2.+pressure Basin+Types Petroleum+Systems

Subsurface Temperatures
Temperature in the
subsurface
Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface.
Average heat flow: 60 mW/m (but wide variation)
25
150 mW/m
q = k (T/x)
Heat Flow (q) = thermal conductivity (k) x geothermal gradient
Density Initial Min. Matrix Thermal Conduct.
kg/m
Porosity
at 20C
at 100C
(W/m/K)
WATER
1160
0.60
0.68
SHALE
2680 0.65 0.05
1.98
1.91
SANDSTONE 2660 0.42 0.05
3.12
2.64
LIMESTONE
2710 0.24 0.05
2.83
2.56
LIMEdolom
2752 0.26 0.05
3.18
2.82
COAL
2000 0.52
0.50
0.46
SALT
2165 0.01 0.01
6.50
5.25
Heat Capacity
at 20C
at 100C
(kcal/kg/K)
0.999
1.008
0.213
0.258
0.178
0.209
0.195
0.223
0.198
0.226
0.204
0.248
0.210
0.240
Thermal conductivity of rocks strongly depends on porosity and increases

with decreasing porosity
Increase of thermal conductivity with burial depth
Decrease in gothermal gradients with depth
Heat can also be transported by convection (by movement of fluids)
(may increase or decrease geothermal gradient)
Note: surface temp. is rarely 0C
(after Mello et al. 1995; from Warren 1999).

A) Thermal conductivity of various rock grain types (zero-porosity lithologies) and water as a
function of temperature.
B) Vertical steady-state temperature gradient for a shale section with salt (solid line) and without
salt (dashed line).
Subsurface Pressures
(Over)Pressure in the
subsurface
All figures and (most) text are taken from the following thesis
RAMDHAN, Agus, Mochamad (2010) OVERPRESSURE AND COMPACTION IN
THE LOWER KUTAI BASIN, INDONESIA. Doctoral thesis, Durham University.
Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/402/
Key References
Gurevich, A.E. & Chilingar, G.V. 1995. Abnormal pressures in Azerbaijan: a
brief critical review and recommendations. Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering, 13, 125135.
Ramdhan, A.M. 2010. Overpressure and Ccompaction in the lower Kutai
Basin, Indonesia. Doctoral thesis, Durham University,
http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/402/.
Swarbrick, R.E. & Osborne, M.J. 1998. Mechanisms that generate abnormal
pressures: an overview. In: Law, B.E., Ulmishek, G.F. & Slavin, V.I. (eds.)
Abnormal Pressures in Hydrocarbon Environments. AAPG, Tulsa,
Memoir 70, 13-34.
Swarbrick, R.E., Osborne, M.J. & Yardley, G.S. 2002. Comparison of
overpressure magnitude resulting from the main generating mechanisms.
In: Huffman, A.R. & Bowers, G.L. (eds.) Pressure Regimes in
Sedimentary Basins and their Prediction. AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 76, 1-12.
Definitions
P=wgz
(lithostatic
pressure)
v=bgz
(LOT
)
v= vP
h= hP
(overpressure << v)
Figure 3.1 Typical pressure/stress depth profile commonly
encountered in a sedimentary basin.
Tools
Repeat Formation Tester (RFT),
Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT),
Formation Interval Tester (FIT),
production tests (e.g. Drill Stem Test; DST)
(overpressure
approaches v)
P=
w =
b =
g=
z=
fluid or pore pressure,

density of water (~1.1 g/cm)
bulk density of sediment (~2.3 g/cm)
gravitational acceleration,
depth below a certain datum
For freshwater the hydrostatic gradient is 0.433 psi/ft (100 bar/km, 10 MPa/km)
The lithostatic gradient is
~1 psi/ft (230 bar/km; 23
Overpressure generating mechanisms

1) Loading mechanisms
1.1 Disequilibrium compaction
1.2 Tectonic compression
occurs when a mudrock cannot dewater fast enough for the pore fluid to remain in
hydrostatic equilibrium as it compacts under increasing vertical and/or lateral stress.
Often in areas with high sedimentation rates (e.g. deltas).
Figure 3.13 Cartoon to show the pressure-depth profile and wireline log responses anticipated where overpressure is
due to disequilibrium compaction.

Figure 3.12 Worldwide occurrences of overpressure
(shaded areas) (after Mouchet and Mitchell, 1989).
Depth of top of OP is correlated

with sedimentation rates
Figure 3.28 Reservoir-mudrock pressure discrepancy in

Azerbaijan (simplified from Gurevich and Chilingar, 1995).
Figure 3.24 Cartoon showing shoulder effects on the pressuredepth

profile as a consequence of lateral reservoir drainage.
The green dashed line showing sublithostatic parallel pressure profile
indicates that overpressure is caused by disequilibrium compaction.
The higher overpressure in the mudrock compared to the laterally
drained reservoir triggers the fluid flow from the mudrocks toward the
reservoir, causing the development of the shoulder effect.
Figure 3.11 Lateral reservoir drainage causing overpressure

bleed-off in the Palaeocene fan sandstones of the Central
Graben, North Sea (simplified from Dennis et al., 2000).

