Source Rocks

References
Dieckmann, V. (2005) Modelling petroleum formation from heterogeneous source rocks: the influence of
frequency factors on activation energy distribution and geological prediction. Marine and Petroleum Geology 22,
375-390.
Espitali, J., Laporte, J.L., Madec, M., Marquis, F., Leplat, P., Paulet, J., & Boutefeu, A. (1977). Mthode rapide
de caractrisation des roches mres, de leur potentiel ptrolier et de leur degr dvolution. Revue de l Institut
Franais du Prole, 32, 23-42.
Klemme, H.D., Ulmishek, G.F. (1991) Effective Petroleum Source Rocks of the World: Stratigraphic Distribution
and Controlling Depositional Factors.- AAPG Bull 75, 1809-1851.
Langford, F.F. & Blanc-Valleron, M.-M. (1990). Interpreting Rock-Eval pyrolysis data using graphs of pyrolyzable
hydrocarbons vs. total organic carbon. American AAPG Bulletin, 74, 799-804.
Peters K.E. (1986) Guidelines for evaluating petroleum source rocks using programmed pyrolysis. AAPG Bull.
70, 318-329.
Peters, K.E., Walters, C.C., Moldowan, J.M. 2005. The Biomarker Guide. 2 vol., Cambridge University Press,
1155 pp.
Radke M., Welte D.H. and Wilsch H. (1986) Maturity parameters based on aromatic hydrocarbons: Influence of
the organic matter type. Org. Geochem. 10, 51-63.
Sachsenhofer R.F., Bechtel A., Reischenbacher D., Weiss A. (2003) Evolution of lacustrine systems along the
Miocene Mur-Mrz fault system (Eastern Alps) and implications on source rocks in pull-apart basins. Marine
and Petroleum Geology 20, 83-110.
Sachsenhofer, R.F., Bechtel, A., Kuffner, T., Rainer, T., Gratzer, R., Sauer, R., Sperl, H. 2006. Depositional
environment and source potential of Jurassic coal-bearing sediments (Gresten Formation; Hflein
gas/condensate field; Austria). Petroleum Geoscience.
Sykes, R. & Snowdon, L. R., 2002. Guidelines for assessing the petroleum potential of coaly source rocks using
Rock-Eval pyrolysis. Organic Geochemistry, 33, 1441-1455.
Taylor, G. H., Teichmller, M., Davis, A., Diessel, C. F. K., Littke, R., Robert, P., 1998: Organic Petrology,
Borntraeger Berlin-Stuttgart, 704 S.
Tissot, B.P., Welte, D.H. 1984. Petroleum Formation and Occurrence. 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin, 699 pp.
Welte, D.H., Horsfield, B., Baker, D.R. 1997. Petroleum and Basin Evolution. Springer, Berlin, 535 pp.

Source Rocks

Evaluation of source rocks

Depositional environments
Hydrocarbon generation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Depositional Environments of Source Rocks

Pre-Requisites for deposition of organic-rich rocks
High Productivity of organic matter

Good Preservation of organic matter

Org. production in Marine Ecosysystems

The lower the oxygen content, the better the

preservation of OM

>90% Phytoplankton
(Additional: zooplankton, bacteria, fish)
Productivity mainly controlled by
Sunlight: (photic zone: top 60-80 m)
Nutrient: (nitrate, phosphate)

Diatoms

Calcareous
Algae

Organic production in Continental

Ecosysystems
Peat (climatic control; age control)
Freshwater Algae

Oxygen (ml/l)
8.0-2.0
2.0-0.2
0.2-0.0
0.0 (H2S)

Environments
Oxic
Dysoxic
Suboxic
Anoxic

Biofacies
.
Aerobic
Dysaerobic
Quasi-anaerobic
Anaerobic
.

Anoxic conditions develop where

O2 demand (caused by OM degradation)
exceeds
O2 supply (controlled by water circulation)
Therefore, a sea or lake is prone to anoxic
conditions when
(1) organic productivity is high
(2) stagnant bottom water causes a restriction
in O2 supply ( fine-grained rocks!)

(1) Lakes, (2) Deltas, (3) Marine basins

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Lakes)

Excellent source rocks develop in lakes with stratified water column
Deep lakes: e.g. 1500 m deep Lake Tanganyika is anoxic below 150 m. In contrast, wind may
cause break down of water column stratification in shallow lakes.
At low latitudes: No seasonal variations cause break down of temperature-density
stratification). Abundant water supply keeps the lake filled.
Arid climate:

Arid lakes may dry up. Provided this does not happen, high evaporation
may produce salinity stratification assisting anoxia (e.g. Green River Shale).

