at the input of the filter.
DC Filteration
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating dc

voltage having very high ripple content. But this is not we
want, we want a pure ripple free dc waveform. Hence a filter
is used. Different types of filters are used such as capacitor
filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, type filter. Figure below
shows a capacitor filter connected along the output of the
rectifier and the resultant output waveform.
As
the
instantaneous voltage starts increasing the capacitor charges, it

charges till the waveform reaches its peak value. When the
instantaneous value starts reducing the capacitor starts
discharging exponentially and slowly through the load (input
of the regulator in this case). Hence, an almost constant dc
value having very less ripple content is obtained.
Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The

output voltage or current will change or fluctuate when there
is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load
current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to
other factors like temperature changes. This problem can be
eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will maintain the
output constant even when changes at the input or any other

changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable
IC regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener region
can be used depending on their applications. ICs like 78XX
and 79XX are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the
output. With ICs like LM 317 and 723 etc we can adjust the
output voltage to a required constant value. Figure below
shows the LM317 voltage regulator. The output voltage can
be adjusted with adjusting the values of resistances R and R .
Usually coupling capacitors of values about 0.01F to 10F
needs to be connected at the output and input to address
input noise and output transients. Ideally the output voltage
1
is given by
Figure below shows the

complete circuit of a regulated +5V DC power supply using
transformer, bridge rectifier, filter (smoothing) and a fixed +5
V voltage regulator. Here we can use IC 7803(for 3V),7809(for
9 V),7812(for 12V) etc.
Application of Regulated Power Supply
Regulated power supply is the main component of

electrical,electronics and as well as automation equipment.
Mobile phone charger, oscilator, amplifier are needed the
regulated power supplyIntegrated Circuits | Types
of IC
Normally bipolar junction transistors, diodes and field effect
transistors are commonly used electronics component in
electronic circuit. These components are interconnected
along with required resistors and capacitors to form an
electronic circuit. This type of circuit is known as discrete
circuit as each of the components can be separated from the
circuit as when required. Now days there is a new trend of
producing electronic circuit where on a semiconductor wafer
numbers of diodes, transistors and capacitors etc. are
permanently fabricated. As the components in this type of

electronic circuit are not separable that is integrated on the
semiconductor wafer, this circuit is commonly referred as
Integrated Circuit. IC is also popularly known as chip or
microchip.
History of Integrated Circuits
This technology was invented in the year of 1950 the by Jack

Kilby of Texas Instruments USA and Robert Noyce of Fairchild
Semiconductor USA. The first costumer to this new invention
was the US Air Force. In the year 2000 Jack Kilby won the
Nobel Prize in Physics for miniaturized electronic circuits.
One and a half years after Kilby

demonstrated his IC design, Robert Noyce of Fairchild
Semiconductor Limited came up with his own integrated
circuit. His model solved many practical problems which
Kilbys device had. It was made up of silicon where as Kilbys
was made up of germanium. Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce
both received US patents for their part of work on integrated
circuits. After several years of legal issues both companies

wisely decided to cross license their technology and created a
huge global market.

Types of Integrated Circuits
Like electronic circuit, ICs can also be categorized as digital IC

and analog IC based on their applications.
Analog IC
In this type of ICs, the input and output both signals are
continuous. The output signal level depends upon the input
signal level and the output signal level is a linear function of
input signal level. Linear ICs or analog ICs are most commonly
used as audio frequency amplifier and radio frequency
amplifier. Op amps, voltage regulators, comparators and
timers are also well-known examples of linear ICs or analog
ICs.
Digital IC
The logic Gates, such as AND gate, OR gate, NAND gate, XOR
gate, flip flops, counters; microprocessors are some wellknown examples of digital ICs. These ICs operate with binary
data such as either 0 or 1. Normally in digital circuit, 0
indicates 0 V and one indicate +5 V.
The main components of an IC are transistors. These

