ABSTRACT

In this dissertation an attempt is made to evaluate the performance of skew

bridge using different skew angles and by using grillage analogy method. In India
most of the bridges have a maximum span of 40.00m. In recent years as there is
tremendous growth of traffic and lack of area, so we are adopting skew bridges.
In designing skew bridge, in variation of angles we compare the bending
moments, shear force. We use Grillage analogy method and design the most effective
skew bridge by using STAAD Pro software.
To achieve main objective of this project a 50.00m span, RCC bridge by using
code IRC112:2011 and IRC6 2010 code for loadings. The results obtained from this
analysis will be useful in designing of skew bridge.

TABLES OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

Problem description
Outline of the project
Outline of the project report
Input data

2
4
4
3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Literature Review

2.3 Conclusion

CHAPTER 3: SKEW BRIDGE

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Codes used
3.3 Different types of loads on bridges

9
9
10

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT SKEW ANGLES

4.1 Introduction

12

4.2 Analysis of skew angles using STAAD Pro

13

4.3 Comparative study

18

4.4 conclusions

18

CHAPTER 5: DESIGNING OF TYPICAL T-BEAM GIRDER BRIDGE

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

57

REFERENCES

58

Basic terminology used in bridge Engineering

Bridges
2

Skew
Support reactions
Bending moments
Shear forces
Grillage
Loads

Abbreviations:
M.O.S.T Ministry Of Surface Transport
SERC Structural Engineers Research Centre
CAD Computer Aided Design
STAAD Pro Structural Analysis and Design computer Program

Notations
bw

Breadth of web
3

be

Effective breadth

Ec

Modulus of elasticity of concrete

Es

Modulus of elasticity of steel

Fck

Characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete

Fy

Characteristic strength of steel

Modular ratio

Depth of neutral axis

Angle

Shear force

Bending moment

Over all depth

Moment factor

Level arm

st

Permissible stress in steel in tension

sc

Permissible stress in steel in compression

c, max =

Maximum shear stress in concrete

Nominal shear stress

Diameter of bar

CHAPTER 1
4

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Description
Recently there has been a considerable increase in the construction of bridges,
both major and minor bridges, and the modern trend is towards Express highways.
Thus the design of bridges, type of bridge, providing the angle, effect of loads,
adopting the method of design for construction of bridge and almost every structural
engineer is facing problems like geo-technical problems, less area for construction of
bridges, water currents in rivers etc., for this reason there is need to design skew
bridge using grillage analogy.
The presence of skew in a bridge makes the analysis and design of bridge decks.
The angle of skew has a considerable effect on the behaviour of the bridges.
Longitudinal moment, reactions at supports, deflection & transverse moments are
computed by grillage analogy method &results are compared for different skew
angles.
The importance of grillage analogy is emerging in India ever since along period.
Considering the ever increasing the population and traffic as well as limited area,
horizontally more expanding of bridges in construction of bridges in metropolitan
cities is not possible
Grillage analysis is the most common method used in bridge analysis. And is a
computer aided method & can analyse fast.
In this the deck is represented by an equivalent grillage beams. Finer grillage
mesh, provide more accurate results as compared with other experimental methods.
As the other methods are highly numerical and always carry a heavy cost penalty.
Methods for analysing bridge:
1.

Finite element method

2.

Finite strip method

3.

Grillage analogy method, using STAAD Pro

4.

Finite difference method

5.

Orthotropic plate theory methods

6.

Folded plate method

7.

Semi-continuum method...
A comparison of skew angles in a bridge by support reactions, bending

moments, shear forces, torsion and deflections caused by the bridges. An attempt has
been made to develop information using a latest code IRC-112-2011 using grillage
analogy method. The comparative study of Grillage method and Finite element
method of RCC bridge deck has been studied by R. Shreedhar and Rashmikharde. It is
found that which method is preferable for the construction of RCC Bridge. Effect on
support reactions of skew bridge is presented by Trilok Gupta and Anurag Misra.
The analysis of bridge considerations are, the RCC deck with normal girders and
varying the skew by 15, 25, 35 degrees. Span of 50.00m.Comparing the support
reactions, bending moments, shear forces and torsion with skew angle. Design of the
bridge elements as per latest code IRC: 112-2011.

