1

Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I......................................................................................1

Chapter 3: Propositional Calculus..............................................................................................................................1
3.1 Statements and Basic Operations..........................................................................................................................2
3.2 The Construction of truth tables...........................................................................................................................4
3.3 Some Basic Truth Tables.......................................................................................................................................6
3.4 Conditional p q.................................................................................................................................................7
3.5 Conditional Statements and Variations.................................................................................................................9
3.5.1 Converse Statements....................................................................................................................................10
3.5.2 Inverse Statements.......................................................................................................................................10
3.5.3 Contra Positive Statements..........................................................................................................................11
3.6 Biconditional Statements....................................................................................................................................12
3.7 Granger Causality...............................................................................................................................................13
3.8 Tautologies and Contradictions...........................................................................................................................13
3.9 Logical Implication.............................................................................................................................................15
3.10 Arguments.........................................................................................................................................................16
3.10.1 Arguments and Statements.........................................................................................................................18
3.11 Summary...........................................................................................................................................................21
3.11.1 Associative Law.........................................................................................................................................22
3.11.2 Commutative Law......................................................................................................................................23
3.11.3 Distributive Law........................................................................................................................................23

Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I

Prepared by M. Franklin and R. Hosein1
Chapter 3: Propositional Calculus
In mathematics, it is important to be able to distinguish between arguments that are logically
sound and arguments that are not. We must therefore develop some convention or framework for
declaring whether or not an argument is valid. Unless we have such a framework, we would be
unable to declare that a result has been proved or has not been proved. The critical area of
mathematics which gives us this is called mathematical logic.
In order to argue (a point), we need to make pronouncements about relevant things. These
pronouncements could either be true or false or in between. In mathematics, we make life simple,
by considering only statements that could be either true or false. This is formalized in the
following definition.
Definition
A statement that is either true or false is called a proposition.

We would like to acknowledge the research assistance of M. Maharaj.

In mathematics, we deal only with propositions. With this understanding, no confusion is created
if we revert back to the use of the word statement to mean proposition. For purposes of this
course, a statement is basically a sentence (in English).
When we say that a statement is true, we mean that the statement holds in every instance in
which it claims to hold. We can therefore disprove a statement by finding a single instance in
which it claims to hold, but does not. Such an instance is called a counter example. Therefore, a
single counter example disproves a statement.
A proposition can sometimes be broken down into more than one simpler propositions.
Propositions which cannot be further subdivided are called propositional variables. There are
two propositional constants, viz. true (T) and false (F). in this course, we will investigate the
truth values (T and F) of compound propositions.
Definition
A truth table of a proposition is a table which gives the truth values of the propositions under all
possible assignments to its (propositional) variables.
3.1 Statements and Basic Operations
The following are some notations used in this chapter:
p, q: statements
pq: conjunction of p and q, read p and q
pq: disjunction of p and q, read p or q
p: negation of p, read not p
T: truth
F: false
A statement, also called a verbal assertion, is any collection of symbols or sounds which are
either true or false but not both. The truth value of a statement refers to its truthfulness or
falseness. Consider the expressions listed below:
(a) Karl Theodore is the Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences.

(b) How are you?

(c) A.N.R. Robinson is the President of Trinidad and Tobago.
(a) and (c) are statements
(a) is a false statement
(c) is a true statement
(b) is not a statement as it cannot be answered in the Truth or False format.
Some statements consist of sub-statements linked by logical connectives. This is illustrated in the
following sets of examples:
(a) Patrick Watson is the Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences and Karl Theodore is the Head
of the Department of Economics. This is a composite statement with two sub statements:
(i)

Patrick Watson is the Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences and

(ii)

Karl Theodore is the Head of the Department of Economics.

(b) Shivnarine Chanderpaul is tolerant or concentrates for very long periods of time. This is
really a compound statement with sub statements:
(i)

Shivnarine Chanderpaul is tolerant or

(ii)

Shivnarine Chanderpaul can concentrate for very long periods of time.