transistors may be bipolar or field effect depending upon the
applications of ICs. As the technology is improving day by
day, the number of transistors incorporated in a single IC chip
is also increasing. Depending upon the number of transistors
incorporated in a single chip, the ICs are categorized in five
groups. Namely,
Small Scale Integration (SSI) where the number of transistors incorporated

i)
100.
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) where the number of transistors incorpora

ii)
100 to 1000.
Large Scale Integration (LSI) where the number of transistors incorporated

iii)
1000 to 20,000.
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) where the number of transistors incor
iv)
from 20,000 to 10,00,000.
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) where the number of transistors incor
v)
from 10,00,000 to 1,00,00,000.
Depending upon the active devices used in ICs, it can be

further classified as bipolar ICs and unipolar ICs. In bipolar
ICs the main components are bipolar junction transistors,
whereas in unipolar ICs the main components are field effect
transistors or MOSFETs.
IC Manufacturing Process
There are two types of IC manufacturing technologies one is

monolithic technology and other is hybrid technology. In
monolithic technique, all electronic component and their
interconnections are manufactured together into a single chip
of silicon. This technology is applied when identical ICs to be
produced in large scale. Monolithic ICs are cheap but reliable.
In hybrid ICs, separate components are attached on a ceramic

substance and interconnected by wire or metallization pattern.
Advantages of Integrate Circuit or IC
1. It is quite small in size practically around 20,000 electronic

components can be incorporated in a single square inch of IC
chip. 2. Many complex circuits are fabricated in a single chip
and hence this simplifies the designing of a complex
electronic circuit. Also it improves the performance. 3.
Reliability of ICs is high 4. These are available at low cost due
to bulk production. 5. ICs consume very tiny power. 6. Higher
operating speed due to absence of parasitic capacitance
effect. 7. Very easily replaceable from the mother circuit.
Disadvantages of Integrate Circuit or IC
1. Because of its small size, IC is unable to dissipate heat in

required rate when current in it increased. That is why ICs
are often damaged due to over current flowing through
them. 2. Inductors and Transformers cannot be
incorporated in ICs. Biasing of Bipolar Junction
Transistor | BJT or Bipolar Transistor

Biasing
Biasing of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is the process
of applying external voltages to it. In order to use the BJT for
any application like amplification, the two junctions of the
transistor CB and BE should be properly biased according to
the required application. Depending on whether the two
junctions of the transistor are forward or reverse biased, a
transistor is capable of operating in three different modes.
Cutoff Mode of BJT
The BJT is fully off in this state. In the cutoff mode both the
base emitter as well as collector base junction is reverse
biased. The BJT is equivalent to an open switch in this mode.
Saturation Mode of BJT
The transistor is fully on in this state. The CB as well as BE

junctions are forward biased. The BJT operates like a closed
switch in the saturation mode. If a BJT is in saturation mode
than it should satisfy the following condition,
Where DC is common emitter current amplification factor or

current gain.
Active Mode of BJT
In order to use the transistor as an amplifier, it must be

operated in the active mode. The BE junction is forward
biased whereas the CB junction is reverse biased. Figure
below shows both n-p-n and p-n-p transistors biased in the
active mode of operation.
Biasing Circuits of BJT
To make the Q point stable different biasing circuits are tried.

The Q point is also called as operating bias point, is the point
on the DC load line (a load line is the graph of output current
vs. output voltage in any of the transistor configurations)
which represents the DC current through the transistor and
voltage across it when no ac signal is applied. The Q point
represents the DC biasing condition. When the BJT is biased
such that the Q point is halfway between cutoff and

saturation than the BJT operates as a CLASS-A amplifier. The
three circuits or biasing arrangements which are practically
used are explained below.
Fixed Bias or Base Bias
In this condition a single

power source is applied to the collector and base of the
transistor using only two resistors. Applying KVL to the circuit,
Thus, by merely changing the value of the resistor the base

current can be adjusted to the desired value. And by using the
current gain () relationship, I can also be found out
accordingly. Hence the Q point can be adjusted just by
changing the value of the resistor connected to the base.
C
Collector to Base Bias
This connection is mostly used to stabilize the operating point

