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PATTERNSOF
HYPERTEXT
MarkBernstein
chiefscientist,EastgateSystems,Inc.

PatternsOf
Hypertext

Reprintedfrom
ProceedingsofHypertext
'98,FrankShipman,Elli
Mylonas,andKaj
Groenback,eds,ACM,
NewYork.(c)Copyright
1998byAssociationfor
ComputingMachinery.All
RightsReserved.
Reprintedbypermission.

Thecomplexityandunrulinessof
thecomplexwebsoflinkswe
Copyright1999bythe
AssociationforComputing
createhasfrequentlyledtocalls
Machinery,Inc.Permission
tomakedigitalorhard
for"structured"orotherwise
copiesofpartorallofthis
disciplinedhypertext[33][20]
workforpersonalor
classroomuseisgranted
[75].Whilecallsforclearer
withoutfeeprovidedthat
copiesarenotmadeor
structurehavetriedtoavoid,
distributedforprofitor
commercialadvantageand
consolidate,orminimizelinks,it
thatcopiesbearthisnotice
isnowclearthathypertext
andthefullcitationonthe
firstpage.Copyrightsfor
cannoteasilyturnitsbackon
componentsofthiswork
ownedbyothersthan
complexlinkstructures.Whereit
ACMmustbehonored.
wasoncefearedthatthe
Abstractingwithcreditis
permitted.Tocopy
cognitiveburdensoflarge,
otherwise,torepublish,to
postonservers,orto
irregularlinknetworkswould
redistributetolists,
requirespriorspecific
overwhelmreaders,wefindin
permissionand/orafee.
practicethatmyriadcasual
Requestpermissionsfrom
PublicationsDept,ACM
readersflocktothedocuverse.
Inc.,fax+1(212)869
0481,or
Thegrowthofliteraryand
permissions@acm.org.
scholarlyhypertext,theevolution
oftheWeb,andtheeconomicsof
linkexchangeallassurethelongtermimportanceof
links.
Sincelargelinkedconstructscannotbewishedaway,it
istimetodevelopavocabularyofconceptsand
structuresthatwillletusunderstandthewaytoday's
hypertextsandWebsiteswork.Progressinthecraftof
writingdepends,inpart,onanalysisanddiscussionof
thebestexistingwork.Anappropriatevocabularywill
allowusbothtodiscernandtodiscusspatternsin
hypertextsthatmayotherwiseseemanimpenetrable
tangleorarbitrarymorass.Thereader'sexperienceof
manycomplexhypertextsisnotoneofchaotic
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disorder,eventhoughwecannotyetdescribethat
structureconciselytheproblemisnotthatthe
hypertextslackstructurebutratherthatwelackwords
todescribeit.

LookingforPatterns
Thispaperdescribesavarietyofpatternsoflinkage
observedinactualhypertexts.Hypertextstructure
doesnotresideexclusivelyinthetopologyoflinksnor
inthelanguageofindividualnodes,andsowemust
worktowardapatternlanguagethroughboth
topologicalandrhetoricalobservation.Instancesof
thesepatternstypicallyrangeinscopefromahandful
ofnodesandlinkstoafewhundred.Thesepatterns
[29][3]arecomponentsobservedwithinhypertexts,
ratherthansystemfacilities(see[67])orplansofa
completework.Typicalhypertextscontaininstancesof
manydifferentpatterns,andoftenasinglenodeorlink
mayparticipateinseveralintersectingstructures.
Idonotarguethattheobservedstructuralpatterns
areuniquelydesirable,thatsuperiorpatternscannot
bedevised,orindeedthatthewritersofthese
hypertextsmeanttousethesepatternsatall.Ido
proposethatbyconsideringthesepatterns,orpatterns
likethem,writersandeditorsmaybeledtomore
thoughtful,systematic,andsophisticateddesigns.
Thesepatternsareoffered,then,asasteptoward
developingarichervocabularyofhypertextstructure.
Examplesaredrawnfrompublishedstandalone
hypertextsaswellasfromtheWeb.Websitesare
readilyaccessiblebutvolatile:asitewhichtoday
illustratesonestructuremaybeunrecognizable
tomorrow.Publishedhypertextsarelessaccessible,but
arealsomorepermanent.Moreover,someimportant
patternsdependondynamiclinkslinkswhich
dependonthereader'spastinteractions.TheWeb
itselfisstatefree,andwhilevariousimplementations
ofstatedependentbehaviorsfortheWebhavebeen
proposed,statedependentbehaviorremainsan
exceptionalcaseinWebhypertexts.
Somepatternexamplesaredrawnfromliteraryfiction.
Idonotbelievethesepatternstobeusefulexclusively
forfictionrather,avarietyofeconomicandcultural
factorssometimesencourageexperimentationin
narrativeratherthantechnicalwritingorjournalism.
Moreover,hypertextfictiontendstobewrittenfor
generalaudiencesandmayremainavailable
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indefinitely,whilespecializedreferencemanualsand
Helpsystemsmaybeshortlivedandlessreadily
availabletothegeneralreader.Nordoesourinterestin
structuralvocabularynecessarilyimplyastructuralist
orpoststructuraliststanceweneedtodescribe
phenomena,whateverourtheoreticalbeliefs[48][1].
TwopatternsTreeandSequencehavebeen
describedmanytimesinthehypertextliterature[16]
[64].Bothareuseful,indeedindispensable,andcanbe
foundinalmostanyhypertext.

