Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
4, 1999
199
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Critical social theory served as the theoretical
framework for the present research. Although the roots
of the development of the theory can be traced to
several schools of thought in the post-World War I
period, a group of interdisciplinary researchers at the
Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany, is
well known for the theorys conceptualization. The
purpose of the theory was to conceptualize a social
phenomenon in relation to the historical perspective
and context in which it occurs and then ultimately to
liberate groups from social and political oppression. The
goal of this theoretical perspective is to release the
individual from the constraint of domination and
distorted communication by creating knowledge which
furthers autonomy and responsibility (Habermas, 1971,
p. 197). The emancipation purpose of this framework
helped the researchers discover and expose patterns of
domination in this cultural group and to effect change in
social circumstances to liberate victims from their
oppressive conditions. Holter (1988) discussed the aim
of critical theory as one that brings self-knowledge and
self-re ection to individuals whose perception is
clouded by values imposed by society (p. 220).
The critical theory framework was most helpful to this
study in keeping us focused on the broader
environmental
issues
often
neglected
in
the
conceptualization of nursing research (Chopoorian,
LITERATUREREVIEW
An extensive search of the literature revealed few
studies of domestic violence among the Arab American
population. Until recently, there were few articles or
research data regarding the cultural norms among Arab
Americans that may place them at higher risk for
ENVIRONMENTALCONTEXTOF THE
POPULATION
Arab Americans immigrate to the United States from
several Third World countries. Although commonly
referred to as the Arab community, this population is
heterogeneous in country of origin, religion, and
socioeconomic status. Estimates of the Arab population
in the geographic area of this study range from 200,000
to 250,000, with the area immediately surrounding the
community center estimated at more than 35,000
eeing
from
civil
war
and
the
IsraeliPalestinian con ict, and from Iraq as a
consequence of the war between Iraq and Kuwait.
People who ee such hardship are often able to bring
little resources as they escape, and they come to join a
community that is already beset by poverty,
unemployment, and housing shortages.
The population assessed for this study surrounds an
Arab community center that offers services to more
than 60,000 people of Arab ancestry. Of the 18,000
living in the city, 6,000 live within a 5-mile radius of the
community center. According to census reports, the age
of the population tends to be younger than the
surrounding American group. The median age of the
Arab American group was 23.2 years in 1980 (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1980). Seventy- ve percent of
the population served by this community center are
under the age of 30 (Kulwicki, 1989a).
In termsof education, the Arab American population of
this area ranks lower than the general population of the
United States. On the basis of a strati ed sample (N =
237 respondents), 67% of the respondents who were
interviewed
for
a
previous
study
of
cardiovasculardiabetes risk factors reported that they
had not attended school or had not completed high
school. Mean level of income is also very low (Kulwicki,
1989a). The 1990 census revealed that 40% of the
residents who lived in the area of the community center
were 200% below the poverty level (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 1990). Language barriers have been and
continue to be an obstacle for Arabic-speaking people,
especially among the most recent immigrants. Literacy
levels are low, with slightly less than 50% of the
population indicating that they cannot read or write in
English (Kulwicki, 1989a).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In critical social theory, the research ndings are
used to liberate a certain group from environmental
oppression. Many research methods may be used, if the
ndings help to develop programs for social and
political action affecting the oppressed individuals. The
idea of reciprocal interaction is one of the features of
the methodology. Dialogue between the researcher and
the respondent is viewed as positive, and the research
ndings constitute a starting point for community
discussion to effect change in environmental conditions.
In this study a survey tool was the primary instrument
for data collection. The Husbands Patriarchal Beliefs
Questionnaire (Smith, 1990) was administered by an
Arabic-speaking nurse in the homes of selected sample
participants. The nurse helped the clients interpret the
questions on the survey tool something that was
important to the accuracy of information solicitedfor
this study. After the questionnaire was completed, the
nurse served as a resource for dialogue with the client,
encouraging reciprocal interaction, as a means of
raising the consciousness of the informant. The
questionnaire included assessment of (a) demographic
characteristics of the respondents, (b) attitudes and
beliefs toward domestic violence, and (c) behaviors
regarding domestic violence. The questionnaire was
reviewed by the health research advisory committee
and six staff members at the Arab American community
resource center. It was pilot tested with 20 clients of the
Arab American community health center. The tool was
revised three times because of dif culties encountered
by the respondents in interpreting the questions. It was
pilot tested a second time before being incorporated
into the research. It was then translated into Arabic to
provide language-appropriate questions for monolingual
respondents. Bilingual interviews were administered by
the outreach worker, who was recruited and trained in
survey methodology.
