1

PRESSURE
Density () of a substance is defined as its mass (m) per unit volume (V).

m
V

Pressure (p) is the force (F) acting normally per unit area (A). It is a scalar quantity.
p=

F
A

The SI unit of p is Pa. 1 Pa =1Nm-2. It is a scalar quantity

Pressure in a liquid
A fluid is a substance that flows, i.e. gases, liquids. An incompressible fluid is a fluid whose
density does not change with changes in pressure.
The relation between the pressure p due to a fluid
(liquid or gas) at depth h is given by the equation
p = gh, where is the density of the fluid and g
is the acceleration of free fall. The equation can be
derived as follows:
Consider a flat horizontal surface of area A at a
depth h in a fluid of density.
Then, mass of fluid on area = density x volume =
Ah and weight of fluid on area = Ahg.
This weight of fluid produces a pressure p on the area given by
force
area
gAh
p
A
p gh

pressure

Note that this equation allows the pressure due to the fluid to be calculated. It should be
remembered that the actual pressure at depth h in a liquid would be given by
pressure = gh + atmospheric pressure at liquid surface.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Equation p = h g applies to incompressible liquid ( constant).

p can act in any direction
p is the same at all points on the same horizontal level
p is independent of the cross-sectional area of the vessel containing the liquid.

UPTHRUST (U)
When a body is partially or completely submerged in a fluid, it appears to weigh less than
when it is not, due to an upward force called upthrust on the body by the fluid. The upthrust
arises because of the pressure difference between the bottom and top of the object.
Consider a solid cylinder of cross sectional area A and length l immersed in a liquid of
density
F1 = downward force on top of cylinder,
F2 = upward force on base of cylinder
p1 = pressure on top and p2 = pressure on base
U = F2 F1, acting upwards
= gA(h2 h1)
= gAL
= Vg
U = weight of fluid displaced by the immersed
object (Archimedes Principle)
Archimedes principle: The upthrust on a submerged body is equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid, U = Vg.
Note: Archimedes principle applies to objects of any shape partially or totally immersed in a
fluid. The upthrust is maximum when object is totally immersed in the fluid. Objects of
different densities but same volume will experience the same upthrust when wholly
immersed.
VISCOUS FORCES
Viscosity can be described as internal friction in the fluid and is a measure of its resistance to
flow. In liquids it is due to attractive forces between molecules while in gases it is due to the
collisions between molecules. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature
while the viscosity of a gas increases with increasing temperature. Viscous force in air is
called air resistance. So, an object moving in a fluid experiences a viscous (or drag) force
because of the viscosity of the fluid.
Frictional forces

Viscous forces

dissipate energy as heat

occur due to the attractive forces between molecules in liquids and collisions
between molecules in gases
oppose relative motion
Differences act along the surfaces in contact
act between a fluid and a solid/fluid
between two solid objects
Similaritie
s

Not affected by relative speed

Increase with the relative speed
between the two surfaces
between the two surfaces
Friction exists even when the object Does not exist when there is no relative
is at rest
motion
Under non-turbulent conditions (i.e steady motion), the viscous force (Fv) is
Fv
proportional to the speed v of the object: Fv v Fv = k v. The constant of
proportionality k depends on the size and shape of the object, and the
U
viscosity of the fluid.
Consider a body falls from rest in a fluid, the forces acting on it are its
weight (W), viscous force (Fv) and upthrust (U). Initially the viscous force is
zero and the body falls with a downward resultant force F=W U . As the

body accelerates, the viscous force Fv increases from zero. So, the new
s
F=W U F v
downward resultant force
decreases, causing
acceleration to decrease. When the resultant force on the falling
body becomes zero, acceleration is zero and the body falls at a
constant maximum speed called terminal velocity vt.
At t = 0,
F=W U =ma
a=

vt

W U F v
m

At terminal velocity vt, F = 0 :

W =F v +U

( m0mf )
k

a
g

m0 g=k v t +mf g
vt =

W U
<g
m

At t > 0,
ma=W UF v
a=

gradient = vt

g , where m0 = mass of the object and

mf = mass of fluid displaced by object.

Note: The upthrust U can be neglected if the object falls through a through a fluid of low
density (e.g air).
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
Torque (moment or turning effect) of a force

Torque of a force about a point is defined as the product of the force (F) and the
perpendicular distance (d) from the pivot to the force. Its unit is N m and is a vector.
Torque (T) of a couple
A couple is a pair of equal and parallel but opposite forces acting on a body along different
parallel lines of action, and which tends to produce rotation only.Ng
Torque (T) of a couple is the
sum of moments of the two forces forming the couple. It is defined as the product of one of
the forces (F) and the perpendicular distance between the two forces (d). It is a vector
quantity. Its SI unit is Nm
R

T (in Nm) = F (in N) d W

(in m)

dsin

T=Fd

T=Fdsin
F1

F2

T
thread
Flag
pole

F1
R

F3

R
W

F2
F3
of forces showing F1, F2 & F3 in equilibrium

T
W
Vector triangle showing R, T, W in equilibrium

Nw

smooth
wall

R
Ng
W
f

rough ground

f = friction between the ladder and the ground

Ng = normal reaction force of ground on ladder
Nw = normal reaction force of wall on ladder
R = resultant of f and Ng on ladder,
W = weight of ladder
The centre of gravity (or mass) of a body is the point at which the whole weight (or mass) of
the body appears to act. If the distribution of masses and g remain constant on all parts of the
objects, the centre of gravity will coincide with the centre of mass of the object.
Conditions for equilibrium:
1. Translational Equilibrium:
The resultant of all the forces acting on a rigid body in any direction is zero ( F = 0),
i.e. Fx = vector sum of horizontal force components = 0,
Fy = vector sum of vertical force components = 0
Note: When coplanar forces acting on a body are in translational equilibrium, they form a
closed polygon taken in order (arrows pointing in the same direction).
2. Rotational Equilibrium:
The resultant moment (or torque) on a rigid body about any point is zero,
i.e. T = 0, or the principle of moments must apply.
Note: If there are two or more forces acting on a body, then their lines of action must pass
through the same point (pivot) in order for the body to be in rotational equilibrium.
Note: (i) Static equilibrium means body is at rest.
(ii) Dynamic equilibrium means centre of mass of body is moving at constant velocity.
(iii) Translational equilibrium means either in static equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium.
Example:

3F

F
F

F
F

F
F

translational
equilibrium
rotational
equilibrium