2) Unloading mechanisms
generate high overpressures via load transfer
from grain-to-grain contacts to the pore fluid
(Swarbrick et al., 2002) by
influx of pore fluid
conversion of solid matrix material into
fluids
Both processes increase the pore pressure, if
the pore fluid cannot escape from the system.
If load-bearing grains are partly transformed
into fluid, then some of the stress that was
previously carried by the grain-to-grain
contacts is transferred to the fluid, resulting in
increase in pore pressure (Figure 3.4).
Unloading mechanisms cause decrease in
effective stress.
Figure 3.4 Schematic of overpressure

generation due to load transfer from loadbearing grains (red) into pore fluid (e.g. due to
transformation of kerogen into oil and gas)
(after Swarbrick and Osborne, 1998).

2.1 Clay diagenetic processes
Release of water on clay mineral dehydration
smectite + K+ illite + silica + H2O
2.2 Hydrocarbon generation
2.3 Fluid expansion (Aquathermal pressuring)

thermal expansion of pore water (probably not a
significant process within the uppermost 5-6 km)
2.4 Erosional / Exhumation
Only if pore fluid is (compressible) gas and the
surrounding rocks are lagely impermeable,
erosional unloading will result in overpressure
(in case in H2O with low compressibility, the net
effect will be underpressuring)
Top overpressure = top oil window
Figure 3.14 Cartoon to show the pressure-depth profile and wireline log responses anticipated where overpressure is
due to unloading.

These responses can be explained by the
concept of (Bowers & Katsube, 2002; Figure
3.15).
Storage pores (biggest contributor to the
total porosity of a mudrock, machanically
stiff) and
Connecting pores (very minor contributor
to porosity, mechanically flexible, affect
transport properties, sonic velocity,
electrical conductivity).
Increase in pore pressure in a mudrock due to
fluid expansion (unloading) results in
Elastic opening of connecting pores
affect in sonic log
Only very small increase in total
nearly no affect in density log
Figure 3.15 Properties of storage and connecting

pores (after Bowers and Katsube, 2002).

3) Other (minor) processes
Hydrocarbon buoyancy
Hydraulic head
Osmosis
Figure 3.6 Overpressure due to gas buoyancy where the pore water in
the water saturated reservoir is at normal hydrostatic pressure. The
maximum overpressure is located in the crest of the structure, while the
overpressure due to buoyancy is zero at the gas-water contact.
Figure 3.8 Illustration showing overpressure

caused by osmotic flow through clay
membrane (modified from Swarbrick and
Osborne, 1998).
Figure 3.7 Overpressure due to hydraulic head. The maximum head, H,

due to this mechanism is equal to the elevation of the reservoir at
outcrop, and the corresponding overpressure is wgH.
Underpressure generating mechanisms

The reservoir is underpressured if its pore
pressure is lower than the normal hydrostatic
pressure.
Underpressure can be caused by
Reservoir depletion during HC production
Relatively isolated sand bodies from the
recharge area compared to the discharge
area (e.g. Denver Basin; Belitz and
Bredehoeft, 1988).
natural phenomena
Figure 3.3 Underpressuring due to reservoir isolation from recharge
area (modified from Swarbrick and Osborne, 1998)
Levels of petroleum investigation
Economics
VERY
Important
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Economics
NOT
Important
SEDIMENTARY BASIN
PLAY
PROSPECT
SEDIMENTARY BASIN:
Structural style of sedimentary rocks,
Stratigraphic sequence of basin fill
PETROLEUM SYSTEM:
Genetic relation between a pod of
generating source rocks and the
resulting petroleum
PLAY: Series of present-day traps (prospects) of a given type

PROSPECT: Individual trap
PLAY: Salt structures

(incl. salt domes and
reservoirs beneath
salt sheets) (Gulf of
Mexico)
Sedimentary Basins: Plate Tectonics (Plate boundaries)

transform
divergent
Transform (Conservative):
Oceanic transform zones
Continental transform zones
convergent
Convergent:
Subduction zones
Island Arcs
Active Continental Margin
Continent-continent collision
Divergent:
Continental rift zone

Oceanic spreading ridge
(http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq1/plate.html)
Sedimentary Basins
Any geographical feature exhibiting subsidence and consequent
infilling by sedimentation
Divergent Plate Movements