Organic matter input:

Autochthonous (formed within lake):
freshwater algae, bacteria type I kerogen, highly oil-prone
Allochthonous (transported from lake margin):
OM from landplants (dependant on climate and age of SR):
coaly
type III kerogen, gas prone
Zonation:

gas-prone type III often along lake margins (swamps);

oil-prone type I in lake center

Petroleum composition:
Lacustrine oils have high wax contents derived from plant cuticules and wax-secreting algae

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Lakes)

Shallow lake

Typical sedim. succession in

tectonic lakes (humid climate)
Delta
Shallow lake
Deep lake
Coal
Fluvial plain

Slow (no) subsidence

Oil Shale

Very rapid subsidence

Profile in Fushun Mine

Oil shale and siltstone

Coal

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Deltas)

Organic matter input:
Crevasse
splay

Swamps

Delta
channels

Delta top
environments
Interdistributary
bay

Delta plain

Subaqueous
mouth bars
Delta slope
Prodelta

Delta front
environments

Delta top (lakes):

gas-prone type III in swamps and along lake margins
oil-prone type I in lake center
Delta front and pro-delta areas:
Rivers transport huge amounts of landplant
material (dispersed type III kerogen) gas
Abundant nutrients provided by rivers stimulate
productivity of marine phytoplankton (+ bacteria),
but preservation is often bad (delta front is often
high-energetic, oxic).
High accumulation rates allow preservation of
some OM, but dilute it (lean type II kerogen)
mainly gas, little oil

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Marine Basins)

1) Silled (enclosed) basins

Restricted water exchange with the

open sea
Water stratification reduces O2-supply

1a) Basins with positive water balance

inflow > outflow
humid climate

2) Open marine shelves /

continental slopes

2a) Oceanic upwelling

2b) Impingement of oceanic
midwater O2 minimum zone

1b) Basins with negative water balance

oceanic inflow > freshwater inflow
arid climate
Organic matter input
OM type depends on the amount of terrigenous
landplants transported into the basin:
Often type II-III (gas-oil prone) in humid climate.
Type II (marine phytoplankton oil) in arid
climate (often in association with evaporites and
carbonates).

Mainly type II (marine phytoplankton

oil prone)

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Marine Basins)

1) Silled basins
1a) Basins with positive water
balance
(Black Sea, Baltic Sea)
Outflow of freshwater exceeds relatively small
inflow of deeper saline water. Most of water
movement takes place in the surface layers,
allowing stratification of deeper waters.

1b) Basins with negative water

balance
(Red Sea, Persian Gulf,
Mediterranean)
Oceanic inflow dominates over freshwater fluvial
input (e.g. arid climate).
Dense, salty, oxygenated waters resulting from
surface evaporation may sink and sweep the
basin floor, preventing anoxia.

TOC of modern sediments

in the Black Sea. TOC
locally reaches 15% in the
deep parts of the basin

Allen & Allen 1990

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Marine Basins)

1) Silled basins: The Paratethys, an Early Oligocene (~30 Ma) example
Paratethys

Popov et al., 2004

Schneck Fm.
Menilite Fm.
Tard Fm.
Maykop Fm.

(Molasse Basin)
(Carpathians)
(Pannonian Basin)
(Black Sea, Caspian Sea)

Wagner, 1998

Ampfing Sandstone

Schneck Fm.

http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=750

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Marine Basins)

2) Open shelves/slopes

2a) Oceanic upwelling

2b) Impingement of oceanic midwater O2 minimum zone

2a) Oceanic upwelling

forms where coast-parallel currents are deflected offshore
by the Earths rotational (Coriolis) force.
Mainly along E side of oceans (Peru-Chile, California,
Namibia, Morocco).
Causes upwelling of deep, cold and nutrient (P, N) rich
ocean water. high productivity in photic zone.
Degradation of OM creates high demand of O2 anoxia
Mainly marine phytoplankton (type II kerogen) oil-prone
Distribution of upwelling zones (Emeis & Morse, 1993)

Allen & Allen (1990)

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Marine Basins)

2b) Impingement of oceanic midwater O2 minimum zone (OMOMZ)
In modern oceans an O2 deficient zone occurs at 100 - 1000 m depths. It is a result of
degradation of OM from the overlying photic zone.
Below this zone, O2 contents rise again as a consequence of cold, dense, oxygenated
currents flowing from polar regions to the tropics.
However, pole derived cold currents probably were not present during times without
glaciation and mainly E-W orientated oceans (e.g. most of the Mesozoic).
Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks (e.g. Toarcian of W Europe) probably result from
high sea levels and the impingement of the OMOMZ onto the continental shelfs.

Water depth (m)

Oxygen conc. (ml/l)

O2 concentrations and
TOC contents in the
Indian Ocean.

TOCs are the highest

around the Indian
coastline where O2 levels
in the midwater layer fall
to <0.5 ml/l and impinge
on the continental slope
and shelf.

Allen & Allen (1990)

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Sequence strat. setting)

Source rocks are often associated with a maximum flooding surface.
This is because of the restricted supply of detrital minerals during maximum
flooding (when the shoreline reaches its most landward position).
Low water turbulance
Low sedimentation rate

good OM preservation
no dilution of OM

Seismic facies
Log facies of MFS

Depositional Setting of Source Rocks (Well Logs)

Well-log characteristics:
High gamma (>100 API, can
reach 200-400 in hot-shales)
High resistivity, especially if
mature (up to 1000-10 000 m)
Low density (due to low density
of kerogen; <2.2g/cm3)
High NPHI
High DT (low velocity)