Cycle
IntheCycle,thereaderreturnstoa
previouslyvisitednodeandeventuallydeparts
alonganewpath.Cyclescreaterecurrence
[12]andsoexpressthepresenceofstructure.
Kolb'sSocratesInTheLabyrinth[45]discussesthe
roleoftheCycleinargumentation,showinghow
hypertextcyclesemergenaturallyfromtraditional
argumentativeforms.Cyclicalrepetitionalsomodulates
theexperienceofthehypertext[44],emphasizingkey
pointswhilerelegatingotherstothebackground.
Writersmaybreakacycleautomaticallybyusing
conditionallinks,ormayusebreadcrumbs[7]toguide
theusertodepartalonganewtrajectory.Relyingon
breadcrumbstobreakcyclesiscommonontheWeb.
InJoyce'sCycle,thereaderrejoinsa
previouslyvisitedpartofthehypertextand
continuesalongapreviouslytraversed
trajectorythroughoneormorespacesbefore
thecycleisbroken.Revisitingapreviouslyvisited
scene,moreover,mayitselfprovideafreshexperience
becausethenewcontextcanchangethemeaningofa
passageeventhoughthewordsremainthesame.The
openinglinesofafternoon,astory[38],whenfirst
seen,establishachillyclimate,poeticand
overwrought:
Byfivethesunsetsandtheafternoonmeltfreezesagainacrossthe
blacktopintocrystaloctopiandpalmsoficeriversandcontinents
besetbyfear,andwewalkouttothecar,thesnowmoaningbeneath
ourboots...

Later,wemayagainencounterthesamescene.No
longerdoesitserveasanestablishingframelater,we
mayrecognizethatthewinterscenethenarrator
describesmightbethewreckofhisexwife'scar,that
thecontinentsoffear,themoaningsnow,maybethe
wrackleftafterthecar(andthebodies)havebeen
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removed.Hypertext,Joycewriteselsewhere,demands
rereading[39].Measuredandplannedrepetitioncan
reinforcethewriter'smessage:endofchapter
summariesandballadrefrains,forexample,area
commonfeatureofthepedagogicalliteratureofprint
andoralculture.Cyclesthuslendthemselvesnotonly
toavarietyofpostmoderneffects[61],butalsoto
familiarwriterlymotifs:
Ofrecursus,thereishallucination,dejavu,compulsion,riff,ripple,
canon,isobar,daydream,andthemeandvariation...Oftimeshiftthere
isthedeathofMrs.Ramsayandtheneardisintegrationofthe
house...LeopoldBloomonawalk,andamanwhowantstosayhemay
haveseenhissondie.Oftherenewalthereiseverystorynotlisted
previously.[39]