In this chapter we are not concerned with the particular meaning of the words we are choosing
and as a consequence we can use symbols instead of sentences.
Example 3.1
Let p be the statement It is hot.
Let q be the statement It is dry.
Then we may write:
(a) p: it is not hot
(b) p q: it is hot and dry

(c) p q: it is hot or it is dry

(d) q p: it is dry or it is not hot.
Note the introduction and use of the various connectives:
~ - not
- and
- or
Example 3.2
Using the meaning of p and q from example 3.1 write out in words the meaning of the following:
(a) p q
(b) (q)
Solution
a) It is not hot and it is not dry (alternatively, it is not hot and not dry)
b) It is not not dry, i.e. it is dry (it is false that it is not dry).
3.2 The Construction of truth tables
Consider a statement represented by p. The statement p will be true when p is false and false
whenever p is true. This shows that the truth-value of a negative statement is inversely related to
the truth-value of the original statement. Well-formed formulas are derivable from logical
variables, such as p, q, and z etc, or statements derived from them using connectives (, , ).
Recall that a statement that is either true or false is called a proposition. The truth-value of a
proposition P derived from logical statements p, q, depends solely upon the truth-values of the
logical statements from which the proposition is derived. The truth-value of a proposition can be
illustrated by a truth table.
Truth tables can be constructed using two principal methods.

Method 1 In this method, the initial set of columns has the initial set of variables. In the simple
case below, the initial variables are p and q. The number of rows in the truth tables must be
sufficient to allow for all possible combinations of T and F. In general there are 2 n rows, where n
is the number of variables. Thus, in the case of the two variables p and q, there are 4 rows.
pq
q
T
F
T
F

p
T
T
F
F

pq
T
F
F
F

In summary, in this method there is a column for each of the elementary stages with the truth
values being determined by the nature of the connectives.
Method 2 A truth table can also be constructed as shown below. In this case we write the
proposition at the top of the table and each variable or connective has a column of truth-values
below it. The truth-values are entered in the steps shown in the table.
pq
p
T
T
F
F
Steps

q
T
F
T
F

p
T
T
F
F
1

T
T
T
F
2

q
T
F
T
F
1

In these lectures, the general approach followed would be method 1 (because of its relatively
superior analytical tractability).
In the literature, the established convention for listing the composition of the various truth tables
is as follows:

In general for the cth column, insert Ts in the first 2n-c rows, and insert Fs in the next 2n-c
rows, and so on.

3.3 Some Basic Truth Tables

Consider the following statements:
(a) It is not humid (~ p).
(b) It is humid and the ball is swinging (p q).
(c) It is humid or the ball is swinging (p q).
(i) The truth table for (a) shows that when p is T, p is F and when p is F, p is T.
p
p
F
T

p
T
F

(ii) The truth table for (b) shows that p q is T if both p and q are T, otherwise p q is F.

p
T
T
F
F

pq
q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
F
F
F

(iii) The word or as used here is in the weak sense. In this form, the word or means a or b or a
and b. The stronger version of or, which includes mutual exclusivity, focuses on the a or b
with no possibility of them occurring together.
Example of weak or
You can use a liniment such as bengues or analgesic (e.g. panadol) for your pain. For the purpose
of analysis concerning truth tables, when we use the word or we refer to the weak or.
Concerning the truth value of the logical connective , note that p q is true when either p or q
is true.

P
T
T
F
F

pq
q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
T
T
F

Example 3.3
Construct the truth table for ~ p q.
Solution
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

~p
F
F
T
T

~pq
F
F
T
F

Example 3.4
Outline the truth table of ~(p q)
Solution
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
F
F
F

~p q
F
T
T
T

3.4 Conditional p q

p
T
T
F
F

pq
q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
F
T
T

The truth table for pq is such that pq is true if both p and q are true, p is false and q is true
and both p and q are false i.e. pq is false only if p is true and q is false.
p q can therefore be read as several alternatives:
(i)

p implies q

(ii)

q only if p

(iii) p is sufficient for q

(iv) p is necessary for q
In economics, a large number of activities are derived from, or dependent on, the occurrence of
some other event. Examples include:
As the price of a commodity x increases (Px), then the quantity of it demanded decreases

(i)

(Qdx ).
(ii)

A rise in inflation ( P) leads to a fall in unemployment (u) in a Phillipian world.2

(iii) An appreciation of the real effective exchange rate implies that export decreases, ceteris
paribus.
(iv) For a price inelastic good, a rise in price leads to an increase in the amount of revenues a
supplier obtains.
Example 3.5
Show that pq is the same as p q i.e. p q p q.
Solution
Note that if the 2 columns contain the same elements, then they are the same.
p
T
T
F
F
2

pq
q
p q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T

p
T
T
F
F

p q
q
p
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
T

p q
T
F
T
T

Professor A. W. Phillips (1958) in The Relationship between the Unemployment rate and Changes in Money
Wage Rates in the U.K. Phillips, using data from the period 1861 to 1956, found a close negative empirical
relationship between the growth of money wage rates and the rate of unemployment.