against temperature changes. In this type, the base resistor is
connected to the collector instead of connecting it to the
supply. So any thermal runaway will induce IR drop in the
collector resistor. The base current can be derived as,
If V kept constant and there is an increase in temperature,
then the collector current increases. However, a larger
collector current causes the voltage drop across the collector
resistor to increase, which reduces the voltage across the
base resistor. This will reduce the base current, hence
resulting less collector current. Because an increase in
collector current with temperature is opposed, the operating
point is stable.
BE
Self Bias or Voltage Divider Bias
The circuit diagram for self bias is shown below. This is the
most widely used biasing circuit.
The electrical resistances R
and R2
form a potential divider arrangement to apply a fixed voltage

to the base. Consider only the base circuit, the approximate
voltage across the base is
Consider only the collector circuit, the approximate emitter
current will be,
In the above circuit, as the emitter resistor causes ac as well

as DC feedback the AC voltage gain of the amplifier is
reduced. This can avoided by connecting a capacitor in

parallel with the emitter resistor as shown below.
Applications of Bipolar Junction Transistor

or BJT | History of BJT
History of Bipolar Junction Transistors
The transistor (BJT) was not the first three terminal devices.
Before transistors came into existence vacuum tubes were
used. In electronics, vacuum tube triodes were used almost
for half a century before the BJTs. The light bulb invented by
Thomas Edison in the early 1880s was one of the first uses of
vacuum tubes for any electrical applications. The vacuum
tube triodes were used in various computer designs till early
1950s. But the major problem was, as the complication of the

circuits increased more and more triodes were required to be
integrated. In those days a large computer would have many
racks filled with tubes which almost occupied a large room.
Size was not the only problem, the tubes consumed large
power and sometimes would leak hence were less reliable.
Hence,
scientists
and engineers started thinking of ways to make some other

kind of three terminal devices. So instead of controlling an
electron in vacuum they begin to think of ways to control it in
solid materials. In 1947, two physicists John Bardeen and
Walter Brattain working at the Bell laboratories found that by
making two point contacts very close to one another, they
could actually make a three terminal device. Thus the first

point contact transistor was made by using germanium, paper
clip and razor blades. Figure below shows a replica of the
same. Than Shockley developed the junction transistor (BJT)
by pressing together thin slices of different semiconductor
materials. The transistors replaced the vacuum tubes and made
a dramatic change in the world of electronics. Bardeen and
Brattain together with William Shockley were horned by the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 for the invention of the
transistor effect. For many years transistors were manufactured
as individual components until late 1950s, after which
integrated circuits (ICs) came into existence which placed all
components on one single chip. This is just one portion of an
endless history of BJT.
Applications of Bipolar Junction Transistor
There are two types of applications of bipolar junction

transistor, switching and amplification.
Transistor as a Switch
For switching applications transistor is biased to operate in

the saturation or cutoff region. Transistor in cutoff region will
act as an open switching whereas in saturation will act as a
closed switch.
Open Switch
In the cutoff region (both junctions are

reversed biased) the voltage across the CE junction is very
high. The input voltage is zero so both base and collector
currents are zero, hence the resistance offered by the BJT us
very high (ideally infinite).
Closed Switch
In saturation (both junctions are forward biased) a high input

voltage is applied to the base. The value of base resistance is
adjusted such that a large base current flows. There is a small
voltage drop across the collector emitter junction of the order
of 0.05 to 0.2V and collector current is very large. A very
small voltage drop takes place across the BJT and it can be
said to be equivalent to a closed switch.
BJT as Amplifier
Single Stage RC Coupled CE Amplifier

The figure shows a single stage CE amplifier. C and C are
coupling capacitors, they are used for blocking the dc
component and passing only ac part they also ensure that the
1
dc basing conditions of the BJT remains unchanged even after

input is applied. C is the bypass capacitor which increases the
voltage gain and bypasses the R resistor for ac signals.
2
The
BJT is biased in the active region using the necessary biasing
components. The Q point is made stable in the active region of
the transistor. When input is applied as shown below the base
current starts to vary up and down, hence collector current also
varies as IC = IB. Therefore voltage across R3 varies as the
collector current is passing through it. Voltage across R3 is the
amplified one and is 180 apart from the input signal. Thus
voltage across R3 is coupled to the load and amplification has
taken place. If the Q point is maintained to be at the centre of
the load very less or no waveform distortion will take place.
The voltage as well as current gain of the CE amplifier is high
(gain is the factor by which the voltage of current increases
from input to output). It is commonly used in radios and as
low frequency voltage amplifier.
To further increase the gain multistage amplifiers are used.