Input data
Slab - on - girder
Span of the bridge deck

50.00m

Total width of the deck

20.00m (including crash barrier

Carriage way width

15.00m

No of lanes

Depth of slab

250mm

Skew angles

0, 15, 25, 35

Type of construction

RCC girders and In-situ slab.

No. of longitudinal girder

8 Nos. @ 2.5 m c/c Spacing.

No. of traverse girders

5 Nos. (2- End diaphragms and

Depth of the girder

3.15m

Grade of concrete

M 45

Grade of steel

Fe 500

Youngs Modulus of elasticity E

3. 1623 X 106T/m3

Support conditions

simply supported

Loading

as per latest IRC: 6- 2010

Method adopted for analysis

Grillage

All members as per IRC 112-

0.5m at both sides)

3- Intermediate diaphragm)

analogy

method,

STAAD Pro
RCC design
2011

1.2 Objective of project

The objective of the dissertation work is to design a skew bridge using grillage
analogy with variation of skew angles.
To achieve the objective, the work is divided as following stages.
1. In the first stage, moving loads are applied with variation of skew angles. And
analysed.
2. In the second stage, comparative study of bending moments & shear forces at
critical section.
3. In the third stage, deciding the most applicable angle and designing the bridge
using latest IRC codes.

1.3 Outline of the Project Report

This dissertation is organized into 5 chapters with the following contents:
The chapter-1 gives the introduction about the project, the objective of the
study and the organization of the project report.
In the chapter-2 various research papers related to computational methods. It
provides an overview of the literature related to the effect on skew angles. At the end
conclusion on the literature are described in this chapter.
In the chapter-3 described the analysis of loads, member properties &support
reactions using STAAD Pro as per code IRC 6-2010.
In the chapter-4 describes the comparative study of bending moments, support
reactions, shear forces, and designing with a suitable skew angle as per latest IRC
codes.
Finally a summary of the project work is described in the chapter-5. Conclusion
and the future scope of the work are also presented in this chapter.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

In this chapter various research papers related to introduce categories of the

bridges. It provides an overview of the literature related to the study of computational
methods, effect of skew angles and response of skew. Finally conclusion on the
literature are drawn and presented at the end. In the next section the description of
literature under various heading is given.

2.2 Skew bridges analysis using grillage analogy

Vikash Khatri et. at. (2012)
In this paper describes Grillage analysis is the most common method used in
the bridge analysis. In this method the deck is represented by an equivalent grillage of
beams. The finer grillage mesh, provide more accurate results. It was found that the
results obtained from grillage analysis compared with experiments and more rigorous
methods are accurate enough for design purpose. The finite element method is a wellknown tool for the solution of complicated structural engineering problems, as it is
capable of accommodating many complexities in the solution. In this method, the
actual continuum is replaced by an equivalent idealized structure composed of
discrete elements, referred to as finite element, connected together at a number of
nodes.
Trilok Gupta and Anurag Misra (2007)
In order to cater to high speed and more safety requirements of the traffic,
modern highways are to be straight as far as possible and this has required the
provision of increasing number of skew bridges. The inclination of the centre line of
traffic to the normal to the centre line of the river bridge or other corresponding
obstruction is called the skew angle. The grillage analogy method, which is a
computer- oriented technique, is increasingly being used in the analysis and design of
bridges. The method is also suitable in cases where bridges exhibits complicating
features such as heavy skew, edge Stiffening and isolated supports. It is a versatile in
nature and the contribution of kerb beams.
R. Shreedhar, Rashmi Kharde (2013)

Many methods are used in analysing bridges such as grillage and finite
element methods. Generally, grillage analysis is the most common method used in
bridge analysis. In this method the deck is represented by an equivalent grillage of
beams and is based on stiffness matrix approach. The finer grillage mesh, provide
more accurate results. it was found that the results obtained from grillage analysis
compared with experiments and more rigorous methods are accurate enough for
design purposes. If the load is concentrated on an area which is smaller than the
grillage mesh, the concentration of moments and torque cannot be given by this
method
Dr.MaherQaqishet. al. (2008)
This method is usually used for analysis of bridges based on the consideration
of the bridge deck as an elastic continuum in the form of an orthogonally anisotropic
plate. Using the stiffness method of structural analysis, it became possible to analyse
the bridge deck structure as an assembly of elastic structural members connected
together at discrete nodes. There are four distinct techniques which have been found
useful by bridge engineers: grillage and space frame analysis, folded plate method,
finite element method and finite strip method .The grillage analogy method involves a
plane grillage of discrete interconnected beams.