InDouglas'sCycle[23],theappearanceofan
unbrokencyclesignalsclosure,theendofasectionor
theexhaustionofthehypertext.
AWebRingisagrandcycle,acyclethatlinksentire
hypertextsinatourofasubject.HypertextsinaWeb
ringagree,inessence,tosharereaders.Though
largelyunheraldedintheresearchliterature,Web
rings,C.R.E.W.andrelatedcompactshaveproved
centraltothehypertexteconomy.Hypertexts
concerningspecializedinterestsobscureactors,or
WorldWarImemoirsmaypromiselittledirect
professionalorcommercialimportance,andalonethey
cannoteasilyfindanaudience.Cooperationamong
relatedsites,however,createsselforganizingzonesof
autonomousbutinterrelatedactivitiesonacommon
themeortowardacommongoal.Thecyclicalstructure
ofWebringstendstopromoteequalityofaccess:each
participantgainsoneinboundlink,atthecostof
offeringoneoutboundlink.Alternativestructures(such
ascentraldirectoriesandsearchengines)canalso
offeraccess,butthecyclicalstructureoftheringkeeps
eachparticipantequalandresiststhetendencyto
concentrateattentionatthedirectoriesthemselves.
Acontour[12][40]isformedwherecycles
impingeoneachother,allowingfree
movementwithinandbetweenthepaths
definedbyeachcycle.Movementamongthe
cyclesofacontouriseasy,andinfrequentlinksallow
morerestrictedmovementfromonecontourto
another.

Counterpoint
InCounterpoint,twovoicesalternate,interleaving
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themesorweldingtogetherthemeand
response.Counterpointoftengivesaclear
senseofstructure,aresonanceofcalland
responsereminiscentatonceofliturgyandof
casualdialogue.Counterpointfrequentlyarises
naturallyfromcharactercentricnarrativesfor
example,ForwardAnywhere[54]usesaseriesofe
maillettersbetweenitstwocentralcharactersto
exploretheirdifferencesandestablishtheir
connections.
Counterpointmaybefinegrained.InBubbe'sBack
Porch,AbbeDon'sBubbemovesconstantlybetween
talesofthedistantpastandtalesofherownpresent,
tellinghergreatgranddaughteratoncewhatitislike
tobeoldandwhatitwaslike,longago,tobeayoung
JewinoldRussia[21].Donmovesbetweentimesand
voiceswithinasinglelexia,echoingthepatternsof
traditionalYiddishstorytelling(see,forexample,the
workofSholemAleichem[2]).Itisalsointerestingto
observehowthesamecounterpointtechniquescanbe
adaptedtodecenterthesubject[28],forhere(asin
Spiegelman'sMaus[71])traditionalnarrative
techniquesyieldpostmoderneffects.
Atalargescale,Don'shypertextisessentiallylinear,
andtheinternalcounterpoint(andtheMissingLink
patternssuggestedbyrecurrentantiquephotographs)
formsthechiefhypertextualelement.AdrienneEisen's
SixSexScenes[34],ontheotherhand,offersthreeor
fouroutboundlinksfromalmosteverynode.Eisen's
hypertexthabituallyalternatestimeframes:awriting
spacedescribingachildhoodscenetendstobelinked
toscenesofadultlife,andadultscenestendtobe
linkedtostoriesofchildhood.BecauseEisen,inSixSex
Scenes,workshardtoavoidCycles,theCounterpoint
ofchildhoodandadultexperienceisitsmostprominent
structuralelement.
In"Interlocked"[52],DeenaLarsenaddressesatopic
closelyalliedtoEisen's:howmemoriesofchildhoodor
adolescencefindexpressioninthesexualityofthe
adultprotagonist.WhereEisenusesCounterpointasa
substituteforthestructuralpoweroftheCyclepattern,
Larsenbuildsherhypertextfromtwointerlocked
Cycles.Thesecycles,inspiredbyaclassicquiltpattern,
representselfreinforcingtraumasofpastandpresent.
Concurrently,linksbetweencyclescreatea"quilted"
counterpointthatrepresentstheinterplayofmemory
andactionthecounterpoint,likequiltstitching,
distortsthecycleswhileholdingtheminplace.
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Figure1.InSamplers,alistoflinksconnectingtwo
writingspacesbecomesaninterstitialvoicein
counterpointtothemaintext.
Interstitialcounterpointaddshypertextcommentary
notionallysituatedbetweenwritingspaces.Interstices
havelongbeenusedforquotation,bothepigraphicand
ironic[13].LinksinLarsen'sSamplersappearina
dialogboxaconventionallistoflinksthat
Storyspaceauthorscanusetobuildanadhocmulti
tailedlink.Thedialogisdesignedtobepurely
functional,showingalistoflinksbypathnameand
destination,butLarsenhaschosenpathnamessothat
thislistitselfcanbereadasaninterstitialpoem.
EdwardFalcoindependentlydiscoveredthesame,
unexpectedCounterpointopportunityinhishypertext
poetry,"SeaIslands",wheretheinterstitialwriting
includesbothpathnamesanddestinationtitles[26].
Counterpointwritlarge,thedialogueamongst
hypertextsproposedin"ConversationsWithFriends"
[8]isconstructedasCounterpointamongseveral
independenthypertexts,eachrepresentinga
recognizablepointofviewandeachcapableof
respondingtolinksandtrajectorieswithinitsown
frameandthoseofotheractivehypertexts.