They are connected via capacitor, electrical transformer, R-L
or directly coupled depending on the application. The overall
gain is the product of gains of individual stages. Figure below
shows a two stage CE amplifier.
Amplifier Gain | Decibel or dB Gain
An amplifier is such an electronic device which controls a

bigger electrical signal by means of a far smaller electrical
signal. The output signal of this device may be voltage
controlled or current controlled. An amplifier just creates a
copy of input signal (control signal) but in larger magnitude
with the help of external DC source. Hence, there must be an
external power source in all amplifier devices. Each amplifier
device has its own ability to amplify an input signal to its
highest possible output magnitude. The gain of an amplifier
is defined as the measure this ability of amplifying a signal.
Gain is a ratio so it does not have any unit. The ratio of output
current to input current of an amplifier is defined as current
gain, the ratio of output voltage to input voltage is defined as
voltage gain and similarly the ratio of output power to input
power of an amplifier is known as power gain of amplifier. For
example if the input voltage of an amplifier is 2.5 VRMS and
output voltage is 50 VRMS, the voltage gain would be,
An amplifier does always not amplify
in same extend as its input. It may response differently for AC
and DC. Hence, another way of representing gain is the ratio
of change of output signal in respect of change in input signal.

That means how much change occurred in output signal for
certain change in input or control signal. The gain of amplifier
can be calculated easily by taking ratio of rms value of output
and input signals but it is not justified technique for AC signal.
Decibel Gain or dB Gain
Although amplifier gain does not have any unit as it is ratio of

same unit signals, but if any one tries to represent the gain in
logarithmic scale then it will have a unit. Generally the gain
expressed in logarithmic scale will have a unit called decibel
which is one tenth fraction of bel. The name of this unit that is
bel comes from the name Alexander Graham Bell, the
famous Scottish inventor who is well known for his invention
of telephone systems.
Now, decibel gain is defined in terms of the common (base

10) logarithm of a power ratio that means if the conventional
gain of an amplifier is Poutput / Pinput, then this gain is expressed
in decibel scale as 10log(Poutput / Pinput).
If we show the table below, it will be more clearly understood.
Gain as ratio
Gain a
1000
30 dB
100
20 dB
10
10 dB
0 dB
0.1
- 10 dB
0.01
- 20 dB
0.001
- 30 dB
0.0001
- 40 dB
Why should we use Bel Scale or Decibel Scale to represent Gain?
The human hearing skill is logarithmic in nature. For doubling

perceived intensity of sound, the sound power must be
increased by 10 times. That means the gain of amplifier which
controls sound intensity must have gain of 10 for doubling
perceived intensity of sound which is in bel scale 1 bel and in
decibel scale 10 decibel. In other words a power gain of 1 bel

translates to a doubling in the perceived intensity of the
sound. The perfect use of bel scale is in Richter scale which
measures intensity of earthquake. 6 Richter earthquakes is 10
times more powerful than a 5 Richter earthquake, and a 4
Richter earthquake is 1/10 as powerful as 5 Richter
earthquake. Logarithmic scale is also popularly used to
measure concentration of hydrogen ions in a chemical
solution. One pH difference in this scale means 10 folds
difference in hydrogen ions concentration in a solution. It is
now clear to us that where variation of gain is huge it is
preferable to use logarithmic scale instead of conventional
ratio scale so that tremendous range of expression can be
afforded by a relatively small span of numerical values. Not
only that, in cascaded amplifier the overall decimal gain is
calculated by summing up individual decimal gain of amplifier
instead of multiplying them as in the case of ratio gain. This
makes equations and related calculations simpler and easier.
Suppose one amplifier has gain of 3 and another has 5 and
these two amplifiers are connected in cascaded manner.
Overall gain of the system is 3X5 = 15. Now in logarithmic or
dB scale these gain are 10log3 = 4.77 dB and 10log5=6.99 dB
respectively. In decibel scale this overall gain is 10log15 =
11.76 dB which is nothing but 4.77 + 6.99. Thus we have seen
how overall gain can be calculated by adding individual gain