Migration

References
Allen P.A. and Allen J.R. (1990) Basin Analysis: Principles and Practice: Blackwell Scientific, Cambridge,
416 p.
England W.A. 1994. Secondary migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons. In: Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G.
(eds.) The Petroleum System from Source to Trap, AAPG Memoir 60, 211-217.
England W.A.,Fleet A.J., eds. 1991. Petroleum migration: Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ. 59, 280 p.
England W.A., Mann A.L., Mann S.M. 1991. Migration from source to trap. In Source and Migration
Processes and Evaluation Techniques: AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology, (ed. R.K. Merrill) p. 23-46.
Lewan, M.D. 1994. Assessing natural oil expulsion from source rocks by laboratory pyrolysis. In: Magoon,
L.B., Dow, W.G. (eds.) The Petroleum System from Source to Trap, AAPG Memoir 60, 201-210.
Mann, U., Hantschel, T., Schaefer, R.G., Krooss, B., Leythaeuser, D., Littke, R., Sachsenhofer, R.F. (1997)
Petroleum Migration: Mechanisms, Pathways, Efficiencies, and Numerical Simulations. In: Welte, D.H,
Horsfield, B., Baker, D.R. (eds.) Petroleum and Basin Evolution, Springer, Berlin, 403-520.
Peters, K.E., Walters, C.C., Moldowan, J.M. 2005. The Biomarker Guide. 2 vol., Cambridge University
Press, 1155 pp.
Mann, U., 1989. Revealing hydrocarbon migration pathways. In: Poelchau, H.S., Mann, U. (eds) Geologic
modeling Aspects of integrated basin analysis and numerical simulation. Geol. Rundschau 78, 337-348.
Mann, U., 1994. An integrated approach to the study of primary petroleum migration. In: Parnell, J. (ed.)
Geofluids: origin, migration and evolution of fluids in sedimentary basins. Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ.
78, 233-260.
Schumacher, D., Abrams, M. A., 1996. Hydrocarbon migration and its near surface effects: AAPG Memoir
66, 450 p.

Migration

Primary M. (Expulsion)
Secondary M.
Tertiary M.

Primary Migration (Expulsion)

Source rocks are always fine-grained and
typically have very small pore throats.
Problem:
Shale pore diameters < organic molecules

Change of physical parameters of shale-type rocks with depth of burial

Relation of shale pore diameters to the molecular diameters of the
petroleum is shown.
At moderate depths of burial, shale pore diameters typically become
very small in relation to the larger petroleum molecules.

Primary Migration (Expulsion)

Probable explanation:
Migration of discrete phase through microfractures due to overpressure (and
fracturing) caused by:
1) Oil/gas generation

2) Fluid expansion (fTemp)

3) Release of water on clay mineral dehydration
4) Compaction of sealed (fine-grained) source rock units

Primary migration may occur upwards and downwards,

as controlled by local pressure gradients

Primary Migration (Expulsion)

Primary migration is probably a cyclic process (generation, pressure build up,
micro-fracturing) till SR is exhausted.
Pressure build up may not be sufficient in lean oil prone SR to expel liquid
petroleum (petroleum liquids remain in SR).
A large volume expansion (pressure build up) takes place when petroleum
liquids are cracked to gas within SR. Gas (CH4) expulsion at higher maturity!

Petroleum Expulsion Efficiency

(PEE; 120-150C) strongly
depends on the original richness of
the SR.

Note that even in the most favourable case,

about 20% of the HCs remain in the SR!
Note that a thin rich SR expels more HCs
than than a thick lean SR!

S2: > 5 mgHC/grock

Secondary Migration
Through carrier into traps or to surface (seepage). Traps may be disrupted
in time re-migration
Porosity, permeability, pore sizes are much
higher than in primary migration
different migration mechanisms
Petroleum migrates as a separate phase
(since its solubility in water is low).

Main driving forces

Buoyancy
density difference (P) between petroleum and
pore water

Secondary Migration

P is f of: (1) petroleum/water density

difference
(2) height of the petroleum column.
Pressure measurements at points throughout the
petroleum column define a petroleum pressure gradient
Pore pressure gradients (hydrodynamic conditions)
which attempt to move all fluids to areas of
lower pressure = hydrodynamic conditions
Increase or decrease driving pressures against seals
(reducing or increasing the heights of the petroleum
column that seals can withstand)
Tilt petroleum water contacts and displace petroleum
accumulations (e.g. off the crests of structural closures)
Hydrodynamics are most important in (asymmetric)
foreland basins!
Main restricting force
Capillary pressure

h
g
w
p

= height of petroleum column

= accerlation due to gravity
= subsurface density of water
= subsurface density of petroleum

Secondary Migration
Oil isopotential surfaces (Uo) in relation to
buoyant (Pb),
hydrodynamic (Ph), and
confining (Py) forces
in a convex trap under hydrodynamic
conditions

Because buoyant force (P; Pb) is larger for gas

than for oil (difference in density), gas contacts are
less tilted compared to oil-water contacts at a given
hydrodynmic force (Ph)

Secondary Migration
Capillary Pressure (resistant force in sec. HC migration)
Capillarity: Tendency of wetting liquids to ascend minute openings (<0.5 mm).
Capillary (=displacement) pressure (Pc) =

2cos
R

Pc increases
as increases
as decreases
as R decreases

: Interfacial tension between petroleum and water

Force that keeps contact area between two fluids a
minimum
Low
Heavy, high viscous oils (15*10-3 Nm-1)
Light, low viscous oils (30*10-3 Nm-1)
High
Gas
(70*10-3 Nm-1)
Higher displacement pressures are needed for gas.
However, buoyant force is also higher for gas.
R = Pore throat radius (cm): Most important
control! Higher pressures are needed for smaller
pores.

