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Brief Paper
I. INTRODUCTION
The most challenging goals facing the automotive industry are increasing fuel economy and reducing emissions.
There are a series of constraints that are imposed not only
by our society but also by cooperative agreements and legislative efforts [1]. HEVs are beginning to demonstrate
their capability to satisfy these requirements, and they will
become a viable alternative to conventional vehicles in the
future [2,3].
The hybrid powertrain is an integrated system that
may consist of the following components: an internal
combustion engine (IC engine), a battery pack, and an
electric machine (EM) which can be utilized as a traction
motor or generator. In such a system, each sub-system is
also a complex system which has its own functionality and
desired performance. Moreover, all of the sub-systems
need to be coordinated in an optimal manner to achieve the
desired objectives. Consequently, an integrated vehiclelevel controller is required to accomplish such tasks [4].
Recent reports on HEVS have placed great emphasis on the
control strategy, and several approaches to it have been
Manuscript received July 18, 2005; revised January 25,
2006, accepted May 15, 2006.
The authors are with the School of Automation Science and
Electrical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100083,
China (e-mail: licun_fang@buaa.edu.cn, qsy@buaa.edu.cn).
L. Fang and S. Qin: Optimal Control of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Theory of Switched Systems
Engine
Motor /Battery
controller
Clutch
Motor
Trans.
controller
Brake
controller
Trans.
Vehicle
cm =
Se
,
Battery
Pma =
Reduction
gears
Motor
Gear
box
Wheel
Mechanical coupling
Pme =
Wheel
Clutch
Battery
ICE
275
4 QLHV m f
Vd e
4 Te
,
Vd
(1)
(2)
(3)
276
Te = e QLHV
m f
e
Tloss ,
(4)
pme
,
pma
(5)
(6)
and pml denotes the inner loss (see [12] for more details).
3.2 Motor
In this section, the same concepts that were introduced
above for an IC engine are developed for an EM. Let pem be
the available electrical power. Then, for each time instant,
the following equation defines the efficiency of the EM:
em Tem, e = () pem = () Vi ,
(7)
Tem, e = eem V
i
Tem, loss
em
w (k ) =
e (k ) em (k )
=
.
R(k )
(9)
Tw (k ) = R (k ) Te (k ) gb + Tm (k ) red ,
(10)
1
Dair CD A f V 2
2
dV
+ Mi
+ Mg sin () ,
dt
F = MgCr +
(11)
(8)
where eem, Tem, a and Tem, loss are the inner ability to transform electrical energy into mechanical energy, based on the
available mean effective torque of the EM and inner loss
(see [12] for more details).
3.3 Battery
1
gb R(k ) T / r MgCr Dair CD Af V 2 mg sin()
2
a=
,
Mi
(12)
V = adt ,
(13)
In the operation process of a powertrain, the transmission controller determines the gear shifting sequence and
selects the appropriate transmission gear based on the
transmission output speed, the position of the acceleration
pedal and braking pedal, the current gear position and the
clutch state. The powertrain system can be formulated as a
switched system. As is well-known, a discrete-time
switched system can be described as a set of piece-wise
L. Fang and S. Qin: Optimal Control of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Theory of Switched Systems
Te _ min ( we (k )) Te Te _ max ( we ( k )) ,
x( k + 1) = f ( x(k ), u ( k ), m(k ))
f1 ( x( k ), u (k )), if m( k ) = 1
=
#
f ( x (k ), u (k )), if m(k ) = I ,
I
(14)
(15)
N 1
J = ( x ( N )) + L( x( k ), Te (k ), m(k ))
k =0
N 1
+ M k ( xi , xi' ) ,
k =0
(17)
where Te_min (we(k)) and Te_max (we(k)) are the minimal and
maximal output torque of the ICE at speed we(k);
277
(16)
we _ min we (k ) we _ max ,
(18)
(19)
where SOCmin and SOCmax are the lower limit and upper
limit of the SOC of the battery;
Tm _ min ( wm (k ), SOC( k )) Tm (k )
Tm _ max ( wm (k ), SOC(k )) ,
(20)
, uU
uU
(21)
Therefore, the optimal control problem of a switched system can be formulated as a two-stage optimization problem.
Stage 1. (a) Fix the total number of switches to be K, fix
the order of the active subsystem, let the minimum value of
J with respect to u be a function of the K switching instants,
i.e., J1 = J1(t1, t2, , tk) for K 0, and then find J1. (b)
Minimize J1 with respect to t1, t2, , tk.