instead of multiplying them.
Current Density in Metal and Semiconductor

The concept of current density is very simple but it is much
use full in the field of electrical engineering.
Current Density in Metal
Suppose, we have taken one conductor of cross-section 2.5

square mm. Now due to applied electric potential, the
conductor carries a current of 3 A. Now the electric current
carried by the conductor per square mm of its cross-section is
3/2.5 = 1.2 A. Here we considered that the current in the
conductor is uniformly distributed throughout its crosssection. Now this 1.2 ampere is the current density of the
conductor and obviously it is measured in ampere per square
millimetre or more theoretically ampere per unit area. Hence,
the current density can be defined as the electric current
carried by conductor per unit cross-sectional area of the
conducting medium. Current density is normally denoted by J
and J equals I / A where I is the uniformly distributed current
being carried by the conductor of the cross-sectional area A.
If total N number of electrons passing through a cross-section

of a conductor in time T, then Ne is the charge transferring
through this cross-section in same time T. Where, e is the

charge of electron in coulomb [ p = - 1.6 10-19 Coulombs]
Now the amount of charge passing the cross-section per unit
time
is
Again
if
number of electrons lie in the L length of the conductor, then

the electron concentration is
Now, from equation (1) we
can write,
Since, N number of
electrons lie in the length L and they all pass the cross-section
in time T, the drift velocity of the electrons will be,
Hence equation (2) can also be rewritten as
Now if
applied electric field to the conductor is E, then drift velocity

of the electrons increases proportionally,
Where, is
defined as the mobility of electrons

Current Density of Semiconductors
For calculating current density of semiconductor, some

factors to be considered. 1. In semiconductor current flows
not only due to electrons instead it is due to drift of electrons
as well as holes. 2. Movement of holes is always in opposite
to that of corresponding electrons. 3. Holes contribute
current to their direction of movement whereas electrons

contribute current opposite to their direction of movement.
Hence both currents will be in same direction. 4. Electrons
involved in causing current in semiconductor, move through
conduction band whereas holes causing current in
semiconductor move through valance band. That is why
mobility of electrons and holes are different in
semiconductor.
Current density in semiconductor will be,

is the current density due to mobile electrons.
Jp is the current density due to mobile holes,
Where, Jn
Where,
Then,
Where, n and p are the

concentration of mobile electrons and holes respectively, e is
absolute charge of each electron and hole and n and p are
mobility of electrons and holes respectively.
What is the relation between current density and conductivity?
The expression of current density is
Where V is the applied

voltage across conductor, R is the resistance of the conductor,
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor, L is the length
of the conductor, is the resistivity of the conductor, (=

1/) is the conductivity of the conductor. E is the electric field
intensity voltage / length.
Energy Quanta | Development of Quantum

Physics
Energy quanta is one of the fundamentals of the much heard
of Quantum Physics. To understand it better, we would first
understand the need of this new physics. The already
established and much famous Newtonian Physics or the
Classical Physics did indeed answer a lot of questions
bothering the mankind, but it had its own limitations.
Why did Classical Physics fail?
The earlier model of an atom suggested by Ernest Rutherford

was much alike the planetary system where the electrons
orbit the nucleus like the planets orbit the sun. Applying
Classical Physics to the model suggests balancing of the
Coulombic attraction force between electron and nucleus,
and the outward acting centrifugal force. A whole lot of
parameters were formulated using this force balance
equation.
However according to the established Electromagnetic Theory,