= Wettability (contact angle of the petroleumwater interface against rock surface:

is small in water-wet system (cos1) and can be
ignored in carrier rocks along secondary migration
routes, and in vertical and lateral seal rocks.
2
Capillary pressure (Pc) = R
Some of the grains in oil-filled reservoirs rocks may
be oil-wet. Capillary (displacement) pressures in
these cases could be lower assisting oil migration!

Secondary Migration
Evolution of migration pathways
At each step, petroleum filament invades
the largest adjoining pore-throat.
Not to scale

Dendritic migration pathway

The petroleum moves generally updip, but
contrasts in capillary entry pressures in
different parts of the pathway may lead the
migrating petroleum to follow the coarsest
beds preferentially.
In uniform units, the capillary effects are
small and the petroleum tends to move
along the upper part of the carrier bed.
England 1994

Secondary Migration
Reservoir filling

a) Petroleum migrating into a trap from active source

rocks to the right of the diagram.

b) During the initial filling process c/d) The increasing column height causes other (but not all)
only the coarsest beds are filled
parts of the reservoir rock to become saturated with
with petroleum.
petroleum.
England 1994

Secondary Migration
Evolution of migration pathways / Orthocontours

Orthocontours illustrate secondary

migration routes.
a) Effect of an elongate kitchen on
migration directions. Areas along the
long axis of the kitchen may receive a
relatively poor charge.
b) Migration is focused along regional
highs in the basin drainage area, and
may penetrate large distances away
from the source kitchens. Some
foreland basins show examples of this
type of migration.

Secondary Migration
Structural (spill) differential entrapment

Stratigraphic (leak)
differential entrapment

Early Generation: Left trap is filled to spill point and has

a gas cap; only oil is spilling updip.
Late Generation: Left trap is completely filled with gas,
all its oil is now by-passing.

increase in density with migration distance

decrease in density with depth

decrease in density with migration distance

increase in density with depth

Secondary Migration Efficiency (SEM)

Statistically Based Method (Sluijk, Nederlof,
1984)

Based on data from 37 regions, the authors

argue that SEM is mainly controlled by
sedimentological discontinuities
and number and orientation of faults.
No relation with distance!
This suggests that migration in a continuous
unfaulted carrier is very efficient!

Active Source
Rock

Basin Fill

Threshold Method (England et al., 1987)

Assumes that a certain critical saturation level has to be reached in the carrier bed before
HCs start to accumulate in the trap.
Volume of the charge (VC = volume reaching the trap) is expelled volume (VE) minus
lost volume (VL).

VC = VE - VL
VE (m) = HCG (kg) x PEE (%) / density (kg/m)
VL = fVD
f: migration loss factor (1-3%), VD: carrier bed volume, : Porosity

Only if VC is positive, a trap can be filled. Otherwise HCs are lost in the carrier bed!

Secondary Migration
Speed of Migration:
By using Darcys law, an estimate of carrier bed permeability up to 1D, and the buoyant
forces that drive migration, England et al. (1991) calculated rates as high as 1000 km/My
(1 m/y) in sandstones.
Therefore in most geologic settings, secondary migration is very fast compared to the
deposition of overburden rock needed to initiate the process of HC generation.

Distance of Migration:
Typical lateral migration distances are c. 10 km, with a significant number of cases that
exceed 80 km.
Vertical distances range up to several 1000 m.

Role of Faults and Fractures:

Fault zones may act as both conduits and barriers (see also Fault Seal Analysis).
If fractures remain open they may form effective pathways. This occurs mainly at shallow
depth and in the uplifted block of reverse faults (pressure release).

Secondary Migration
Stratigraphic/dynamic traps that make up the Halfdan Field and the Sif/Igor area

The hydrocarbons in the chalk are not in equilibrium, and therefore continue to migrate extremely
slowly (a few km / My).
www.ens.dk/sw10370.asp

Seal Rocks
Two classes
+ regional seals that roof migrating HCs
+ local seals that confine HC accumulations

Microporosity
Seal rocks have pore throats that are too small and poorly connected to allow passage
of HCs. Most seal rocks behave like fine-mesh screens
(e.g. seal rock might be sealing for oil but not for gas).
Quality of the seal (sealing capacity) is defined by the
minimum entry (displacement) pressure*: Pd.
*Displacement pressure:
Smallest capillary pressure
required to force HCs into the
largest interconnected pores of a
water-wet rock.

Pd = 2cos/R
= HC-water interfacial tension;
= wettability
R = radius of largest pore throats
Displacement
pressure (220 psi)

Laboratory data are of often of little use

(problem of extrapolation).
Quality defined by the weakest point.