1. Intracontinental Sag
2. Graben Structure (Rift Basin)
3. Passive Continental Margins
(4. Oceanic Sag)*
Converging Plate Boundaries

Subduction
(5. Deep-Sea Trench)*
6. Fore-arc Basin
(7. Intra-arc Basin)*
8. Back-arc Basin
9. Retro-arc Foreland Basin
Continent-Continent Collision
10. Remnant (Flysch) Basin
11. Peripheral Foreland Basin
Transform Plate Boundaries

12. Strike-slip Basin (Pull-apart B.)
*not relevant for oil business
Sedimentary Basins (Divergent Setting)

1. Intracratonic (Intracontinental) Sag
Large, oval (bowl) shaped

Slowly subsiding, long-lived basins. Subsidence results from thermal
contraction, eclogitization of lowermost crust, and/or intraplate stress.
Sediments thin towards the basin margins.
Major faults are absent
Sediments are typically continental, lacustrine or shallow marine.
The basin fill is thick (often x to 10 km) and controlled by sea level variations.
Low geothermal gradients.
Many basins contain large amounts of HCs.
Williston B.
Examples:
Michigan Basin
Williston Basin
West Siberian Basin (2.2 mio km)
Michigan B.

1. Intracratonic (Intracontinental) Sag
West Siberian Basin

2. Graben Structures (Rift Basin)
Narrow elongate basins which result from crustal stretching.

Syn-rift phase: During early rifting many basins are overfilled with fluvial sediments, but
may later become underfilled (lacustrine or marine). Evaporites are typical of rift deposits.
Numerous normal faults, tilting of fault blocks
Crustal thinning high heat flow high geothermal gradients.
Post-rift phase: Post-rift sediments often overly syn-rift deposits with an

unconformity and tend to be more uniform. Heat flow decreases gradually
during post-rift stage.
Many basins host (often small) hydrocarbon deposits.

Examples: Rhine Graben, North Sea, Songliao Basin
North Sea (Central Graben): narrow elongate basin

Normal faults,
Tilted fault blocks
Compaction Anticl.
Post-rift
Syn-rift
Pre-rift
(no change in thickness across faults)
Evaporitic rocks
Salt (domes)

3. Passive Continental Margin
Very thick sediment successions (PCMs
are sediment traps).
Deeper part is a syn-rift sequence (often
with evaporites salt domes).
Post-rift sequence is often controlled by
prograding delta sequences and/or
thick carbonate platforms.
The slope sediments often display listric
growth faults, rollover structures and
mud diapirs.
PCMs show long-lasting subsidence
trends due to (1) cooling, (2) sediment
loading
Example: Margins of Atlantic Ocean
Sabine Schmidt, 2004
South Atlantik
Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

Basins related to subduction
5. Deep-Sea Trench
Underlain by oceanic crust. Limited sediment supply (deep water turbidites, conglomerates and pelagic sediments).
6. Fore-arc Basin
Form between island arc and accretionary wedge. Contain fluvial and deltaic
sediments near the island arc, and shallow marine shelf sediments. In the outer parts
sediments are depsoited as turbidites in deep water. Good possibilities of organic-rich
sediments (source rocks).
Very low geothermal gradients normally only bacterial gas (oil from very deep
buried source rocks?).
Example (San Joaquin Basin, California).
7. Intra-arc Basin
result from tension tectonics in island arcs.
Sediments will be immature and volcanic material
will be common.
Intense tectonic deformation.
(No good sites for source and reservoir rocks)
8. Back-arc Basin
develop on oceanic crust. Abundant

supply of sediment from continent, filled
with deltaic and shallow marine
sediments.
May be good oil regions; e.g. Sumatra B.
Sedimentary Basins (Forearc/Backarc Basin)

6. Fore-arc Basin
8. Back-arc Basin
Sumatra Basin
Frisch & Meschede (2005)
Mazumder et al., 2010
Sedimentary Basins (Backarc Basin)

9. Retro-arc Foreland Basin
Form on continental crust behind an arc

with a fold thrust belt. The load of the
nappes on the crust contributes to the
basin subsidence and provides a source of
sediment.
Example:
Sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt
Very important for HC exploration
Jordan (1995)

Basins related to collision
10. Remnant Oceanic Basin
narrowing ocean basin filled mainly with

turbidites (flysch).
Asymmetric basin.
Subsidence mainly controlled by the load of
the advancing overthrust belt. Trend to
increasing subsidence.
Filled with molasse deposits (debris from the
overthrust belt). There is a general trend
form deep marine to continental and from
distal fine-grained to proximal coarsegrained sedimentation. However, this trend
can be modified by processes related to
tectonic activity.
Compressional structures, overpressuring,
often low geothermal gradient.
Overthrust belt does not always form a
topographic mountain range.
Very important for HC exploration!
Einsele 1992