an
accelerated
charged
particle
emits
electromagnetic
radiation. Now if a body emits electromagnetic radiation it

looses its energy, and hence the energy of an orbiting electron
will be reduced and it will ultimately fall into the nucleus,
which is certainly not the case. This major flaw of Classical
physics paved the way for a new physics known as Quantum
Physics. Though Classical Physics was unable to explain this,
it gives excellent results in general day to day considerations.
Hence the application of it is limited to things much larger
than atom and also much slower than light.
Introduction to Quanta
During early 1900s a German Physicist, Max Planck was

studying the radiations emitted from a black body, and to
completely explain it he came up with this theory of
Quantization. He was the first to talk about quantization.
According to him electromagnetic radiations can only be
emitted in a discrete form and not continuous. He thus
suggested that all electromagnetic radiations, and therefore
light too, are emitted in certain packets of energy which he
called "quanta" or more precisely energy quanta. He
therefore associated the energy of a radiation with frequency

f as E=hf
Where, E is energy associated, h is Plancks constant ( = 6.626
10-34 Joule - second )
Thus energy can only be transferred in quantized manner i.e.
in integral multiples of Plancks constant only. Later
Einsteins Photoelectric Effect also leaded to the same
conclusion. He extended Plancks idea and said that not only
emission or absorption but energy itself is quantized.
The very origin of quanta of energy can be attributed to the
further developed model of atom by Neils Bohr. He applied
the idea of Planck to atomic physics and gave a model in
which the electrons do orbit the nucleus but in distinct and
fixed orbits. A fixed orbit implies a fixed energy and thus no
falling of electron into the nucleus. The orbit is defined as an
energy level at which the electrons remain and are allowed to
transit from one level to another. The level near to nucleus has
lower energy as compared to the far one. Thus if an electron
falls from a higher level to lower one we obtain an energy
equal to the difference of the two levels and an electron will
only jump to a higher level if it is provided with energy equal
to the difference. This is known as quantum jump. If we
provide energy less than the difference, it will remain in the

same level.
This model also explained the unique spectral patterns
exhibited by different elements. The energy corresponding to
each colour in the pattern is found to be same as the difference
in the energy level of various orbits. The higher the leap, i.e.
orbit jump higher is the associated energy and closer its colour
to the violet end of the spectrum in spectral pattern. Had there
been no fixed levels of energy the spectra emitted from an
excited atom would be continuous from red to violet, which is
certainly not the case. Hence Bohr's model explained the
discreteness of energy.
Wave Particle Duality Principle

With the development of Photoelectric effect, Cromptons
effect and Bohrs model of atom, the idea of light or in fact
radiations in general, being composed of particles or discrete
quanta was gaining wide popularity. However the very
established Huygens Principle and the results of Youngs
double slit experiments made it very clear that light was wave
and not a flow particles.
The striking interference pattern observed by passing light

through double slits, was definitely a result of the wave nature
of light. This again gave rise to the controversy of nature of
light. In 1704 Newton had also suggested the particle nature of
light by his corpuscular theory. Neither of the two theories
were adequate enough to explain all the phenomena associated
with light. Thus scientists began to conclude that light has both
wave and particle nature. In 1924, a French physicist, Louis de
Broglie came up with a theory. He suggested that all particles
in this universe is associated with wave nature also, i.e.
everything in this world be it a small photon or a giant
elephant, everything has an associated wave with itself, it is a
different matter that the wave nature is noticeable or not. He
assigned a wavelength to each matter with mass m and
momentum p as
Where, h is Planck constant and p = mv,
v is velocity of the body.
Thus due the huge mass of an elephant it has a very significant

momentum and hence a very small wavelength, which we are
unable to notice. However small particles such as electrons,
etc. have very small mass and hence very noticeable
wavelength or wave nature. This theory of de Broglie also
helps us to explain the discrete existence of orbits in Bohrs

model of atom. An electron will exist in an orbit if its length is
equal to integral multiple of its natural wavelength, if it is
unable to complete its wavelength then that orbit will not exist.
Further developments by Davisson and Germer of electron