MirrorWorld
Toretaincoherence,writersofbothtextsand
hypertextsfrequentlyadheretoasinglevoice
andpointofview.Mirrorworldsprovidea
parallelorintertextualnarrativethatadoptsa
differentvoiceorcontrastingperspective.The
Mirrorworldechoesacentralthemeorexposition,
eitheramplifyingitorelaboratingitinwaysimpractical
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withinthemainthread.WhereCounterpoint
interweavesdifferentvoicesofequal(ornearlyequal)
weightwithinasingleexposition,theMirrorworld
establishesasecondvoicethatseparatelyparallels(or
parodies)themainstatement.(Theterm"Mirrorworld"
ismeanttoalludetoThroughTheLookingGlassandto
funhousemirrors,nottoGelernter'smonograph[32].)
InUncleBuddy'sPhantomFunhouse[56],byJohn
McDaid,readersexplorethecomputerfilesofthelate
ArthurNewkirkthroughhisHyperCardhomepage,
whichisorganizedintheimageofhishouse.Theback
door,obscurelylabeled"Egypt",allowspassageto
Newkirk'slockedfilesthesefiles,oncethereader
gainsaccess,appearinadistortedimageofthehouse,
retitled"AuntieEm'sHauntHouse".Inthishaunted
funhouse,thecontentandconcernsofNewkirk's
HyperCardhousearemirroredindarkerextensions
andparodies.McDaidaddsdepthtothereader's
knowledgeofNewkirkthroughthisdistortedadditionto
hislifeandwork.
ThecentralthreadofEdwardFalco'sADreamwith
Demonsisanovelwithinthenovel:astoryofa
woman,herdaughter,andherlover.wrappedtogether
inloveandviolence[25].Thisnarrativeisinterrupted
periodicallybynavigationalopportunitiesthatleadthe
readerintoabasementofnotesandmemories,
purportedlybelongingthenotionalauthor.Falcothus
superimposestwolayersoffiction:thedramatic
conflictofincestandabuseintheconventional
narrativeisechoedbythemorecomplexand
ambiguousbackstoryoftheMirrorworld.The
Mirrorworldalsohereplaysanintriguingformalrole:
byrevealingthethoughtsandmotivesofthestory's
notionalcreatorinasecondfiction,thebasement
invitesthereadertospeculateonthenatureof
authorshipmoredeeplythanthefamiliarreader/writer
dichotomy[41][28].
KathrynCramer's"InSmall&LargePieces"[18]defies
coherenceinitscentralthread,whichistoldbackward
andwhichveersunpredictablybetweenamundane
squabblebetweenchildrenandahorrificfantasyofthe
grandunifiedparent.ItsMirrorworldinterleavesbrief
andimpressionisticsketchesofinteriorlifeperhaps
oftheprotagonistatalatertime,perhapsofthe
authorasayoungerwoman.Here,theMirrorworldis
spareandfragmented,resistingeventheretrograde
coherenceofthecentralthreadwithoutdetermined
effort,thereaderfindsitdifficulttoremaininthe
Mirrorworld.Thefragmentationreflectstheshattered
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mirrorofthework'stitlethemirrorworldcannotbe
puttogetheragain,butsharp,silverysplintersare
alwaysunderfoot.