2.3 Behaviour of a skew bridge

Tze-Wei Chooaet. al. (2004)
There is a growing demand for skewed steel bridges as the needs for complex
interaction and the problems with space constraints in urban areas arise. Skewed
bridges are useful when roadway alignment changes are not feasible or economical
due to the topography of the site and also at particular areas where environmental
impact is an issue. The effect of skew on the response of completed structures has
been well documented, with effects being shown to be more significant for skew
angles greater than 30.
Critical values for vertical deflections and bending moments within in- service
skewed bridges have been shown to be lower when compared against those in similar
right bridges. Conversely, torsional rotation, shears and moments have been shown to
10

be larger for skewed bridges. In addition, studies have also demonstrated that
interaction between main support girders and transverse bracing members influences
skewed bridge load distribution due to an increase in torsional rotations at certain
sections of longitudinal girders. There are few studies to say the behaviour that is,
Torsional moments developed in steel bridges with large skews are difficult to predict
during construction, as the alignment of the screed can result in an uneven distribution
of wet concrete dead loads across the superstructure that increase the skew effects.
Arindam Dhar et. al. (2013)
The behavioural aspects of a skew bridge and compare them with those of the
straight counterparts using a 3D Bridge model in Finite Element Analysis. To
understand the trend clearly, a simply supported RC Bridge was adopted. The results
of the bridge model as increase in the skew angle, the support shear and mid-span
moments of obtuse longitudinal girders increase while these parameters decrease in
the corresponding acute longitudinal girders. Most importantly, the increasing skew
angle rapidly increases the torsional moment in the obtuse angled girder.
Such changes in the moment are generally not considered while designing a
straight bridge. With increasing skew angle, the slab showed asymmetric bending
with increasing deflection at obtuse corner and decreasing deflection at the acute
corner. In a non-skewed bridge the deck behaves orthogonally in flexure i.e. both in
longitudinal and transverse directions, with the principal moments being in both these
directions where shows the deflection pattern of a non-skewed slab bridge deck. It is
evident that the load from the slab is transferred to supports directly through flexure.
The twisting moments at the supports because of bi-directional curvature are small
and hence can be neglected.
Dr. Maher Qaqish et. al. (2008)
This method is usually used for analysis of bridges based on the consideration
of the bridge deck as an elastic continuum in the form of an orthogonally anisotropic
plate. Using the stiffness method of structural analysis, it became possible to analyse
the bridge deck structure as an assembly of elastic structural members connected
together at discrete nodes. There are four distinct techniques which have been found

11

useful by bridge engineers: grillage and space frame analysis, folded plate method,
finite element method and finite strip method .The grillage analogy method involves a
plane grillage of discrete interconnected beams.

2.4Conclusion on literature
By studying the literature as mentioned above it is found that skew bridges
designed using Grillage analogy plays a very important role in the life cycle of
bridges, in constraint areas and knowing the effectiveness of the bridge as there is an
increase in skew angle make a huge difference when compared to right angled bridge,
hence the bridge must be designed considering the angles present in the site

12

CHAPTER 3
SKEW BRIDGE ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
The inclination of the centre line of traffic to the normal centre line of the river
in case of a river bridge or other corresponding obstruction is called the skew angle.
And this type of bridge is called skew bridge.
Types of bridges:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Normal bridge
Skew bridge
Curved bridge
Reverse bridge

Components of bridge:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Piers
Abutments
Bearings
Sub-structure
Wing walls
Bed blocks
Backing walls

Grillage analysis is the most common method used in bridge analysis. It is a

computer aided method & can analyse fast. In this the deck is represented by an
equivalent grillage beams. Finer grillage mesh, provide more accurate results as
compared with other experimental methods. As the other methods are highly
numerical and always carry a heavy cost penalty.