diffraction from a crystal and a similar interference pattern
obtained after bombarding a double slit with electrons had
strengthen de Broglies matter wave theory or the wave
particle duality theory.
Compton Effect
In the photoelectric effect, the light strikes on a metal in the

form of beam of particles called photons. The energy of one
photon contributes the work function energy of one electron
as well as provides the kinetic energy to that emitted
electron. These photons are the particle like behavior of light
wave. Sir Albert Einstein proposed that light is the collective
effect of huge number of energy packets called photon where
each photon contains energy of hf. Where h is the Planck
constant and f is the frequency of the light. This is a particle
like behavior of light wave. The particle like behavior of lightwave or other electromagnetic wave can be explained by
Compton effect.
In this experiment, one x ray beam of frequency fo and

wavelength o was incident on an electron. After hitting the
electron by incident x-ray it is found that the electron and
incident x - ray both are scattered into two different angles
with respect to the axis of incident x-ray. This collision obeys
the energy conversation principle just like collision of
Newtonians particles. It was found that after the collision the
electron gets accelerated in a particular direction and the
incident x-ray is diffracted in another direction and it was also
observed that diffracted ray has a different frequency and
wavelength than the incident x-ray. As the energy of the
photon varies with frequency it can be concluded that the
incident x-ray losses an energy during collisions and the
frequency of the diffracted ray is always less than that of the
incident x-ray. This lost energy of x-ray photon contributes the
kinetic energy for the movement of the electron. This collision
of x-ray or its photon and electron is just like to Newtonians
particles such as Billboard balls. The energy of photon is given
by
Therefore the momentum of the photon can be proved as
Which can be written as,
From equation
(1) it can be concluded that a electromagnetic wave with

wavelength will have the photon with momentum p. From
equation (2) it can be concluded that a particle with
momentum p is associated with wavelength . That means
wave has particle like characteristics, the particle on
movement also exhibits wave like behaviour.
As we already said, this conclusion was first drawn by De
Broglie and hence this is known as De Broglie hypothesis. As
the wavelength of the moving particle is expressed as
Where, p is the momentum, h is Planck constant and
wavelength is referred as De Broglies wavelength. De
Broglie explained that as the electrons orbit around the nucleus
it will also have the wave like behaviour along with its particle
like characteristics.
Divission and Germer Experiment
The wave nature of electron can be proved and established

in many different ways but most popular experiment is
Divission and Germer in the year of 1927. In this
experiment they used a beam of accelerated electrons
which normally strikes on the surface of a nickel block.
They observed the pattern of scattered electrons after
striking on the nickel block. They used an electron density
monitor for this purpose. Although it was expected that the
electron should be scattered after collision in different
angle with respect to the axis of the incident electron beam
but in the actual experiment it was found that the density
of scattered electrons was more at particular angles than
other. This angular distribution of the scattered electrons is
very similar to an interference that of light diffraction.
Hence this experiment clearly shows the existence of wave
particle duality of electrons. The same principle can be
applied to the proton and neutrons too. Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle
This prediction of unpredictability is known as Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principle describes the
relationship between conjugate variables, like position and
momentum or energy and time. In 1927 a German physicist
Werner Heisenberg proposed that we cannot measure the
position and velocity of an object accurately, simultaneously.
This statement however contradicts the existing laws of
motion, which clearly has equations for determining both

accurately at each instant of time.
We can avoid the confusion if we examine the equation given

by Heisenberg. He said that
Where, x is the
uncertainty in position and p is the uncertainty in momentum

and h is the Plancks constant i.e., the product of uncertainty of
position and momentum is always greater than a fixed
constant.
The above equation can also be written as
v is
the uncertainty in velocity and m is the mass. For larger

particles, say a man, due to large mass this constant becomes
very small and hence the laws of motions gives fairly accurate
results.
However for atomic particles the constant has a large value.