Tangle
TheTangleconfrontsthereaderwitha
varietyoflinkswithoutprovidingsufficient
cluestoguidethereader'schoice.Tanglescan
beusedpurelyfortheirvalueasintellectual
amusement,butalsoappearinmoreseriousroles.In
particular,tanglescanhelpintentionallydisorient
readersinordertomakethemmorereceptivetoanew
argumentoranunexpectedconclusion[50][9].
Onenteringahypertext,atanglecanleadvisitorsto
differententrypoints,helpingtoconveythebreadthof
ahypertexttoreaderswhomaynotanticipatethe
hypertext'sscopeorcoverage.Thehomepageof
designerDavidSiegel[69],forexample,openswith
fouridenticaliconsthatleadtofourdifferent"home
pages"eachofferingadifferentdesignanda
differentemphasis.Neworinfrequentvisitorsmust
choosearbitrarily,andthuswilllikelyseedifferent
partsofthesiteoneachvisit[68].
Readersmay,throughhabitorpreconception,forman
excessivelynarrowviewofahypertext.Because
tanglesaredifficulttofitintoasimple,preconceived
structure,theyencouragebrowsinganddiscovery.
Tanglesmayextendthroughmanywritingspaces[19]
or,likeSiegel'sentryway,maybelimitedtoasingle
Montage.Tanglesarefrequentlyencounterednearthe
beginningofahypertext,wheretheydisrupt
orientationandcreateasenseofdepth,butCarolyn
Guyer'sQuibbling[35]placesamazeatthecenterof
thehypertext,formingabridgebetweenscenesor
episodes.Tanglesmaybeusedaspacingdevices,orto
recapitulatemomentsorpathwaysencounteredearlier
inareading.Tanglesareoftenfoundwithinoradjacent
toMirrorworlds.
Moulthroptermshypertextsroboticwhenthelogicof
thehypertext,notreaderchoice,tendstodictatethe
courseofareading[58].RobotictangleslikeMaryKim
Arnold's"Lust"[4]combinecomplexdynamic
structure,richinbrokencyclesandotherstructural
cues,withadearthofinteractivechoice.Thisstructure
servestoenticethereaderwhilefrustratingthequest
forreleaseandresolution.
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Sieve
Sievessortreadersthroughoneormore
layersofchoiceinordertodirectthemto
sectionsorepisodes.Sievesareoftentrees,
butmaybemultitrees,DAGs,ornearly
hierarchicalgraphsdifferenttopologiesmayallserve
thesamerhetoricalfunction.
Wherethechoiceisinformedandinstrumental,sieves
becomedecisiontrees.TheYahoodirectory,for
example,providesalargesievethatreaderstraverse
tofindtopicalentrypointstotheWeb.Sievesneednot
berepresentedasexplicithierarchiestheHotSauce
MCFbrowserdisplayssievesinthreedimensional
spaceandpermitsreadersto"fly"inSemNetstyle[24]
throughthesievetotheirdestinations,whereasthe
HypertextHotel[17]hidesitsintroductorySieve
behindacheckindeskandhotellobby.

Montage
InMontage,severaldistinctwritingspaces
appearsimultaneously,reinforcingeachother
whileretainingtheirseparateidentities.
Montageismostfrequentlyeffectedthrough
superimposedwindowswhichestablishconnections
acrosstheboundariesofexplicitnodesandlinks.
Montageisprominentinthepedagogicalhypertextsof
GeorgeP.Landow[47,51],eachofwhichcommences
withamontageofferingmultiplepointsofdeparture
[49].ShelleyJackson'sPatchworkGirl[37]alsouses
windowedmontagewithintriguingeffect.Christiane
Paul'sUnrealCity[65]breakstheframeofthescreen,
usingmontagebetweenthescreenandaconventional
paperbook,heldintheviewer'shand.Aniconic
representationoftheprintedpagemediatesthe
montage,thusfreeingscreenrealestate.

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Figure2.AmontagefromPatchworkGirl[37]asit
appearsinWritingAtTheEdge[50]
Montageisafactoflifeinthedesignofmuseumsand
artgalleries,wheredisparatevisualworksarecollected
inalimitedspace.Thoughtfularchitectureandclever
arrangementmayminimizethedisruptiveeffectsof
montage,whilejuxtapositionmaysuggestnew
insights.Somearthistoricalhypertextsattemptto
recreatethearchitecturalmontageofrealorvirtual
museumspacesoften,asinthemasterfulMuse
d'Orsay:VisiteVirtuelle,thesubjectofsucha
hypertextbecomesthemuseumitselfratherthanits
collections[15].
Trellis[72]isextensivelyperhapsprimarily
concernedwithdescribingandmanagingmontage.