Seal Rocks
Siltstone acts as a lateral seal for the
reservoir. This implies that P of oil
(here: 500 kPa) must be smaller than
the displacement pressure.
Moreover, P of HC column must not
result in fracturing!
At 100% water level, P of
oil equals displacement
pressure of reservoir
(here: 50 kPa)

Buoyant force (P) in oil reservoir under hydrostatic conditions.

water density: 1.00 g/cm
oil density:
0.795 g/cm; (API: 46.5)

Point where oil and water

pressure gradients
intersect (P = 0)
oil/water contact

static water pressure gradient = 1.000 x 9.8 = 9.8 kPa/m

static oil pressure gradient =
0.795 x 9.8 = 7.8 kPa/m
P
= h x 9.8 x (1.00 - 0.795)
@ 250 m above free water level P = 500 kPa

North (1985)

Seal Rocks
Lithology of seals vs disc. petroleum volumes (USGS 2005)
The effectiveness of caprocks (seal capacity) is controlled by
Lithology
Ductility
Thickness
Lateral Continuity
Burial Depth

Most important lithologies

(lateral continuous, significant portion of basin fill, ductile):
Evaporites
Fine-grained clastic rocks
(also: argillacious limestones, tight sandstone, cherts, volcanics)

Ahlbrandt et al. 2005

Seal Rocks
Ductility
Most

Least

Lithology
Salt
Anhydrite
Kerogen-rich shales
Silty shales
Carbonate mudstones
Cherts

Evaporites can be brittle at shallow depth

5 cm

Thickness: Theoretically a few cm are enough.

Thick top seal can become a lateral seal in the case of faulting.

Lateral Continuity:

Nodular anhydrite (top

seal of Jurassic Arab-D),
Afifi, 2002

Burial depth: deep burial results in compaction (decrease in porosity / permeability)

Fault seal analysis: study of the likelihood of a fault to allow fluids to move across
the fault plane (leak) or not (seal).

Fault Seal Analysis

Faults play an important role in creating hydrocarbon traps:
(1) Juxtaposition, in which reservoir sands are juxtaposed
against a low-permeability unit (e.g., shale) with a high entry
pressure.
(2) Clay smear (i.e., entrainment or injection of clay or shale) into
the fault plane, thereby giving the fault itself a high entry
pressure.
(3) Cataclasis, which is the crushing of rocks to produce a fault
gouge of finer grained material, again giving the fault a high
capillary entry pressure.
(4) Diagenesis, when preferential cementation along an originally
permeable fault plane may partially or completely remove
porosity, ultimately creating a hydraulic seal.

Yielding, G., Freeman, B., Needham, D.T. (1997) Quantitative Fault Seal Prediction. AAPG Bull. 81, 897-917

Fault Seal Analysis

`Allen` diagram (fault plane map; Allen, 1989)

Footwall: volume beneath fault surface

Hangingwall: volume above the fault surf.

Depth (m)

1500

2000

Map shows intersection of reservoir strata in

footwall and hangingwall to the fault plane. These
intersections determine the spill points at each
reservoir level.
Allen & Allen, 2005. Basin Analysis: Principles and Applications.
2nd ed. Blackwell Publ. 549 pp.

Fault Seal Analysis

Triangle juxtaposition diagram (Knipe 1997)

Hangingwall reservoir lithology

Footwall reservoir lithology

Fault Throw (m)

Knipe, R.J., 1997. Juxtaposition/ seal diagrams to facilitate fault seal analysis of
hydrocarbons. APPG Bull., 81, 187-195.

Fault Seal Analysis

Shale smear factor (SSF)

SSF =

Clay content ratio (CCR)

Shale thickness
throw

Smear gouge ratio (SMGR)

(layer thickness x clay fractions)

CCR =
x 100
throw

sand thickness
SMGR = shale thickness

Factors controlling the likelihood of clay gouge:

1) Thickness of claystone strata
2) Fault displacement (throw)
3) Position in fault with respect to claystone strata
after Yielding et al. (1997)

Fault Seal Analysis

Clay content ratio (CCR)

(layer thickness x clay fractions)

CCR =
x 100
throw

Clay content ratio (%)

Erawan Gas-Condensate Field in the
Gulf of Thailand (Kachi et al., 2005)

The Trap
A trap exists where subsurface conditions cause the accumulation and concentration of
HCs.
A trap is formed where the capillary displacement pressure of a seal exceeds the
upward directed buoyancy pressure of petroleum

Oil leg

Main purpose: Comparison

between prospect or play. A trap type
in a basin may be characterized by a
distinct field size distribution.
Allows comparison with geological
analogies which may be useful in
estimation of prospect petroleum
volumes and risks.
Movements occurred
after deposition

Trap types
Structural

Tectonic

Contractional
Extensional

Compactional

Drape structures

Diapiric

Salt movement
Mud movement

Gravitational

Stratigraphic Depositional

Geometry is inherited
from the original
depositional morphology,
or from diagentic changes

Generally rare

Reefs
Pinch-outs
Channels
Bars

Unconformity

Truncation
Onlap

Diagenetic

Mineral
Tar mats
Gas hydrates
Permafrost

Hydrodynamic

More than one process may be involved. Different trap types may be genetically linked: e.g., Drape anticline above reef.

Tectonic
Thrust Fault (dip <45)

Andersons (1942)
fault classification

Mohrs stress cycle

Stress state for faulting at

a specific depth z

Tectonic - contractional
Contraction results in creation of
Folds,
Reverse faults (dip >45) or
Thrust faults

Heave
Repeat sect.
or
Throw

Note that a vertical well penetrating a reverse

fault will encounter repeated section.
Throw (vertical component of fault
displacement) is equal to the amount of
repeated section seen on logs.

Laudon (1996)

Heave (horizontal component) means that a

well drilled in the heave zone will encounter
the mapped horizon twice.

Tectonic - contractional
Folds (anticlines) and faults (here thrust faults) are often associated:
Simple Ramp Anticline

Imbricated Thrust
Faults and sandwiched
Duplex

Schematic cross-section through a thrust fault

showing leading-edge recumbent anticline and
trailing-edge anticline at the ramp.