One can think that these are the uncertainties of the measuring
instruments, but actually even if we have a perfect instrument
the uncertainty would still exist. This is because of the wave
particle dual nature of matter.
To understand this principle we first take a purely sinusoidal

wave exhibited by a particle. Since the wave is having a fixed
wavelength, using de Broglies equation we can precisely tell
its momentum as
However we cannot determine the position of the particle
accurately as it is distributed throughout the space in which the
wave exists. Now in another case where we have a
combination of various sine waves we obtain a wave with
large undulations at certain place compared to rest of the
space. The particle is most likely to be found in those places
where the undulation of the wave is the greatest. Thus now we
do have position with accuracy, but there lies a great
inaccuracy in determination of momentum as we cannot
ascertain the wavelength of such distorted wave. Thus we see
that quite accurate measurement of one quantity leads to huge
error in the other.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle also true for measuring
energy at any instant. This principle states that the exact
energy of a particle and exact instant of time at which the
energy is possessed by the particle, can not be described with
absolute accuracy. If uncertainty of the energy is E and
uncertainty of the time is t, then
Where, h is same
Planck constant.
According to this Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle we
cannot predict the exact position of an electron in atom
instead we can be able to determine the probability of
finding an electron at a particular position. This is done by
probability density function which is not in scope of
discussion in this article. This function describes electron
behavior.

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Electronic Devices PDF

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MOS Capacitor | MOS Capacitance C V

An MOS capacitor is made of a semiconductor body or

The capacitance of the MOS capacitor depends upon the

The MOS capacitor is not a widely used device in itself.

Capacitance vs. Gate Voltage (CV) diagram of a MOS

Capacitor. The flatband voltage

(VFB) separates the

Accumulation region from the Depletion region. The threshold

P-I-N Photodiode | Avalanche Photo Diode

PIN photodiode is a kind of photo detector, it can convert

This technology was invented in the latest of 1950s. There are

hole pairs are generated in the space charge region by photon

The switching speed of frequency response of photodiode is

Avalanche Photo Diode

Avalanche photo diode is a kind of photo detector which can

Semiconductor materials (Si, Ge) are used to form variety of

bringing a P type material in contact with N type material.

junction is given as:

i.e. when voltage is applied across the terminals of P-N

Forward Biasing Characteristic of Diode

When P terminal is more positive as compared to N terminal

Reverse Biasing Characteristic of Diode

In reverse biasing P- terminal is connected to negative

Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 X 10 N = 1, for Ge = 2, for Si

Under very high reverse bias voltage kinetic energy of

Under reverse bias voltage junction barrier tends to

high static electric field at the junction. This static electric

Symbol and Application as Voltage Regulator

leads to the breakdown of the depletion layer(i.e, the layer at

Zener Diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a

The circuit symbol of Zener diode is also shown below. For

Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look

Characteristics of a Zener Diode

The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the zener

voltage sharp and distinct, the doping is controlled and the

Application of Zener Diode

As we have gone through the first part of the article we know

source power. The circuit arrangement is shown below for

Voltage references determine the constant supply of power,

The term regulator means which regulates or controls. Zener

driven by a current source. As we know if the voltage across

To limit the current through the Zener diode series resistance

produce a stable reference voltage across the load which

Laser | Types and Components of Laser

The acronym LASER stands for Light amplification by

It is a device which produce lights. These lights have no

For its operation, population inversion is much needed. When

The principle of laser was first discovered by Einstein in 1917

welding materials. They are used in military and law

Every LASER consists of three basic components. These are-a)

a) The active medium is excited by the external energy

(He, Ne, CO2, etc), solid materials ( YAG, sapphire(ruby)

There are many types of LASERs available for different

A chemical laser is a LASER that obtains its energy from a

Half Wave Diode Rectifier

Let, we supply a sinusoidal voltage Vin = Vsint as a source

The basic diagram of half wave diode rectifier is given below,

Input voltage and Output Voltage Waveforms

Now, different parameters for half wave rectifier is given

The rms value of the load current (Irms ),

Full Wave Diode Rectifier

If two diodes are connected in such a way that one diode