Example: Alpine Foreland Basin (Molasse Basin)
Wagner (1996)
autochthonous Mesozoic
Molasse
Stratigraphy
Wagner & Wessely, 1997

11a Piggy-back Basin
Sedimentary basins, deposited on thrust sheets & transported passively on top of the thrusts
Sedimentary material mainly from the thrust belt
Low preservation potential (only in young orogens)
Examples: Po Basin, Adriatic Sea.
Piggy-back B.
Appenine Mts.
Piggy-back B.
SAlps
Sedimentary Basins (Transform Setting)

Conservative Plate Boundary
12. Strike-slip (Pull-Apart; Wrench) Basin
Narrow basins with variable length. Extremely fast subsidence. Structural complexities
are often very high. The life span is commonly short.
Example: Vienna Basin
Kraubath
Fohnsdorfer B.

Vienna basin
Alpine nappes
Autochthonous
Mesozoic
Crystalline
Autochthonous
Middle Jurassic: Rift basin
uppermost Middle Jurassic to
Upper Cretaceous: Passive Margin
Basin
Paleogene:
Overthrust of Alpine / Carpathian
nappes over early Tertiary Molasse
Early Neogene:
Molasse in front of and above
(piggy back) the nappes during their
last motion.
First pull apart extension in the
Vienna Basin
1st floor
2nd floor
3rd floor
Thrusting has stopped, extension

in the Vienna Basin intensified by
pull appart effects
PROTO VIENNA BASIN

(Early Miocene)
NEO VIENNA BASIN

(Middle/Late Miocene)
The Petroleum System
Reference:
Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G. 1994. The Petroleum System. In: Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G.
(eds.) The Petroleum System from Source to Trap, AAPG Memoir 60, 3-24.
Petroleum System
A petroleum system (PS) encompasses a pod of active SR and all related oil
and gas and includes all the essential elements and processes needed for oil
and gas accumulations to exist.
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
250 Ma
Raven
Essential
Elements
Source Rock (SR)

Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden Rock
Owens
Teapot
Marginal
Pod of Active
Source Rock
Big Oil
Just
Immature Source Rock
Processes
Trap Formation
Generation-Migration-Accumulation
Hardy
Lucky
Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
All essentials must be placed in time and space such that the processes
required to form a petroleum accumulation can occur.
The PS has a stratigraphic, geographic, and temporal extent.
Its name combines the names of the SR and the major reservoir rocks and
also expresses a level of certainty (known, hypothetical, speculative) (!) (.) (?)
Petroleum System
Distribution of Hypothetical Deer-Boar(.)

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Present-Day Trap
Trap
Trap
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Petroleum accumulation
Top of oil window
Bottom of oil window
Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Underburden
Peters & Cassa (1994)
Petroleum System
Trap
Deer-Boar(.) Petroleum
System Folio Sheet
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
200
100
Mesozoic
TR
Cen.
K
Rock
Unit
Start
250 Ma
End
Thick
Fm
Raven
Owens
Teapot
Seal
300
Paleozoic
Overburden
400

Location for burial history chart
Source
Source
Underburden
Top of oil window
Reservoir
POD OF ACTIVE
SOURCE ROCK
Depth (Km)
Essential
elements of
petroleum
system
Lithology

250 Ma
Trap
Trap
Sedimentary
basin-fill
Petroleum
System Folio
Sheet
Consists of
Five Charts
Marginal
2
Placer Fm
Pod of Active
Source Rock
George Sh
Top oil window
Big Oil
Just
Hardy
Lucky
Boar Ss
Top gas window
Deer Sh
Elk Fm
Critical Moment
Immature Source Rock
Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
400
300
200
Paleozoic
100
Mesozoic
Geologic Time
Scale
Cenozoic
Petroleum
System Events
Table of accumulations for Deer-Boar(.) petroleum system.

Field
Name
Magoon and Dow (1994)
Reservoir
Date
rock
discovered
API
Gravity
(oAPI)
Cumulative oil
production
(x106 bbl)
Remain
reserves
(x106 bbl)
Big oil
Raven
Owens
Just
1954
1956
1959
1966
Boar
Boar
Boar
Boar
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
32
31
33
34
310
120
110
160
90
12
19
36
Hardy
Lucky
Marginal
Teapot
1989
1990
1990
1992
Boar
Boar
Boar
Boar
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
29
15
18
21
85
5
12
9
89
70
65
34
T
R
Rock Units
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden Rock
Trap Formation
Gen/Migration/Accum
Preservation
Critical Moment
Petroleum System
Cross Section shows Extent of Petroleum