Example 3.6
Without using the conditional, rewrite the following:
(i) If it is humid, the ball will swing.
(ii)

If inflation increases, then nominal wages will increase.

Solution
In the last example, it was demonstrated that if p then q is the same as not p or q, i.e. p q
p q,
so that we can write:
(a) It is not humid or the ball will swing.
(b) Inflation does not increase or nominal wages will rise.
Let us elaborate on (b) some more. If there is no increase no inflation, then nominal wages,
ceteris paribus, will remain dormant as real wages remain constant. If inflation increases,
however, this would eventually (depending on the expectations horizon adopted by the firm) lead
to an expansion in nominal wages demanded by workers.
3.5 Conditional Statements and Variations
From the conditional statement pq, the following variations may be obtained:
(1) qp
(2) p q
(3) q p
(1), (2) and (3) are respectively called the converse, inverse and contra positive of pq. These
are discussed further below.
3.5.1 Converse Statements
Consider the following statements:
p: it is humid and

10

q: the ball is swinging

p q means humidity is sufficient for the ball to swing.
Now consider the converse statement, q p which reads a swinging ball is sufficient for it to be
humid (this is incorrect, as hitting the seam can also cause the ball to swing).
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
F
T
T

qp
T
T
F
T

It is not unusual to encounter situations in mathematics in which the original problem statement
is difficult to prove but its converse is not, and vice versa. For example, if x and y are even
numbers, then the sum of x and y can be proven to be an even number. Consider now the
converse. The sum x + y being an even number does not imply that x and y are even. This is
because x and y could both be odd numbers. In this case the converse is incorrect.
3.5.2 Inverse Statements
For the conditional proposition p q, the inverse is pq.
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

p q
T
F
T
T

p
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p q
T
T
F
T

Let us consider the short run Phillipian world where p is inflation increases and q is
unemployment falls. p would suggest that inflation does not increase and as a consequence
unemployment does not rise. The reason why p q and p q have different truth values has
to do with the fact that it is possible for inflation and unemployment to both remain constant.

11

3.5.3 Contra Positive Statements

For the conditional proposition pq, the contra positive of this statement is qp. It is
possible to prove that a conditional proposition and its contra positive are logically equivalent.
To illustrate this, consider the example again of a short run Phillipian world where:
p: high inflation
q: low unemployment
High inflation implies low unemployment (pq). The contra positive statement is that high
unemployment implies low inflation.

P0
P1
PC
u0

u1

As the short run Phillips curve in the diagram above shows, a rise in unemployment is associated
with a lower level of inflation.
i.e. p q ~q ~p

p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

p q
T
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p
F
F
T
T

q p
T
F
T
T

12

(p q) and (~ q ~ p) have the same truth values and are logically equivalent. More
formally, two propositions are logically equivalent if they have identical truth tables.
3.6 Biconditional Statements
p q is a biconditional statement. With biconditionality, p and q are either true together or
false together.
p
T
T
F
F

p q
T
F
F
T

q
T
F
T
F

Consider the truth table below for (pq) (qp) p q.

p

q p q q p (pq) (qp) p q

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
T
T

T
T
F
T

T
F
F
T

T
F
F
T

(pq) (qp) p
q
T
T
T
T

Example 3.7
Show the truth table for ~ (p q) and ~ p ~ q.
Solution

~(p q) (~p ~q)

q pq ~(p q) ~p ~q (~ p ~q)

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

F
T
T
T

F
F
T
T

F
T
F
T

F
T
T
T

~(p q) (~p
~q)
T
T
T
T

13

Example 3.8
Verify the following:
(p q) p q ~p q
Solution
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
F
F
T