Triangle Zone
caused by thrust and back thrust faults

Most oil is the western overthrust belt of the U.S. is

in the leading edge recumbent fault.

Trailing-edge
Ramp Anticline

W
Laudon (1996)

Leading-edge
Recumbant Anticline

Back thrust

Example: Molasse Imbricates

Tectonic - contractional
An anticline is a rock fold that is convex upward.
Note that an anticline alone does not trap
HCs because there is no 3-D trap.

Closure might be completed also by a sealing

fault or a permeability barrier.

A 3-D trap implies that the axis of the

anticline must be doubly plunging such
that the structure contours close, or form a
dome.
B

B
B

The spill point defines the maximum

possible size of the structure.

Tectonic - contractional
Zagros Foldbelt

Kangan Gasfield / Iran

Tectonic - contractional
Kangan gas field, S Iran
NE

SW

height

Dashtak

Kangan

thrust-fault

Khuff

buckle fold; height: ~4 km

Kangan field contains the world's 15th biggest gas reserves.

Seal:
Triassic evaporites
Reservoir:
Permo-Triassic carbonate platform sediments
Source rock:
Silurian hot shales

North ( 1990)

Tectonic - contractional
Painter Reservoir Field: Idaho-Wyoming thrustbelt

http://www.energy-investments.com/ccreek/projectindex.html

Tectonic - contractional
Traps formed by high-angle reverse (contractional) faults.

Juxtapositions of permeable bed limits

closure.
For maximum closure, fault throw needs
to be large in relation to reservoir
thickness.
All of the illustrated trap types also
require closure in the 3rd dimension (i.e.
into the plane of the paper).

Allen & Allen (1990)

Tectonic - extensional
Throw (vertical component of fault
displacement) is equal to the amount of vertical
section missing in the log correlation

Cross-section view of a normal fault

Heave (horizontal component) is equal to the

width of the gap of the structure contour map.
A vertical well drilled in the heave zone will not
intersect the mapped horizon
Fault cut: Missing section

Heave (450 ft)

Structure map of a normally faulted anticline

Missing sect.
or
Throw (650 ft)

heave = throw / tan

Tics on the fault always point down

Laudon (1996)

Tectonic - extensional
Traps formed by normal (extensional) faults

Synthetic normal faults

Seal depends on the lithologies

juxtaposed against the reservoir
across the fault plane.
Ideally, fault throw should exceed
gross reservoir thickness.
Assuming similar throw, the
potential to form a trap is larger in
the case of antithetic normal faults
(dip direction of fault is opposite to
dip direction of bedding planes)
compared to synthetic faults
S

Antithetic normal faults

Allen & Allen (1990)

Antithetic normal faults are the main trap

type in the Molasse Basin

Tectonic - extensional
Listric fault: dip of fault decreases
with depth
Growth Fault: throw increases
(growths) with depth
Roll-over structures: the trap
(crest of the anticline) is offset from
the fault and migrates horizontally
with depth

Wessely (2006)

Listric Fault

Laudon (1996)

Roll-over Anticline

Tectonic - extensional
Mhlberg Field,
Vienna Basin
(AT)

(Seifert et al. 1996)

Principal Stress Directions

hormax > hormin > vert

Principal Stress Directions

vert > hormax > hormin

Principal Stress Directions

hormax > vert > hormin

www.umbc.edu/ereserves

Tectonic
Typically strike-slip faults combine at depth
and split upwards flower structure.

Dextral strike-slip zone

Map view

Restraining bends in strike-slip fault zones

cause transpression and the formation of
push-ups.
Positive (or reverse) flower structure

Restraining bend
Transpression

Releasing bends in strike-slip fault zones

cause transtension and the formation of
pull-apart basins.
Negative (or normal) flower structure.
Map view

Releasing bend
Transtension

Tectonic
Whittier Oilfield, Los Angeles Basin, California
Fault trap against high-angle reverse fault, augmented by bending fold and tar seal.

Cross-section

Map view
Six zone
outcrop

Miocene
Contours: top of
6th zone
third zone outcrop

Up. MiocenePliocene

Contours in [m] above / below s.l.

North (1990)

 Basement topography (e.g.

horst or tilted fault block)
causes thickness variations in
the overlying sediment column.
As these sediments compact,
drape anticlines are formed
Relief of anticline increases
with depth.

Allen & Allen (1990)

Tilted Fault Block

Drape structures form by

differential compaction
above an (effectively noncompactable) basement
high.

Horst Block

Compactional Structure / Drape Structure

Structure Top Crystalline Basement

Afifi, 2002

Oil discovery: 1948

Oil production ~ 5 mil b/d
Jurassic Arab-D

Gas production 8 bil scf/d,

Associated gas ~ 2 bscf/d,
Non-associated gas ~ 6 bscf/d
from Paleozoic reservoirs.

Field size Ghawar:

75-83 billion barrels

Ghawar: Drape Anticline?

Diapiric
Pre-requisites for diapirism:
Density inversion
Buoyant force (i.e. a significant volume)
Low viscosity
Salt diapirs
Mud diapirs (Mud volcanoes)
high sedimentation rates
overpressured zone with high porosity
Clay
Density-depth curves for sand, clay and salt.
Salt is less dense than other sediments below c. 800 m,
and salt movement may therefore be anticipated once
this burial depth has been reached.
On the other hand, vertical salt movement often stops at
c. 800 m depth.
Only when sediments with a density higher than salt
(>2.1) are present at the surface, salt reaches the
surface. This is the case in areas, which experienced
uplift (erosion of shallow, non-compacted sediments).