System at Critical Moment*
Trap
250 Ma
Trap
Trap
Essential
elements of
POD OF ACTIVE petroleum
system
SOURCE ROCK
Top of oil window
Location for burial history chart
Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Underburden
Sedimentary
basin-fill
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Magoon and Dow (1994)
*Critical moment: time that best depicts generation-migration-accumulation
Petroleum System
Map Shows Extent of Petroleum System and

Pod of Active Source Rock
250 Ma
Raven
Owens
Teapot
Marginal
A
Pod of Active
Source Rock
Immature
Source Rock
Big Oil
Just
Hardy
Reservoir
Rock
Lucky
Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
Mesozoic
P
TR
Cen.
K
Rock
Unit
Overburden
Paleozoic
100
Reservoir
Seal
200
Source
300
Depth (Km)
400
Lithology
Burial History Chart

Shows Critical Moment and Generation Timing
Start
End
Thick
Fm
2
Top oil window
Placer Fm
George Sh
Top gas window
Boar Ss
Deer Sh
Elk Fm
Critical Moment
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
Chart of Accumulations
Relates Fields to Reserves, Geochemistry
Table of accumulations for Deer-Boar(.) petroleum system.
Field
Name
Big oil
Raven
Owens
Just
Hardy
Lucky
Marginal
Teapot
API
Cumulative Remaining
Reservoir
Date
Gravity oil production reserves
discovered rock
(oAPI)
(x106 bbl)
(x106 bbl)
1954
1956
1959
1966
1989
1990
1990
1992
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
32
31
33
34
29
15
18
21
310
120
110
160
85
5
12
9
90
12
19
36
89
70
65
34
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
Petroleum Events Chart

Relates Elements and Processes to Trap Timing
400
300
200
Paleozoic
100
Mesozoic
TR
Geologic Time
Scale
Cenozoic
Petroleum
System Events
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden Rock
Trap Formation
Gen/Mig/Accum
Preservation
Elements
Processes
Rock Units
Critical Moment
Critical Moment
Preservation Time:
starts after oil and gas generation, migration, accumulation.
Processes that may occur: Remigration, degradation, complete destruction.
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
Petroleum Systems Are Described Using

Different Levels of Certainty
Symbol
Certainty
Criteria
(!)
Known
Oil-to-source rock or
gas-to-source correlation
(.)
Hypothetical
Geochemical evidence
suggests petroleum origin
(?)
Speculative
Geological or geophysical
evidence only
The level of certainty is mainly controlled by petroleumsource rock correlation (biomarker studies)
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
0 Petroleum
systems
1 Petroleum
system
2 Petroleum
systems
Number of
petroleum systems
Source Rocks
Evaluation of source rocks

Depositional environments
Hydrocarbon generation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Evaluation of source rocks: 3 parameters
1. Amount of organic matter

2. Type of organic matter
3. Maturity
Source Rock Evaluation (1. Amount of OM)

Total Organic Carbon (TOC, Corg, wt.%)
OM (wt. %) = TOC * 1.22
Determination of TOC:
High temperature oxidation + thermocouple or IR-detector
Minimum values:
Carbonates:
Shale:
TOC > 0.6 %

TOC > 1.0 %
Note that good source rocks have TOC contents >2.0 %.
Oil Shales: >20 % TOC (e.g. Green River Shale)

Note also that it is better to have a 10 m thick layer with 10% TOC
rather than a 100 m thick layer with 1%.
Source Rock Evaluation (2. Type of OM)

Kerogen
Insoluable*
vs.
Bitumen
Soluble*
Characterisation of Kerogen
Characterisation of Bitumen
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (RockEval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-GC
Microscopy (petrography)
(Isotopy)
(Source Rock Kinetics)
Gas chromatography /
Mass spectometry (GC/MS)
(Isotopy)
Whole rock
* in organic solvents
(e.g. Dichloromethane)
Organic
matter
Kerogen
Bitumen

Elemental
analysis
Atomic ratio H/C
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis-GC
Determination of C, H, O contents in kerogen

concentrates
Results are presented in a H/C vs. O/C plots
(van Krevelen diagram)
Type I, II, III kerogen
van Krevelen diagram
Limiting factor for petroleum generation is H

(there is a abundant C in the crust)
Thus, H-rich (high H/C) kerogen type I produces
more petroleum than H-poor kerogen type III
Tissot & Welte (1984)
Atomic ratio O/C

Analysis cycle
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis-GC
RockEval pyrolysis: temperature controlled pyrolysis

(heating in inert atmosphere) of powdered rock samples
(S1) [mgHC/grock]
2nd step: 300-550C (S2) [mgHC/grock]

300-490C (S3) [mgCO2/grock]
Genetic Potential
(S1+S2)
Hydrogen Index (HI): (S2/TOC)x100