Data collection was conducted in respondents
homes, incorporating dialogue with the interviewer as
an effective way of gathering information on the
population. Because of the high percentage of illiteracy
in both Arabic and English, and because of the cultural
norm related to the reluctance of Arab Americans to
discuss sensitive questions outside their homes, we
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Survey results are depicted in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The
demographic characteristics in Table 1 reveal that 80%
of the respondents were female, with a mean age of
33.75 years. Ninety-six percent of the respondents were
married. In terms of education, only 20% reported
having completed high school, and 6% reported having
completed college. In terms of heritage, 67% were
Lebanese and 10% were Yemeni. Over 66% reported
Arabic as the language used at home. Thirty percent of
the respondents had immigrated to the United States
less than 3 years ago, 25% between 6 and 10 years
ago, and 35% had lived in the United States more than
10 years. Fifty-eight percent of the respondents
reported no individual income, and 42% reported a
family income of less than $9,999. The ndings
suggest that, overall, the respondents lived with limited
economic resources, were married, and the most
respondents were not working outside the home.
Findings related to beliefs and attitudes about
domestic violence are included in Tables 2 and 3. The
results show that 58% of women and 59% of men
approved of a man slapping his wife if she hits him
rst in an argument, 4% of the respondents actually
believed that a man should kill his wife if she hits him
LIBERATION
THROUGHCOMMUNITYINTERVENTION
Analysis of survey results indicated a critical need for
domestic violence awareness and prevention programs
and a comprehensive culturally and linguistically
sensitive educational program for low-income and
illiterate populations. The ndings were used to
develop programs to effect social change in the
community related to attitudes and beliefs about
domestic violence. In the United States, unlike the Arab
countries of origin for these respondents, the political
system does not overlook
TABLE 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample
Variable
Sex
Male
Femal
e Age
1620 years
Frequency
40
162
2130
72
3140
79
%
1
9.
8
0
8
0.
1
9
3
.
4
7
3
5.
6
4
3
4150
29
5160
10
61+
Marital
status
Dating
Engaged
Married
Separated
193
9.
1
1
1
4.
3
6
4
.
9
3
2
.
4
7
0
.
5
0
1
.
9
9
9
6.
0
2
1
.
4
9
No response
Children < 17 years old living in the
household
None
One
Two
Three
Four
Five or more
Education
Illiterate
Less than high school
High school graduate
Some college
Four-year college graduate
Graduate school
Employment status
Unemployed
Secretary, technician, or health
care provider
Skilled craftsperson
Services (e.g., retail sales,
restaurant server)
Managerial/professional
Laborer
Student
Mother
Individual
income None
$1,000$4,999
1
28
34
34
46
29
27
14
97
42
32
13
4
16
5
2
14
13
17
6
129
115
22
0
.
5
0
1
4.
1
4
1
7.
1
8
1
7.
1
8
2
3.
2
3
1
4.
6
4
1
3.
6
3
6
.
9
3
4
6.
0
1
2
0.
8
0
1
5.
8
4
6.
4
4
1.
9
8
7.
9
2
2.
4
8
1.
0
0
6.
9
3
6.
4
3
8.
4
1
2.
9
7
6
3.
8
6
5
7.
7
9
1
1.
0
5
Frequency
32
%
16.
08
$10,000$14,999
14
$15,000$19,999
$20,000$24,999
$25,000+
Family income
<$9,999
$10,000$19,999
83
60
$20,000$29,999
23
$30,000$39,999
$40,000$49,999
$50,000$59,999
$60,000$69,999
$70,000$79,999
$80,000+
Don t know
Ethnic background
Lebanese
Syrian
Yemeni
0
20
135
3
21
7.
0
4
2.
0
1
2.
0
1
1.
5
1
42.
13
30.
46
11.
68
3.
0
5
0.
5
1
0.
5
1
1.
0
1
0.
5
0
0
10.
15
67.
16
1.
4
9
10.
Palestinian
Iraqi
Other
29
6
62
18
610
51
More than 10
71
Religion
Muslim
Christian
Other
Both
196
3
134
7
61
Reading skills
Read & write/English
Read & write/Arabic
20
73
84
19
45
3.
4
8
14.
43
2.
9
9
30.
69
8.
9
1
25.
25
35.
15
97.
51
1.
4
9
1.
0
0
66.
34
3.
4
6
30.
20
9.
9
5
36.
31
41.
80
1.
9
9
9.
4
5
208
20
9
vio
len
t
act
s,
an
d
im
mi
gr
an
ts
m
ust
be
aw
ar
e
of
th
e
att
itu
de
s
an
d
bel
ief
s
in
th
e
Un
ite
d
St
at
es.
Thi
s
ne
w
pol
itic
al
co
nt
ex
t
pr
ovi
de
d
a
po
siti
ve
in
ue
nc
e
on
cli
en
t
res
po
ns
es
to
nu
rsi
ng
int
er
ve
nti
on
s.