~(p q)
F
T
T
F

~q
F
T
F
T

p ~q
F
T
T
F

~p
F
F
T
T

~p q
F
T
T
F

3.7 Granger Causality

Granger (1969) introduced the idea of temporal causality into the econometrics discourse. For
two variables x and y, the following causal relationships are possible:
x y: (read x causes y)
y x: (read y causes x)
x y: (read x causes and is caused by y)
x y: there is no evidence of causality in either direction between x and y.
In the short run Phillipian world, a rise in inflation causes a fall in unemployment. In the
particular equilibrium world of microeconomics, a rise in the price of a commodity, ceteris
paribus, leads to a fall in the quantity of it demanded. It is also possible for reasons associated
with recent advances in endogenous growth theory that export growth (especially of
manufactured goods) and economic growth are engaged in bivariate feed back, i.e. one causes
and is caused by the other.
3.8 Tautologies and Contradictions
Some economist have noted that countries with high inflation rates have high interest rates. In
fact, empirical data suggests that a 1% increase in inflation is generally associated with a 1%

14

increase in nominal interest rates, a proposition first suggested by Stanley Fischer.3 The Fischer
hypothesis says that real interest rates do not change much, otherwise there would be large
excess demand or supply of loans. Higher inflation must largely be offset by higher nominal
interest rates to maintain the equilibrium real interest rate.
A tautology refers to a statement which is always true. A contradiction refers to a statement
which is always false. Consider the compound statement p ~p. For any T value for p, the
corresponding truth value of ~p is F, so that p ~p is a tautology.
p
T
F

~p
F
T

p ~p
T
T

Now consider the compound statement p ~p. This is a contradiction since they both cannot
occur at the same time. As such, it is always false.
p
T
F
Let

~p
F
T

p ~p
F
F

p be the statement inflation rates increase.

q be the statement nominal interest rates increase.

Example
Show that world where Fischers identity holds that
p q ~p q
Before actually answering the question using truth tables, we may reason as follows:
(i) if inflation increases, then with Fischers law we expect that nominal interest rates would also
increase (p q)
(ii) for the part of the question ~p q, recall that is used in the weak sense. This means that
either inflation did not rise or nominal interest rates increased.
3

Stanley Fischer, Seignorage and the Case for a National Money, Journal of Political Economy (April 1982, 295313).

15

So that: p q ~p q is therefore a tautology.

p

pq

pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
T
T

F
F
T
T

T
F
T
T

pq p
q
T
T
T
T

Example 3.9
Show that (p q) (p q) is a contradiction.
Solution
p

(p q)

(p q)

~ (p q)

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

T
T
T
F

F
F
F
T

(p q) ~ (p
q)
F
F
F
F

As such, we can define a contradiction as an argument that is everywhere false.

3.9 Logical Implication
A proposition p logically implies a proposition q if for every instance of p being true, q is true
also.
Example 3.10
Show that p q and p q are logically equivalent.

Solution

16

p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

pq
T
F
F
F

pq
T
F
F
F

Note that the columns for p q and p q are identical.

Now consider p ~ q. Does this logically imply p q?
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

~q
F
T
F
T

p ~q
F
T
T
F

pq
T
F
T
T

From the table, we see that p ~q does not logically imply p q since the columns are not
similar.
3.10 Arguments
An argument consists of a finite number of premises with a conclusion. Premises are accepted
statements, e.g. P1 Pn.
If we let C be the conclusion derived from a number of premises, then we can list our argument
as:
P1
P2

Pn
C

Which is interpreted to mean that P1, P2 Pn concludes C. It is written as P1, P2 Pn C.

A valid argument exists only in the instance where true premises give true conclusions. Thus,
the argument P1,Pn C is a valid one only if C is true whenever Pi (i = 1n) is true. If an
argument is invalid, it is called a fallacy.

17

Alternatively said, an argument is valid if (P 1 P2 P3 P4 Pn) C; otherwise it is

invalid.
Assume that we have two commodities, say beef and pork, which are substitutes. Ceteris paribus:
(i)

a rise in the price of beef (p) will lead to

(ii)

a fall in the quantity demanded of beef (q) and hence

(iii)

an increase in the demand for pork (r).

The points (i) to (iii) represent a set of fundamental principles in the chain of economic reasoning
and mirrors a similar set of principles in logical reasoning. More formally, the set of
propositions p, q, and r may be expressed in the following valid argument:
(p q) (q r) p r
This is the Law of Syllogism and may be proven as shown in the truth table below.
p
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

r
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

(p q)
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T

(q r)
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T

(pq) (q r)
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T

(p r)
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T

(p q) (q r) (p r)
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

In economic terms, ceteris paribus, a rise in the price of beef leads to a fall in the quantity
demanded of beef. The consequence of this is that there is an increase in the demand for pork
suggesting that the rise in the price of beef leads to an increase in demand for pork. The
tautological nature of the last column translates that, ceteris paribus, a rise in the price of beef
will always lead to an increase in the demand for pork, ceteris paribus.