Neighborhood
ANeighborhoodestablishesanassociationamong
nodesthroughproximity,sharedornament,orcommon
navigationallandmarks.Unvaryingthumbtabs,a
navigationbar,oraminiaturesitemapcanallinform
readersthatthelexiainwhichtheyappearare"close"
insomeplannedway.Justasaprominentchurchspire
showsawalkerthattwospotsseparatedbylong,
windingstreetsarestillinthesameneighborhood
[53],deliberatedisplayofcommonalityinahypertext
canexpressrelationshipsthatindividuallinksmightnot
emphasize[7].(Rosenberg'sepisodes[66]areclosely
relatedtoourNeighborhoods"neighborhoods"
emphasizesthepresenceofpatternsofmeaninginthe
hypertextwhile"episode"placesgreateremphasison
theexperiencethesestructurescreateinthereader's
perception.SeealsoRossi'sNavigationalContexts
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perception.SeealsoRossi'sNavigationalContexts
pattern[67])

Forexample,Nielsenhasdescribedtheinherent
conflictinlargeWebsitesbetweenestablishingthe
identifyofaparticularhypertextandtheidentityofthe
siteitself[63].IfeachpageofaWebsiteisseparately
designedandoptimizedforitsownpurposes,thesite
asawholemayloseitscoherentidentityanditsbrand
namemaybeobscured.Asasolution,Nielsen
proposesadoptingauniformnavigationalframeor
subsiteasaNeighborhoodpatternthatorganizesthe
collectivesite,addinglayersofincremental
navigationalornamenttosubsitesasneededtocreate
subsidiaryidentities.
Visualmotifsoftenreinforcetheidentityof
Neighborhoodsinordertoestablishorganizational
contextortocallattentiontorelationshipsamong
concepts.WhenMused'Orsay:VisiteVirtuelle[15]
adoptsthestructureofthemuseumtoshapethe
hypertext,iteffectivelyechoessubtleissuesofhistory,
historiography,andpoliticsthathaveshapedboththe
compositionandpresentationofthenationalart
collection.MilletleadstoCourbetandontoManet
Courbet'scontemporaryCouture,standingoutsidethis
tradition,hangsacrosstheallecentraleratherthanin
theadjacentroom.Theuseofinheritedornamentand
navigationalapparatustoidentifyandsituateapieceof
ahypertextasacomponentofalargerstructuretraces
backtoHyperCardbackgrounds[5]andHDM[31].
InVIKI[55]andWebSquirrel[10],spatialproximityis
usedlesstoestablishMontagethantodefinespatial
Neighborhoodsthatrepresentinformalrelationships
amongelements.

Split/Join
TheSplit/Joinpatternknitstwoormore
sequencestogether.Split/Joinisindispensable
tointeractivenarrativesinwhichthereader's
interventionchangesthecourseofevents.If
eachdecisionchangeseverythingthathappens
subsequently,authorscannotallowthereadertomake
manydecisionswhilekeepingtheworkwithin
manageablebounds[14].Splitspermitthenarrativeto
dependonthereader'schoiceforalimitedspan,later
returningthereader(atleasttemporarily)toacentral
core.(Byrecordingstateinformation,theauthormay
designsubsequentlyencounteredsequencestosplitin
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consequenceofanearlychoicethesesplits,too,will
usuallybereconciledbyajoin.)
TheRashomonpattern[46]embedsasplitjoinwithin
acycle.Thesplit/joineffectivelybreaksthecycle,as
readersexploredifferentsplitsduringeachrecurrent
exploration,yetthecycleremainsaprominentframe
thatprovidescontextforeachstrand.SarahSmith's
KingofSpace[70]usesathreewaysplitattheendof
itsentrancesequencetoexplorethewaycasual
choicesmayinvolvethereaderinactsshewouldnever
sanction.Thesplitappearstrivialandgamelikewhen
firstencountered,butbecomesmorallymeaningful
onlyafterthereaderhasexploredalternativepaths.
Overviewsandtours[76][27]areexamplesof
Split/Joinwheretherhetoricalintentofeachpathis
similar,butonesideofthesplitismoredetailedthan
theother.Writerstypicallyofferoverviewsandtoursas
aservice,butSplit/Joinneednotbepurelyutilitarian.
InMoulthrop'sMove,forexample,thehypertext
offersaSplitthehypertextrespondsironicallytothe
reader'sapparentmotivationinsteadofresponding
directlytothelink'sovertmessage[59],inastyle
laterpopularizedbytheWebmagazineSuck.
Hypertextmayresistitneednotmerelyservethe
reader'swhims.