Stage 2. (a) Vary the order of the active subsystem to find
an optimal solution under K switches. (b) Vary the number
of switches K to find an optimal solution.
V ( x( k ), k ) = min
min J (, u )
i
k , N uU
(( N )) if k = N
min{L( x(k ), u (k ))
= u(k )
(22)
j
+ min
V ( x(k + 1), k + 1)} if 0 k < N .
j{i ,i ' }
Consequently, the optimal solution (, u) of a discretetime switched system can be constructed by solving
i
V (x(k), k) backwards and finally finding (x(0), 0).
In a double-shaft parallel hybrid configuration, conditions 1 and 2 are satisfied, and the gear ratio of the transmission only affects the torque contribution of the IC engine; consequently, we can divide the development of the
overall optimal control strategy into two stages:
(1) implement a gear shifting strategy, which selects the
switching sequence of gears in a discrete set to optimize the operation of the engine;
(2) implement a power split strategy, which defines the
best power split between the ICE and EM.
With the above two-stage optimization process, the
optimal control policy (Te(k), g(k)) can be constructed.
4.3 Problem Simplification
M , m( k ) + g ( k ) M
m(k + 1) = 1, m( k ) + g (k ) 1
m(k ) + g ( k ), otherwise,
(23)
where M is the number of gear positions, and g(k) is constrained to take on values from among 1, 0, and 1, representing downshift, hold and upshift, respectively.
From the speed profile of a given driving cycle, the
optimal gear position can be constructed through static
optimization [9], the total switching numbers of gear position can be fixed and the shifting sequence can be determined; consequently, the problem can be transformed into
an optimal control problem for a switched system with a
fixed switch number and fixed switching sequence.
(2) The Optimal Torque Input
The state and control variables are first quantized into
a finite grid. For a given driving cycle, the vehicle model
can be replaced by a finite set of operating points parameterized by the required torque and speed. Pre-computed
look-up tables can be constructed for recording the next
states and cost function as a function of the quantized states,
control inputs and operating points. Once these tables are
built, they can be used to solve the problem in a very efficient manner.
The dynamic programming procedure produces an
optimal, time-varying, state-feedback control policy (Te*(k),
g*(k)) for a driving cycle. This control policy can then be
used as a state feedback controller.
V. CASE STUDY
To verify the control policy determined by the dynamic programming algorithm, a case was studied and will
be discussed in this section. The UDDS (Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule) driving cycle is a standard test
driving cycle utilized by the Environmental Protection
Agency to certify the fuel economy and emission performance of vehicles which are driven in urban areas.
The optimal control policy was found through DP
(Dynamic Programming) in a UDDS driving cycle. In order to evaluate the final fuel economy, the optimal control
law was applied to the full-order parallel HEV model. The
terminal SOC constraint was selected as 0.65, and the initial SOC in the simulation was chosen as 0.65 for the purpose of calculating the fuel economy.
The dynamic trajectories of the vehicle under the optimal control policy for the UDDS driving cycle are shown
in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Difference of Speed(km/h)
278
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-0.005
200
400
600
Time(s)
800
1000
1200
L. Fang and S. Qin: Optimal Control of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Theory of Switched Systems
Speed(km/h)
100
50
0
0.70
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
REFERENCES
SOC
0.68
0.66
0.64
200
400
600
Overall ratio
10
800
1000
1200
800
1000
1200
800
1000
1200
200
400
600
0.6
Fuel(L)
0.4
0.2
0
279
200
400
600
Time(s)
Fig. 4. Dynamic trajectories of the actual speed profile, battery SOC, fuel consumption and overall ratio.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The optimal torque split problem of a parallel HEV
has been formulated as the optimal control problem of a
switched system. A control strategy for general parallel
HEVs has been developed in this paper. The proposed optimal torque split strategy for parallel HEVs, designed with
the aid of dynamic programming, can improve the overall
system efficiency. A two-stage dynamic programming algorithm has been used to solve the minimum fuel optimal
control problem for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle. In
order to reduce the computation complexity, several approaches have been utilized to accelerate the computing
speed. A dynamic optimal solution to the energy management problem over a driving cycle has been obtained. The
simulation results indicate that improvement in fuel econ-
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