Centrifuge Physical Modeling &

Scaling Laws

Tarek Abdoun

RPI/UCD NEES Centrifuge Research and Training

Workshop 2011

Geotechnical Centrifuge

Ng

Ground Centrifuge Modeling

Concept

Radial g-field
At which radius do you calculate g = w2r?
Pick a point in the model where you are
most concerned about accurately
modeling the effective stress. Set g
accordingly.
For level ground: s = r (gavg overburden)(d)

Document the RPM and the radius to a

reference point on the model container
Might need to account for g variation in
deep models

Why Physical Model Tests?

Complex, nonlinear stress-strain behavior

of soil (made of interacting particles, air,
water)

Difficulty of numerical simulation of soil

and soil-structure systems at large strains
and failure

Validate and calibrate numerical methods

Why Centrifuge Model Tests?

Small-scale models are cost-effective

Soil properties are highly stress-dependent
Centrifuge produces equal confining stresses
in model and prototype, therefore same soil
properties

Then, reasonable assumption that strains and

deformations are also equal in model and
prototype

Application Domain: Systems

Natural or artificial soil deposits, different

soil types, different geometries, earth
dams and dykes

Soil-foundation and soil-structure systems:

foundations of buildings, bridges

buried pipes and tunnels, basements
earth levees with sheetpiles
etc.

Application Domain : Loadings

Static gravity loads

Earthquake shaking
Blasting

Ground deformation
Water waves

Contaminant transport

Centrifuge Modeling Limitations

Useful only for systems containing

soil or other pressure-dependent
material

Models allow limited detail

Effect of model boundaries
Time scale and strain-rate issues

Scaling Laws
Scaling Laws (N = number of gs)

Stress & Pressure * = 1

Density
*=1
Length
1/N
Velocity
1
Acceleration
N
Volume
1/N3
Mass
1/N3
Force
1/N2
Time (dynamic)
1/N
Time (diffusion)
1/N2

Catalogue of scaling laws and

similitude questions in
centrifuge modelling
Technical Committee TC2 Physical
Modelling in Geotechnics 2007
Covers: dynamics, fluid flow in soils, heat
transfer and ice, particle size effects, rate
effects
About 60 references

Concerns regarding scale

effects and scaling laws
Unsaturated soil, Turbulent flow,
Erosion, Shear bands
Effect of transducer or model container
on the experiment
Range of scaling laws applicability (50g,
100g, 150g, etc.)

Modeling Structural Elements

Very challenging task:

D & t (N)
Area (N2)
Inertia (N4)
E (1) for same material

Usually very difficult to maintain the same scale

for all parameters or to use same material in
both model and prototype (easier if no specific
prototype)
Need to prioritize (EA, EI, t/D, etc.)
EI for flexure or bending
EA for axial loading

NEES-Pipelines
Evaluation of Ground Rupture Effects on Critical Lifelines

Numerical
Modeling
Full scale
Testing

Centrifuge
Modeling

EA vs. EI for Structural Elements

0.35
0.3

EA curve

0.25

EI curve

tm/Dm

0.2

Em/Ep= 0.6

0.15
0.1
0.05

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

tp/Dp

0.08

0.1

0.12

EA vs. EI for Structural Elements

0.35
0.3

EA curve

0.25

EI curve

tm/Dm

0.2

Em/Ep= 0.6

0.15
0.1
0.05

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

tp/Dp

0.08

0.1

0.12

EA vs. EI for Structural Elements

tm/Dm = 2 tp/Dp
0.35
0.3

EA curve

0.25

EI curve

tm/Dm

0.2

Em/Ep= 0.6

0.15
0.1
0.05

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

tp/Dp

0.08

0.1

0.12

Other Factors: Strain Rate

HDPE Material Stress-Strain Behavior
25
Hypobolic Fit (Merry & Bray, 1997)
RPI Uniaxial Tension Test
300%/min

20

Axial Stress (MPa)

130%/min
300%/min
100%/min

15
10%/min

1%/min

1%/min
0.1%/min

10

0.16%/min

0
0

2
Axial Strain (%)

Comparison with Full Scale Test

Results (-63.5o Tension Test)
Springline Strain Comparison
10
Full Scale, f = 1.06 m
Full Scale, f = 0.49 m
Centrifuge, f = 1.06 m

Springline Strain (%)

Centrifuge, f = 0.49 m

0
-6

-4

-2

Distance from Fault (m)