MissingLink
Attimes,ahypertextmaysuggestthepresenceofa
linkthatdoesnot,infact,exist.Forexample,Stuart
Moulthrop,reviewingForwardAnywhere[54],
describeshishuntforalinkthathisreadingofthe
hypertextledhimtoexpect:
AtthispointIbegantothinkthetwo"nightmare"passagesmustbe
connectedbyahypertextlink,soIlaunchedthereadingprogramand
mademywaytoMalloy'sscreenaboutthefreighttrainsof
yesteryear....thereweremanylinkstootherscreens,mainlyscreens
writtenbyMarshall(thisalternationofnarratorsisprevalentthroughout
thework).NoneofthelinksIfollowed,however,broughtmeto
Marshall'svignetteaboutLBJandtheheadlessdoll....
Forthoselessinlovewithbindings,however,thiscaseoftheapparently
missinglinkmaytelladifferentstory.AsForwardAnywherebrilliantly
demonstrates,hypertextsarestructuredinmoredimensionsthanthe
line.Ifalinkisnotapparentitmaybeimplicit.[60]

Allusion,iteration,andellipsiscanallsuggestaMissing
Link.Structuralirregularity,introducedinacontext
whereregularstructurehasbeenestablished,presents
anespeciallypowerfulMissingLink,foraplaceto
whichwecannotnavigatemayseem,byits
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inaccessibility,uniquelyattractive.HarpoldandJoyce
havearguedseparatelythattheMissingLinkisa
commonifnotuniversalhypertextmotif,that
navigationalchoicerequiresthereadertoimaginenot
onlywhatmightappearonthechosenpagebutalso
whatmighthaveappearedhadshefollowedadifferent
link[36][39].

NavigationalFeint
TheFeintestablishestheexistenceofanavigational
opportunitythatisnotmeanttobefollowed
immediatelyinstead,theFeintinformsthereaderof
possibilitiesthatmaybepursuedinthefuture.By
revealingnavigationalopportunitiesevenwherethey
maynotbeimmediatelypursued,ahypertextwriter
conveysvaluableinformationaboutthescopeofthe
hypertextorabouttheorganizationoftheideasthat
underlieit.
Feintsoftenappearintheguiseofnavigational
apparatus.Forexample,ahypertextmaybeginwitha
maportableofcontentsthatprovidesanoverviewof
theentireworkandprovidesdirectaccesstoselected
placeswithinthehypertext.Whilethenavigational
functionisnotunimportant,therhetoricalimportance
oftheoverviewitselfshouldnotbeoverlooked.
ProminentanddetailednavigationalFeintsare
especiallyusefulforestablishingthescopeandshape
ofahypertext.Justasimportant,Feintsmayhelp
establishwhatthehypertextomits.Noticethatthe
feintneednotalwaysbestrictlyaccurateitis
sometimesusefultodelivermorethanwhatwas
initiallypromised.Forexample,theclassicHyperCard
1.0Help[5]presentedathumbtaboverviewthat
suggestedtonewreadersthatinstructionson
programmingwereonlyaminorpartofthehypertext
readerswhomightbedeterredfromusingacomplex
productwerereassuredthatprogrammingappearedto
beaminorfeature.Infact,overhalfofthehypertext
wasdevotedtoaprogrammingreferencemanual.The
navigationalfeintonthecoverconcealedthisfrom
programmingaverseusers,whilethosewhowantedto
consulttheprogrammingsectionwerepleasantly
surprisedbyitsunheraldedscope.
Moulthrop'sVictoryGardenopens(insomereadings)
withgardenmapsthatschematizethenarrative[59].
ThecorenarrativeinKathrynCramer's"InSmall&
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LargePieces"[18]isepitomizedinepisodeoutlines,
crypticepigrammaticliststhatbegineachnarrative
sectionandthatlendthecentralnarrativeanapparent
orderandregularitythatcontrastssharplywiththe
disorderofthestory'sMirrorworld.

Figure3:atypicalWebpageinwhichauniform
navigationalframeenclosestopicalcontent.
StephanieStrickland'sTrueNorth[73]andJ.
YellowleesDouglas'"IHaveSaidNothing"[22]use
utilitarianStoryspacemapsasunconventionalFeints:
thelayoutoflexiasimultaneouslydescribesastructure
andillustratesacentralmotif.