Salt
Sand
Selley (1997)

Diapiric
Humid climate: salt gets disolved
Arid climate: Salt glaciers (gravity causes salt to flow like glaciers)

Salt Glaciers (Zagros Foldbelt)

The tongue-shaped bodies are
>5 km long. The darker tones
are due to clays brought up
with the salt, as well as the
accumulation of airborne dust.

Image courtesy NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=16435
ASTER perspective view was created by draping a band 3-2-1 (RGB) image over an ASTER-derived DEM (2x vertical exaggeration; 10. 08. 2001).

Diapiric
Evolution of salt structures
I)

Pillow stage:
Formation of salt pillows. Mainly
horizontal movement of salt is
compensated by normal faults in the
overlying rocks.

II) Diapir stage:

Mainly vertical salt movements results
in the formation of salt domes, salt
stocks or elongated salt walls. Piercing
of overburden. Formation of a trunk
surrounded by rim synclines. Updoming
of the roof and formation of concentric
normal faults.
III) Post-diapir (mature) stage:
Lateral growth of the upper part of the
salt structure. Formation of overhangs.
Occasionally the salt dome is
completely detached from its source
area. The caprock (Hut) is often
leached creating secondary porosity

Sediment surface
Synsed.
normal fault
Salt pillow

Salt stock
Trunk
Rim
syncline
Overhang

Diapiric

pillow stage

diapir stage

Post-diapir
stage

Evolution of salt structures

Note the lateral migration of peripheral sinks (rim synclines) with each stage (Seni & Jackson
1983). Turtle structures represent the preserved fill of the peripheral sink (Allen & Allen 1990).

Diapiric
NW German Basin

Souther Permian Basin:

SW-NE trending seismic profile and its geologic interpretation.
The inhomogenous geometry is controlled by changing
sedimenation rates in the rim synclines.

Permian Zechstein salt forms diapirs

during Triassic to Cretaceous times.

Diapiric
Traps associated with salt domes
Hawkins oil- and gas field
Texas Gulf Coast Basin

(Symmetrical) dome over deep salt uplift

Normal faults
above the roof
Pinch-out zones
(rim synclines)
Leached zones in
the roof
Structures sealed
by salt

Synthetic
normal faults

Synsedim.
unconformities

Antithetic
normal faults
North ( 1990)

Symmetrical dome over deep seated

salt uplift, with abundant radial and
longitudinal normal faults which have
only minor influence on the trap

Diapiric
Mud Diapirism

Trinidad

29 Oct., 2001

Azerbaijan

Gravitational
Structures due to instability in the
sedimentary cover and its movement under
gravity.

Seismic section of growth fault

(Tertiary, Gulf Coast Basin)

Undercompacted (overpressured) clays

occur in areas with very high sedimentation
rates (e.g. in thick prograding delta
sequences) and give rise to the formation of
listric normal faults and rollover structures.
They are not related to extensional tectonics.
Examples: Gulf of Mexico, Niger Delta

Price, Cosgrove, (2005)

Main purpose: Comparison

between prospect or play. A trap type
in a basin may be characterized by a
distinct field size distribution.
Allows comparison with geological
analogies which may be useful in
estimation of prospect petroleum
volumes and risks.
Movements occurred
after deposition

Trap types
Structural

Tectonic

Extensional
Contractional

Compactional Drape structures

Diapiric

Salt movement
Mud movement

Gravitational

Stratigraphic Depositional Reefs

Geometry is inherited
from the original
depositional morphology,
or from diagentic changes

Pinch-outs
Channels
Bars
Unconformity Truncation
Onlap
Diagenetic

Generally rare

Mineral
Tar mats
Gas hydrates
Permafrost

Hydrodynamic

More than one process may be involved. Different trap types may be genetically linked: e.g., Drape anticline above reef.

Stratigraphic Depositional - Reefs

Reefs form topographic highs!
Idris A reef (Sirte Basin, Libya)
Cross-sections of the Idris A reef
Location of Intisar
(Idris) reefs

Facies

OWC

Structural map of the Idris A reef

Porosity

A
A
Note the lack of correlation between the cross-sections,
a common problem of carbonate reservoirs.
(after Terry & Williams, 1969)

Selley (1997)

Stratigraphic Depositional - Reefs

Where is the reef; where is the lagoon, and where is the open sea?

Stratigraphic Depositional Pinch-outs

Map view

Map and cross-section showing a stratigraphic

pinchout trap.
Note that this example is a pure stratigraphic
trap because of the embayment of the coast.
Usually, some structural closure on top of the
sand forms a combination trap.

Cross-section

Selley (1997)

Stratigraphic Depositional Pinch-outs

Berlin Gas Field: Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma
Reservoir:
Atoka (recrystallized, detrital) dolomite deposited in a tongue like fan delta.
Seal:
Marine shales, which encase the fan delta in all directions.