Th
e
foc
us
wa
s
on
pu
bli
c
ed
uc
ati
on
to
in
ue
nc
e
att
itu
de
s.
Interventions in the community were started
immediately. A mass media campaign was developed to
disseminate
domestic-violence
education
and
prevention services in the community. Three live
television shows hosting a panel of professionals and
community leaders were aired: one on cable television
and two on the United Arab Network in the local area.
Announcements of available services on domestic
violence were aired daily on the community calendar of
the Arab Network Association (ANA). In addition, six
public-service announcements were aired on the ANA,
Sada Al Arab radio stations, and United Arab Network
television. Press releases were published in the
Dearborn Pressand Guide, Sada Al Watan (Arabic
Weekly), and El Sabeel (Arabic Weekly) magazines.
News releases and information regarding the Arab
Domestic Violence Program were disseminated during
two professional workshops. The rst workshop was
presented to a group of 60 nurse professionals, the
second to 48 nurse leaders in the area.
EMPOWERMENTANDEMANCIPATION
THROUGHPRINT MEDIADISTRIBUTION
A number of written materials were reviewed by the
project director and the outreach worker. Sources
included writtenmaterialsfrom Project H.A.R.T.(Healthy
Alternatives for Relationships among Teens), LAWW
(Legal Advocates for Abused Women), Oasis, the
National Lawyers Guild, the National Coalition Against
Domestic Violence, AWARE (Assisting Women with
Advocacy Resources and Education), the Family
SOCIOPOLITICAL
CHANGETHROUGHCOMMUNITY
OUTREACH
Twenty-two bilingual ArabicEnglish community
workshops focusing on domestic violence and con ict
resolution were conducted by the outreach worker,
reaching 555 individuals. The workshops targeted four
major mosques; ve schools and job training centers;
adult education centers; two cultural centers; and the
county Women, Infants, and Children program. The goal
of the Arab Domestic Violence Prevention Program was
to provide educational programs that were culturally
competent and linguistically relevant to the Arab
American community. On the basis of the data
collected, a curriculum of educational activities and
materials was developed that provided information on
the de nition of domestic violence, its prevalence, the
risk factors, and community resources available to the
victims of violence. The curriculum materials were
developed so that the information presentation lasted
only 20 min, followed by a 15-min question-and-answer
session. A bilingual ArabicEnglish health coordinator
familiar with the sociocultural factors contributing to
domestic violence conducted the educational sessions.
The program was considered an exceptional outreach
program in a community where attendance to
educational activitiesis often low. Focus group meetings
with program participants indicated an increased
awareness of domestic violence among community
members and an increased understanding of the risk
factors and use of community resources for victims of
domestic violence.
222
LIMITATIONS
This research project was effective in identifying and
providing services for victims of domestic violence in
CHANGESIN ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONSAS A GOAL FOR
FUTUREPROJECTS
Careful consideration of the ndings of this research
project have led to the conclusion that some Arab
cultural values may prohibit or discourage women from
seeking
help
from
community
resources.
Environmentally oppressive cultural and political
traditional beliefs and practices, including patriarchal
beliefs and attitudes of men toward women, appear to
contribute to the violence perpetrated toward women in
this population. In the American context, some women
fear retribution for not conforming to these traditional
values. The projects educational programs aimed at
changing the environmental conditions within the
community, to encourage exposure instead of public
lack of acknowledgment of this health problem.
Changing the political rules in society does not quickly
change cultural norms or attitudes. Studies in
politicalanthropology have described this process
accurately. It is possible to change power relationships
in a society overnight, but a great deal of the symbols
validating and supporting those relationships will
survive and will change only slowly (Cohen, 1976, p.
224
CONCLUSION
Domestic violence has become an important political
issue in the United States. This project has served as a
rst step in identifying the scope of the problem for
Arab American immigrants. The data analysis of 202
surveys in the community that assessed the attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors of the Arab American
respondents were used as baseline data for increasing
community awareness of the problem in this
population. Engaging in dialogue with clients to
empower and raise consciousness for informants was
effective and emancipatory. This was the rst attempt
to change environmental conditions that in uence
violence against women within Arab American families
and to empower women to consider making changes in
their own lives. The educational services and the media
campaign also were effective means of precipitating
environmental change in cultural and political norms
and heightening public awareness of availability of
resources to at-risk or abused Arab women. The project
addressed a very sensitive cultural issue for the Arab
population. It was the rst step of an effort to
introduce change in both public and private attitudes
toward the victimization of women within families, to
liberate and empower these individuals to seek help
through local resources that continue to be developed
and to provide health care and protection.
REFERENCES
Campbell, J. (1981). Mysogyny and homicide of women. In Advances
innursing science (pp. 6785). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
226
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