Oxygen Index
(OI): (S3/TOC)x100
S1
[mgHC/grock]
[mgHC/gTOC]
S2
Example of record
1st step: 300C
S3
[mgCO2/gTOC]
Production Index (PI): S1/(S1+S2)

Tmax: Temperature of maximum HC generation
Espitali et al. (1977)

Atomic H/C
Atomic O/C
Note excellent correlation between HI / OI

(RockEval pyrolysis) with H/C and O/C ratios
(Elemental Analysis) of kerogen.
Therefore, a HI / OI plot (pseudo-van Krevelen

digram) is equivalent to a van Krevelen
diagram.
Hydrogen Index (mgHC/gTOC)
Oxygen Index (mgCO2/gTOC)
Peudo-van Krevelen diagram
van Krevelen diagram

Hydrogen Index (mgHC/gTOC)
Atomic H/C
(Because RockEval pyrolysis is a cheap

technique, RockEval data are industry
standard)
Atomic O/C
Hydrogen Index
mgHC/gTOC)
Type I: > 700
Type II: 250-700
Type III: < 250
Oxygen Index (mgCO2/gTOC)
Geochemical parameters describing

Source Rock Generative Potential
Geochem. parameters describing

Type of Hydrocarbon Generated
TOC
(wt.%)
S1
S2
Type
S2/S3
Poor
0-0.5
0-0.5
0-2.5
HI
(mgHC/gTOC)
Gas
0-150
0-3
Fair
0.5-1
0.5-1
2.5-5
Gas & Oil
150-300
3-5
Good
1-2
1-2
5-10
Oil
300+
5+
Very good
2+
2+
10+
S1 = mg HC/g rock
S2 = mg HC/g rock
Assumes a level of thermal

maturity equivalent to Ro = 0.6%
Peters K.E. (1986) Guidelines for evaluating petroleum source rocks using programmed pyrolysis. AAPG Bull. 70, 318-329.

Type I: Boghead Coal
(algal coal)
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography (Py-GC)
Py-GC: Investigation of the chemical composition of
the pyrolysate [S2-peak] (using a GC).
Application: Provides
information on petroleum
type generated from a
specific kerogen.
C1C5
C6-C14
C15+
Type II: Posidonia Shale

5-30: n-alkene/-ane doublets with
variable chain lengths
i: isoprenoid alkanes
Type III: normal Coal

(rich in landplants)
a: aromatic HCs
p: phenols,
s: thiophenes (NSO compounds)
(Horsfield in Welte et al., 1997)
Open system Py-GC of 3 immature kerogens

Microscopical Techniques
1. Reflected light (normal + fluorescent)
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (Rock Eval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-GC
(polished blocks of whole rocks)
2. Transmitted light
(kerogen concentrates, Palynofacies)
ad 1. Determination of macerals (Organic Petrography)

Macerals: microscopically recognizable individual constituents of OM
Maceral
Group
Vitrinite
Reflectivity Fluorescence
middle
no or weak
Liptinite
dark
strong
Inertinite
bright
--
Hydrocarb.
Potential
Vitrinite
Liptinite
Inertinite
Taylor et al. (1998)
gas
oil
--
Kerogen
Type
III
I / II
IV
Origin
white light
Terrestrial organic matter

(higher [land]plants)
Lipid-rich plant material
(algae, pollen, resin, )
Char coal, oxydized material
fluorescent
light
Vitrinite
Liptinite
Inertinite

Maceral Composition and Hydrocarbon Generation Characteristics
Modified after Mukhopadhyay et al., 1985

Characterisation of Bitumen
Rocks are extracted with organic solvent.
Bitumen is split into several fractions:
Saturated HCs
Aromatic HCs
NSO-compounds
Asphaltenes
Example: Schneck Fm.

(saturated HC fraction)
Satur. + Arom. fractions are analyzed using

Gas chromatography / Mass spectrometry
(GC/MS)
Principle of a gas chromatograph
numbers: chain lengths of n-alkanes

Pr: Pristane; Ph: Phytane
Hopanes, Steranes: biomarkers

What are biomarkers
Biomarkers (biological markers) are complex molecular fossils derived
from biochemicals, particularly lipids, in once-living organisms.
They can be determined in extracts of petroleum source rocks, but also
in crude oil.
Applications
Biomarker provide a method to relate oil with source rocks (oil-sourcecorrelation) or different oils (oil-oil-correlation).
When only oil samples are available, biomarkers can be used to assess
kerogen type,
depositional environment,
carbonate content,
age and
maturity
of petroleum source rocks
Peters et al., 2005

Example: Miocene source rocks in the Pannonian Basin
Short-chain
n-alkanes:
algae, bacteria
Diagenetic origin of Pristane and Phytane

from side chain if chlorophyll
oxic
Pristane
Phytol (chlorophyll)
suboxic
Phytane
High Pr/Ph:
oxic depositional
environment
Long-chain n-alkanes: landplants