Figure4:TrueNorth'sStoryspacemap
Inadditiontotheirutilityasintroductoryandframing
devices,Feintsmayformarecurrentmotifthroughout
thehypertext'sstructure.SpatialnarrativeslikeMyst
[57]offernavigationalfeintsintheformofdoorways,
structures,andotherpathwaysthatintersectthe
reader'sroutehere,Feintssignalpossibleopeningsfor
newnarratives,roadsthereaderprotagonistmaylater
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choosetotravel.
Innarrative,navigationalfeintscanestablishspatial
andtemporalrelationshipswithoutinterruptingthe
narrativestrand.Byestablishingaconventionallink
typeforexample,anicondenoting"linktoa
simultaneouseventoccurringelsewhere"anarrator
canclarifyandinterconnectdisparateeventswithout
interruptingthetopicunderdiscussion.Artfuluseof
feintsmayalsomanagedramatictensionthrough
foreshadowing:ifweprovidealinkfromAliceand
Herschel'sinauspiciousfirstmeetinginaTulsa
oncologyclinictothebirthoftheirdaughterin
Stockholm,theknowledgegainedfromtheexistenceof
thelinksetsupundercurrentsofexpectationand
inquiryoffwhichtherestofthenarrativemayplay.By
disclosingsomepartsofthefuturewemayrefocusthe
reader'sattentionandshifttensionfromonedramatic
threadtoanother,ormayshiftenergyfromwondering
howeventsunfoldtopermitbetterconcentrationon
whytheyunfoldastheydo[43][30][6].
TheFeintisalsoimportantinthedesignof
hypertextualcatalogs.Asdepartmentstoresdiscovered
longago,itisimportantbothtooffertheshoppera
comprehensivearrayofdesirablegoodsandtoarrange
thosegoodstoformacoherentandcompelling
trajectoryasthecustomermovesthroughthestore.At
itsbest,thisprovidesefficienciesforboththeshopper
andthestore:shoppersdiscoveritemstheywantto
buybutmightotherwisehaveoverlooked,andthe
storegainsadditionaltransactionswithoutincurring
additionalmarketingcosts.Catalogssimilarlybenefit
fromappropriateinterconnectionandbyproviding
usefulFeintsenroutetotheobjectofdesire[68].By
indicatingthepresenceofotherrelevantitems,the
hypertextcatalogcanincreaseitsefficiencywithout
inconveniencingordelayingthereader.

Conclusion:Combining
Patterns
Allthepatternsdiscussedheremay(andusuallydo)
containotherpatternsascomponents.ACycle,for
example,maycontainsequencesandcyclesaswellas
individualnodes.Twoparallelcyclesmightbe
composedtoformaCounterpointpattern,oragroup
ofcyclesmightconvergetoaTangle.Thegreatutility
ofstructuralpatterns,infact,derivesinlargemeasure
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fromthewaysthatpatternscanbecombinedtoform
largerstructures.Whereafamiliarpatternappears
prominently,itscomponentsareperceivedasa
coherentunit,whatotherwritershavecalledan
episode[66]oraregion[44].
Bydevelopingarichervocabularyofhypertext
structure,andbasingthatvocabularyonstructures
observedinactualhypertexts,wecanmovetowarda
richerandmoreeffectivehypertextcriticism,onethat
canmovebeyondthepresentationcenteredrhetoricso
prevalentincurrentdiscussionsoftheWeb.Simple
nameshelpusformulateconcisequeriesand
conjectures.Asharedvocabularyofstructurescan
facilitatebothcriticalandeditorialdiscussion,notonly
byfacilitatingthestudyofstructurebutalsobyhelping
usrefersuccinctlytothecompositesandaggregates
thatmakeupahypertext.
Finally,wemaynotethatourcurrenttoolsfor
visualizinghypertextarenotparticularlyeffectivein
representingthepatternsdescribedhere.ManyWeb
mappingprograms,forexample,uncoverspanning
treesonthehypertextgraphandsotendtohideCycle
patterns.ConventionalnodelinkviewslikeStoryspace
[42]andMacWeb[62]representisolatedcyclesfairly
wellbutprovidelittlesupportforvisualizingcontours
createdwheremanycyclesintersect.Theelision
implicitinNoteCardstabletops[74]orthenested
boxesofStoryspace[11]helpstokeepdisplayssimple
buthidespatternsthatspanmultiplecontainers.Some
patterns(Mirrorworld,MissingLink,Feint,Montage)
arenoteasilyrepresentedbyconventionaltoolsand
requirenewvisualizationstohelpwriters(andreaders)
perceive,manipulate,andunderstandthepatternsof
theirhypertexts.

Acknowledgments
Myunderstandingofhypertextstructureisdeeply
indebtedtodiscussionswithEastgateeditorsEricA.
Cohen,KathrynCramer,andDianeGreco,andwith
manyEastgateauthors.EricA.Cohen,DavidB.Levine,
andDavidG.Durandreaddraftsofthiswork,andIam
gratefulfortheirmanysuggestionsandimprovements.

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