Subsea Depth (km

Amarill-Wichita uplift

Subsea Depth (ft)

1
2
3
4
5

Regional dip structure AA from Amarillo-Wichita uplift into the Anadarko basin.
Coarse clastic detritus was continually shed from rising uplift throughout the Pennsylvanian
(Up. Carboif.).
Vertical exaggeration is about 5.5 : 1.
From: J. Reed Lyday (1999) In: Stratigraphic Traps I. Treatise of Petrol. Geol., AAPG.

Stratigraphic Depositional Channels

Shoe-string traps

Map and cross-section of the Cretaceous

South Glenrock oil filed, Powder River basin,
Wyoming.
Note the small dimensions of the reservoir
and that not all of the channel contains sand.

Arranged perpendicular to coast-line

Selley (1997)

Stratigraphic Depositional Bars

Shoe-string traps

Isopach map of typical log and crosssection of the Bistri field (Cretaceous) of the
San Juan basin, New Mexico.
This field is a classic example of a barrier
bar stratigraphic trap.
Note the regressive upward-coarsening
grain size motif shown on the S.P. curve.

Arranged parallel to coast-line

Selley (1997)

Main purpose: Comparison

between prospect or play. A trap type
in a basin may be characterized by a
distinct field size distribution.
Allows comparison with geological
analogies which may be useful in
estimation of prospect petroleum
volumes and risks.
Movements occurred
after deposition

Trap types
Structural

Tectonic

Extensional
Contractional

Compactional Drape structures

Diapiric

Salt movement
Mud movement

Gravitational

Stratigraphic Depositional Reefs

Geometry is inherited
from the original
depositional morphology,
or from diagentic changes

Pinch-outs
Channels
Bars
Unconformity Truncation
Onlap
Diagenetic

Generally rare

Mineral
Tar mats
Gas hydrates
Permafrost

Hydrodynamic

More than one process may be involved. Different trap types may be genetically linked: e.g., Drape anticline above reef.

Stratigraphic Unconformity Truncation/Onlap

Traps dependant on the presence of buried hills during basinal subsidence
and marine transgression (= Paleogeomorphic traps)

1, 2
3
4
5-7

pinch-out traps (not related to unconformity)

Unconformity traps above the unconformity (onlap)
Unconformity traps below the unconformity (truncation)
paleogeomorphic traps (buried hills; truncation)

North (1990)

Stratigraphic Unconformity Truncation/Onlap

Cross section through the Vienna Basin showing accumulations in violently folded Mesozoic
strata.
Unconformities:
between Alpine nappes
and Ottnangian (Early
Miocene) sediments
between Karpatian (Early
Miocene) and Badenian
(Middle Miocene) rocks
Traps:
Within Calcareous Alps
below unconformity
(buried hills)
In Ottnangian rocks
onlapping basement
highs
In Karpatian rocks below
angular unconformity
In Badenian rocks
onlapping the angular
unconformity

Stratigraphic Diagenetic
Albion Scipio & Stoney Point Fields: Michigan Basin
Reservoir:
dolomitized carbonate related to reactivated basement faults in sags (!)
Trenton-Black River Limestone
Lateral Seal:
Non-productive regional limestone
Upper Seal:
Utica shale and cap dolomite
Hydrothermal dolomite* fields
For scale: Trenton-Black
River Fm is c. 600 ft thick

L. Erie

* Hot fluids ascending along faults

changed calcite (Ca[CO3])
dolomite (Ca/Mg[CO3]2).
From: N.F. Hurley & R. Budros (1990) In: Stratigraphic
Traps I. Treatise of Petrol. Geol., AAPG.

Main purpose: Comparison

between prospect or play. A trap type
in a basin may be characterized by a
distinct field size distribution.
Allows comparison with geological
analogies which may be useful in
estimation of prospect petroleum
volumes and risks.
Movements occurred
after deposition

Trap types
Structural

Tectonic

Extensional
Contractional

Compactional Drape structures

Diapiric

Salt movement
Mud movement

Gravitational

Stratigraphic Depositional Reefs

Geometry is inherited
from the original
depositional morphology,
or from diagentic changes

Pinch-outs
Channels
Bars
Unconformity Truncation
Onlap
Diagenetic

Generally rare

Mineral
Tar mats
Gas hydrates
Permafrost

Hydrodynamic

More than one process may be involved. Different trap types may be genetically linked: e.g., Drape anticline above reef.

Structure map on Top of

Trenton Group

Stratigraphic Diagenetic
abrupt transition from regional
limestone to reservoir dolomite

Interpretation of Albion-Scipio
trend

Vugs
uniform regional dip
synclinal depressions over the
long, linear Albion-Scipio and
Stoney Point trends.
en echelon arrangement of traces
of syncline axis
Strike-slip fault with some vertical
(extensional) movement

Saddle Hydrothermal dolomite

Dolomite Hot fluids ascending along faults
changed calcite (Ca[CO3]) into
dolomite (Ca/Mg[CO3]2).

Hydrodynamic
Hydrodynamic traps show a tilted oilwater or gas-water contact.

(a)

Downdip water flow

Updip water flow

Gas and oil trapped in a thick, anticlinally folded

sandstone under hydrostatic conditions

(b-d) Modifications of the trapping conditions by the

introduction of hydrodynamic conditions.
Successive effects illustrate either increase in the
flow rate, with HCs of constant density, or
increase in the density of the oil at constant flow
rate. Note increasing angle of tilt of the OWC.
North (1990)

Four cases of hydrodynamic traps

made possible by changes of dip of the reservoir