Sachsenhofer (1994)

C27-C28-C29 steranes: highly specific for correlation
Steranes triangular plot
Oil-Source-correlation
using sterane patterns
(Alpine Foreland Basin)
Oil data
Rock extract data
Source Rock Evaluation (3. Maturity of OM)
Metamorphism
Metagen. Metamorphism
overmature
Oil window
Hard Coal
Anthracite
Catagenesis
Diagenesis
Diagenesis
mature
Correlation of rank stages determined through microscopic rank

parameters in relation to oil and gas maturity (Teichmller, 1987).
immature
Burial, depth, temperature
Brown Coal
Organic
matter
Diagenesis
an immature stage with little change: HC are scare. They

are more or less directly inherited from living organisms
and comparable to the molecules present in young
sediments
Catagenesis
the principle zone of oil formation and that zone of gas

formation, where wet gas with increasing proportion of
methane is generated through cracking
Metagenesis
some additional generation of HCs (mainly CH4) from

kerogen; liquid hydrocarbons previously generated are
also cracked and converted to gas
Maturation is controlled by TEMPERATURE, TIME, Kerogen Type

Changes in Bitumen
General scheme of HC formation as a

function of burial of the source rock.
(black: inherited HCs, grey: newly formed HCs.)
Changes in Kerogen
General scheme of kerogen

evolution presented on a van
Krevelen diagram.

Maturity parameters
Vitrinite reflectance (%Ro; Rr; Rm)
VR: Intensity of reflected light from
vitrinite particles using oil immersion
and monochromatic light (546 nm).
Microscopic vitrinite particles are
present in most pelitic rocks!
Vitrinite
Inorganic matter
Ro: reflectivity using an ordinary beam

Rr: random reflectivity
Rm: Mean reflectivity

Maturity parameters
Vitrinite reflectance (%Ro; Rr; Rm)
is an integral of temperature and time!
Speed of reaction can be described by
Arrhenius type equation (k = Ae-Ea/RT)
A = Frequency factor
Ea = Activation Energy
In normal geological situations, VR

increases with depth.
The reflectance gradient is higher in
areas with high (paleo-)geothermal
gradients (e.g. Murski-Gozd) than
in areas with low (paleo-)geothermal
gradients (e.g. Ljutomer).

Maturity parameters
Rock-Eval pyrolysis: PI, Tmax
Production Index
S1/(S1+S2)
Geochemical parameters describing

level of Thermal Maturation
PI
S1/(S1+S2)
Tmax
Tmax
(C)
Ro
%
Top of oil
window
~0.1
~435~0.6
445
Bottom of
oil window
~0.4
~470 ~1.4
Many maturation parameters (particularily Tmax)

depend on type of OM
Peters, 1986
Additional maturity parameters:

Fluorescence,
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI; palynomorphs),
Conodont Alteration Index (CAI)

Maturity parameters
related to bitumen
1. CPI (Carbon Preference Index)

2. MPI-1 (Methylphenanthrene Index)
3. Biomarker Ratios
Distribution of n-alkanes
Correlation of MPI-1 and

vitrinite reflectance
1.
High CPI (odd-even ratio) indicates low maturity

Biological precursors
Sterane
Isomerisation
2.
3.
immature = 0
nature = 0.55
Peters et al. 2005

Maturity parameters
related to bitumen
Front of Alps
1. CPI (Carbon Preference Index)

2. MPI-1 (Methylphenanthrene Index)
3. Biomarker Ratios
Genetic classification of petroleum systems

According to charge factor
Supercharged
Normally charged
Undercharged
Acc. to migration drainage style

Vertically drained
Laterally drained
Demaison, G., Huizinga, B.J. 1994. Genetic

Classification of Petroleum Systems Using Three
Factors: Charge, Migration, and Entrapment. In:
Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G. (eds.) The Petroleum
System from Source to Trap, AAPG Memoir 60,
3-24.
According to entrapment style

High impedance
Low impedance
Into typical and atypical

Typical PS (generation due to burial by overburden rocks)
Atypical PS (magmatic heating, bacterial gas generation)

According to charge factor (Source Potential Index)
Supercharged
Normally charged
Undercharged
High SPI
Moderate SPI
Low SPI
h (S1+S2)
SPI* =
1000
*Quantity of HCs generated within a column of SR

beneath 1 m of surface area
h: Thickness of source rock

S1: Amount of hydrocarbons present in source rock
S2: Amount of hydrocarbons, that is generated during (Rock-Eval) pyroloysis
: Rock density
Molasse B.
Thickness
(m)
S1+S2
Density
(t/m)
(tHC/m)
(mgHC/grock)
SPI
Eggerding Fm.
40
1.9
0.38
Dynow M.
10
10
2.0
0.20
Schneck C
31
1.9
0.24
Schneck A/B
8.5
2.2
0.13
0.95
Demaison, Huizinga (1994) AAPG Memoir 60.