-63.5o Strike-Slip (Tension)

Time Scaling Conflict

Dynamic Time
L = 0.5 a t2 L* = a* t*2 t* = sqrt(L*/a*)
t*dyn = sqrt(L*/(1/L*)) = L* or 1/N

Diffusion Time, consider time factor, T

For similarity, T* = 1 = cv* t* /L*2
t*dif = L*2 / cv*
If cv* = 1 (same soil in model and prototype) then:
t*dif = L*2 or 1/N2

Conflict
t*dif t*dyn

Conflict Resolution
By increasing viscosity of the fluid (m* = 1/L* or N)
Decreasing the particle size of the soil (k* = C (D10*)2 )

Time Scaling Conflict

Sometimes, conflict can be neglected without
changing cv
both model and prototype are undrained during dynamic
event
both model and prototype are drained during dynamic event

we may want to systematically vary viscosity to cover

an interesting range. (Reviewers may have difficulty
with this concept)
It takes time to saturate a large model with viscous
pore fluid. For practical purposes, we may knowingly
violate time scale factor similarity, and then account
for the different cv by analysis

Modeling of Shear Bands

J. DeJong, U. Mass Amherst web page

The shear band thickness

depends on particle size, not
on L* (N)

Modeling of Shear Bands

Particle Size Reduction

Centrifuge
Modeling

Full Scale Testing

100
90

% Soil passing

80
70

Scaled Sand
Ottawa Sand F#55

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001

0.01

0.1
Particle size, mm

Particle Size effect

Most basic requirement is that there are a
sufficient number of particles across the
dimensions of a model so that we can model the
soil as a continuum.
Required Dmodel/Dparticle depends on the problem.

Footings: Dfooting/Dparticle > 30 (minimizes

particle size effect)
To model contact stress and capillary rise most
accurately, need to use same particle size (pore
size) and fluid. The Ability to model capillary rise
is an advantage of centrifuge high g modeling.

Explosions are Volumetric

Explosions Scale as N3
1 gram of explosive tested at
100g is equivalent to one million
(106) grams of prototype
explosive, or one metric ton
(2200 lb)
Scale effects also include
particle size effects and
differences in radial acceleration

Application of High Speed

Camera to Blasting Tests

S&H

su-ho

bu-ve

su-ve

Pow er (S&H)

Scaled Depth (m)

1.E+01

1.E+00

1.E-01

1.E-02
1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
Scaled Charge Mass (kg)

Blast Modeling

Groundwater/Contaminant
Transport
Time Scales as g2
E.G., 24 Hour test @ 105g = 30 years prototype time

Advection (Hydraulic flow) No theoretical

problems
Dispersivity (Diffusion, Dispersion) more
complicated, but can be done

Groundwater/Contaminant
Transport (cont.)
General: Single contaminant, conservative
contaminant models acceptable
The robot gives us a unique opportunity to
determine the transport and concentration with
time of multiple contaminants

Boundary/Container effects
Flexible Containers
Hinged plate, Laminar boxes
Ideal for gently sloping
or level ground

Complementary Shear issue

Boundary/Container effects
Rigid containers
P-waves from
ends of the container

Side friction
Avoid narrow containers (width < height)
Reduce sides friction
Move structures e.g., away from boundaries

Lateral stiffness (maintaining Ko)

Ground motion selection

Sine waves, step waves or realistic

ground motions?
Small step waves
Useful to check that sensors are working

Sine waves are easier to understand than real

ground motions
Because they only reveal information about part of
the problem (one frequency from the possible
spectrum)

Sine sweeps
Useful because they cover all frequencies, but
amplitude is not random.

Ground motion provides more realistic

conditions but could be difficult to analyze

Final Thoughts
Centrifuge Modeling is a tool that makes model tests more
accurate because it reproduces prototype stress levels in
a small scale model but be mindful of its limitations
Centrifuge Modeling is useful to:
Test the validity of a numerical model
Perform systematic parameter studies
Discover mechanisms of behavior

Model testing is valuable for problems where field

data is insufficient can obtain data that is
impossible to obtain in other ways.
Advanced instruments of NEES (robotics,
shakers, instrumentation) enable more accurate
and more detailed models than was possible in
the past.

NEES centrifuge research

Complementary NEES Centrifuges
UCD: larger container, V&H shaker, more sensors
per test, multiple tests per container
RPI: medium size, H&H shaker, more tests per
month, Robot, split box.

Thank You