18

Dpork1

$
Dpork0

P1

Spork

P3
P2

P0
Dbeef

Q1

Q0

Qbeeft

Q2 Q3

Qporkt

In the diagrams above, as the price of beef increases from P 0 to P1, quantity demanded falls from
Q0 to Q1. For meat eaters, the increase in the price of beef encourages a greater consumption of
pork at every price level so the demand curve shifts rightwards from D pork0 to Dpork1 with an
increase in the price of pork from P2 to P3.
3.10.1 Arguments and Statements
Consider the following argument, for two substitutable goods X and Y.
P1: If Px rises, then Qdx falls
P2: If Qdx falls, Dy increases
P: Px and Dy are positively correlated
Where Px:

price of the commodity x

Qdx: quantity demanded of the commodity x

Dy: demand for commodity y
In this representation, the statement below the line is the conclusion and those above the line are
the premises. As such, P denotes the conclusion of the argument and the statements P 1 and P2
above the line denotes the premises.
i.e.

P1, P2 P

19

and can be translated into the form:

Px Qdx, Qdx Dy Px Dy
or
p q, q r p r
where
p: Px increases
q: Qdx falls
r: Dy increases
Note the use of in the following illustration:
(p q) (q r) (p r)
By the law of syllogism, this argument is valid.
Consider now two goods, X and Y, with prices Px and Py respectively. Let:
P1: If two goods (X and Y) are complementary, Px and Qdy are inversely correlated.
P2: Px and Qdy are not inversely correlated.

P: X and Y are not complementary.

where
Px: price of x
Qdy: quantity demanded of y
To translate this argument into symbolic form, let:
p: X and Y are complementary
q: Px and Qdy are inversely correlated
and so we can write:
p q, ~ q ~ p, which can be rewritten as

20

[( p q) ~ q] ~ p
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

(p q)
T
F
T
T

~q
F
T
F
T

(p q) ~q
F
F
F
T

~p
F
F
T
T

[(p q) ~q] ~p
T
T
T
T

From the last column in the table, we see that X and Y are not complementary, but rather it is a
valid argument as true premises give true conclusions. If we had one instance of a true premise
giving an invalid conclusion, then the argument would have been invalid.
Example 3.11
(a) Let statement P and Q be defined as follows:
P: You get pay only when you have finished the task
Q: If you dont complete the job you will not be paid
Are P and Q logical statements?
(b) Let statement M and N be represented as:
M: All countries that have full employment will attain rapid economic growth
N: Trinidad has full employment but low economic growth.
Is N a negation of M?
Solution
(a) Let A = I will pay you and B = You finish the job.
Then P A B and Q ~B ~ A.
Now Q is the contra positive of P, and as such, Q is logically equivalent to P.
(b)

Let A = all economies which have full employment have high economic growth, and
B=Trinidad have full employment but low economic growth. Suppose that A is true. Then B
is false. Also if A is false, then a country with full employment will have low economic
growth. Thus B is true. Hence, B is a negation of A.

21

Example 3.12
Is the following argument valid?
S1: If a man is a bachelor, he is unhappy.
S2: If a man is unhappy, he dies young.

S: Bachelors die young.

Solution
We translate the argument S1 and S2 S into the symbolic form
pq, qr pr
where p: He is a bachelor,
q: He is unhappy,
r: He dies young.
This argument is valid by the Law of Syllogism and hence the given argument is valid.
3.11 Summary
Propositions adhere to various laws under the relation of logical equivalence. These are
summarized in the table below (where t = truth-value and f = false-value).
(1a) p p p
(2a) (p q) r p (qr)
(3a) p q q p

Idempotent Law
(1b) p p p
Associative Law
(2b) (p q) r p (q r)
Commutative Law
(3b) p q q p
Distributive Laws

(4a) p(qr) (p q) (p r)
(5a) p f p
(6a) p t t
(7a) p p t
(8a) (p) p

(4b) p(q r) ( p q) (p r)
Identity Laws
(5b) p t p
(6b) p f f
Complement Laws
(7b) p p f
(8b) t f, f t
De Morgans Law