According to migration drainage style
Vertically drained
Laterally drained
Vertically drained PS
Nearly all accumulations occur over the pod of mature SR or in close proximity
Multiple, vertically stacked reservoirs, sometimes of grossly different ages, often contain
the same genetic type of oil
Faulting
Surface seepages in supercharged systems
Laterally drained PS
Oil accumulations tend to occur in immature rocks located far away from the mature SR
A single reservoir rock of the same age, present under the most effective regional seal,
hosts most of the entrapped oil and gas
Faulting of the effective regional seal rock is minor
In supercharged systems, large accumulations of heavy oil are often found near the
margins of the system.

According to entrapment style
High impedance
Low impedance
Impedance: Physical resistance working against dispersion of petroleum as it tends to

migrate toward the surface. Key factors are: structural deformation and seal integrity
High Impedance entrapment style is characterized by laterally continuous seals coupled
with a moderate to high degree of structural deformation.
Low Impedance entrapment style is characterized by either a high degree of regional
seal continuity and a low degree of structural deformation, or a low degree of regional
seal effectiveness coupled with a high or low degree of structural deformation.

Continental Sag
Williston Basin
Foreland Basin
E Venezuela

(Foreland Basin)
Fold and Thrust Belt
Strike-Slip Basin
Los Angeles B.

Rift Basin
North Sea
Delta
Niger Delta
Petroleum Systems
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Schneck
Cretac./Paleogen PS
Puchkirchen/Hall Puchkirchen/Hall PS
S
Oil generation
N
Biogenic Gas
Voitsdorf field
Oil window

Stratigraphy
Gas
l
Wagner & Wessely, 1997
Hydrocarbon Fields
1) Thermal HCs (oil+gas)

2) Microbial HCs (methane)

Vienna basin
Alpine nappes
Autochthonous
Mesozoic
Crystalline
Source Rock !!
Source Rock:
Malmian Mikulov Marls
immature
Source Rock !!
Source Rock !!
marginal mature
marginal mature to mature
mature to overmature
HC generation is a consequence
of overthrusting.

2.+pressure Basin+Types Petroleum+Systems

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

2.+pressure Basin+Types Petroleum+Systems

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Subsurface Temperatures

Thermal conductivity of rocks strongly depends on porosity and increases

(after Mello et al. 1995; from Warren 1999).

fluid or pore pressure,

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Depth of top of OP is correlated

Figure 3.28 Reservoir-mudrock pressure discrepancy in

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Figure 3.24 Cartoon showing shoulder effects on the pressuredepth

Figure 3.11 Lateral reservoir drainage causing overpressure

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Figure 3.4 Schematic of overpressure

Overpressure generating mechanisms

2.3 Fluid expansion (Aquathermal pressuring)

Top overpressure = top oil window

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Figure 3.15 Properties of storage and connecting

Overpressure generating mechanisms

Figure 3.8 Illustration showing overpressure

Figure 3.7 Overpressure due to hydraulic head. The maximum head, H,

Underpressure generating mechanisms

Levels of petroleum investigation

PLAY: Series of present-day traps (prospects) of a given type

PLAY: Salt structures

Sedimentary Basins: Plate Tectonics (Plate boundaries)

Continental rift zone

Divergent Plate Movements

Converging Plate Boundaries

Transform Plate Boundaries

*not relevant for oil business

Sedimentary Basins (Divergent Setting)

Large, oval (bowl) shaped

Sedimentary Basins (Divergent Setting)

Sedimentary Basins (Divergent Setting)

Narrow elongate basins which result from crustal stretching.

Crustal thinning high heat flow high geothermal gradients.

Post-rift phase: Post-rift sediments often overly syn-rift deposits with an

Many basins host (often small) hydrocarbon deposits.

North Sea (Central Graben): narrow elongate basin

Sedimentary Basins (Divergent Setting)

Sedimentary Basins (Divergent Setting)

Sabine Schmidt, 2004

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

develop on oceanic crust. Abundant

Sedimentary Basins (Forearc/Backarc Basin)

Frisch & Meschede (2005)

Mazumder et al., 2010

Sedimentary Basins (Backarc Basin)

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

Form on continental crust behind an arc

Very important for HC exploration

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

narrowing ocean basin filled mainly with

11. Peripheral Foreland Basin

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

Wagner & Wessely, 1997

Sedimentary Basins (Convergent Setting)

Sedimentary Basins (Transform Setting)