22

(9a) (pq) p q

(9a) (pq) p q

Below are the proofs for the more complicated laws listed above. Note that the proof for De
Morgans law will be done as a question in Tutorial Sheet No. 2.
3.11.1 Associative Law
(a) Proof that (p q) r p (q r)
p
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

r
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

pq
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
F

(p q) r
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F

qr
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F

p (q r)
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F

(b) Proof that (p q) r p (q r)

pq
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
F

(p q) r
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F

3.11.2 Commutative Law

(a) Proof that p q q p

qr
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F

p (q r)
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F

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p
T
T
F
F

pq
T
T
T
F

q
T
F
T
F

qp
T
T
T
F

(b) Proof that p q q p

pq
T
F
F
F

qp
T
F
F
F

3.11.3 Distributive Law

(a) Proof that p (q r) (p q) (p r)
p

qr

T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F

p (q
r)
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F

pq qr
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
F

T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F

(p q) (p
r)
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F

(b) Proof that p (q r) (p q) (p r)

qr
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
Quantifiers

p (q
r)
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F

pq pr
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
F

T
F
T
F
F
F
F
F

(p q) (p
r)
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F

24

The following notation and theorem involving the universal quantifier and the existential
qualifier will be used throughout this section:
(x A)p(x) or
x, p(x),
for every x A, p(x) is true.
(x A)p(x) or
x, p(x),
there exists x A such that p(x) is true.
Here p(x) is a propositional function (or open-sentence or condition) on A, that is, p(a) is true or
false for every a in A.
Theorem 3.9 (DeMorgan): Let p(x) be a propositional function on A. Then
(i) ~(x A)p(x) (x A) ~ p(x)
(ii) ~(x A)p(x) (x A) ~ p(x)
Remark: Theorem 3.9 says, in words, that the following two statements are equivalent:
(i) It is not true that, for every a A, p(a) is true.
(ii) There exists an a A such that p(a) is false.
and, similarly, the following two statements are equivalent:
(i) It is not true that there exists an a A such that p(a) is true.
(ii) For all a A, p(a) is false.
Question
Let p(x) denote the sentence x + 2 > 5. State whether or not p(x) is a propositional function on
each of the following sets:
(a) N, the set of positive integers;
(b) M = {-1, -1, -3}; and
(c) C, the set of complex numbers.
Solution
(a) Yes
(b) Although p(x) is false for every element in M, p(x) is still a propositional function on M.
(c) No. Note that 2i + 2 > 5 does not have any meaning. In other words, inequalities are not
defined for complex numbers.
Question
Determine the truth value of each of the following statements. (Here R is the universal set.)
(a) x, |x| = x
(b) x, x2 = x
(c) x, x + 1 > x
(d) x, x + 2 = x
Solution
(a) False. Note that if x0 = -3 then |x0| x0.
(b) True. For if x0 = 1 then x02 = x0.
(c) True. For every real number is a solution to x + 1 > x.
(d) False. There is no solution to x + 2 = x.
Propositional Functions with Multiple Variables

25

This subsection considers propositional functions p(x, y ) with more than one variable. If such
an expression is preceded by a quantifier for each variable, for example,
x y p(x, y)
or
x z y p(x, y, z)
then the quantified expression is a statement and has a truth value; otherwise, it is an open
statement (in the variables without quantifiers) and has a truth set.
Question
Determine the truth value of each of the following statements where {1, 2, 3} is the universal set:
(a) x y, x2 < y + 1
(b) x y, x2 + y2 < 12
(c) x y, x2 + y2 < 12
Solution
(a) True. For if x = 1, then 1 < y + 1 has as solutions each of the numbers 1, 2 and 3.
(b) True. For each x0, let y = 1; then x02 + 1 < 12 is a true statement.
(c) False. For if x0 = 2 and y0 = 3, then x02 + y02 < 12 is not a true statement.
Question
Repeat the problem above for:
(a) x y z, x2 + y2 < 2z2
(b) x y z, x2 + y2 < 2z2
Solution
(a) True. For if x0 = 1 and z0 = 3, then the truth set of x02 + y2 < 2z02, i.e. 1 + y2 < 18, is the
universal set 1, 2, 3.
(b) False. For if z0 = 1, then x2 + y2 < 2z02 has no solution.