3.2 Codes:
The first loading standards (IRC: 6) India was published by the Indian Roads
Congress in 1958 and subsequently reprinted in 1962 and 1963. The section II of the
code deals with loads and stresses was revised in the second revision published in
1964. The metric version was introduced in the third revision of 1966. The IRC: 6
have been revised to include the combination of loads, forces and permissible stresses
in the fourth revision published in 2000.
13

3.3 Loads:
Highway bridge decks have to be designed to withstand the live loads
specified by the Indian Roads Congress. The different categories of loading were first
formulated in 1958 and they have not changed in the subsequent revisions of 1964,
1966 and 2000.
Types of loads
Dead loads
Live loads
Impact loads
Wind loads
Longitudinal loads
Centrifugal loads
Seismic loads
3.3.1 Dead load:
The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent loads fixed
thereon. The dead loads initially assumed shall be checked after the design is
completed and the design shall be revised, if the actual calculated dead load exceeds
the assumed dead load by more than 2 % or if the assumed dead loads effect dead
load on a member varies from the actual dead load effect to such an extent as to
adversely affect the design of such member.
3.3.2 Live load:
IRC Class AA loading
IRC Class 70 R loading
IRC Class A loading
IRC Class B loading

IRC Class AA loading:

Two different types of vehicles are specified under this category.

14

1. Tracked vehicles (700 KN)

2. Wheeled vehicles (1000 KN)
All the bridges located on national highways and state highways have to be designed
for this heavy loading. Alternatively, another type of loading designed as Class 70R is
specified instead of Class AA loading.
IRC Class 70 R loading:
1. IRC 70 R loading consists of total load 700 KN with two tracks each weighing 350
KN.
2. Wheeled vehicles comprising 4 wheels, each with a load of 100 KN totalling 400
KN.
3. Wheeled vehicle with a train of vehicles on seven axles with a total load of 1000
KN.
Tracked vehicle:

Wheeled vehicle:

But the main loads which we use in the design of bridge are 3 lane class a, 70R
tracked vehicle, 70R wheeled vehicles.

15

16

CHAPTER-4
METHOD SKEW BRIDGE ANALYSES
4.1 Introduction
The bridge was modelled using a combination of beam elements from the
girder and beam elements and shell elements from concrete deck. Composite action
between the steel girder and concrete deck was modelled using constraint equation.
The support conditions were imposed directly on the end nodes of the girder: the end
of the girder and intermediate girder supports were pinned.

4.2Preparing the skeleton of the bridge

1. Plotting the bridge deck of 50.00m span in AUTO-CAD.
2. And width of the deck 19.00m, leaving 0.5m both sides for crash barriers ie., total
width 20.00m.
3. As we are designing a skew bridge we need to change the angles.
4. Finally will get the skeleton of skew bridge.

4.3Analysis of skew bridge in Staad-pro.

Importing the skeleton of the bridge from CAD to Staad.
General: Assigning the member properties to the skeleton of the bridge.
1. Select the general.
2. Go to define, and select general and enter the values of Ax, Ix, Iz ie, a prismatic
section and material as concrete, and close.
3. And assign the properties to members.

4.4 Supports:
1. Select support.
2. We get a support-whole structure
2. Click create, and select pinned then add and close
3. And assign at supports.

17

4.5 Loading:
1. Select loads & definitions we get 3 cases definition, load cases details, load
envelopes.
2. In definitions go to vehicles definitions and select type-1, type-2.
3. In load cases detail we can give self-weight & moving loads.
4. In moving loads we are considering 3 lanes of class A, 1 lane of 70R wheeled
vehicle, 1 lane of 70R Tracked vehicle.
5. Add & close it

4.5 DEAD LOAD CALCULATIONS

4.5.1 Self Weight of the Girder
Cross sectional area of girder at Mid Span

0.8560 m2

Load

21.400

Cross sectional area of girder at Support

1.3150 m2

Load

32.875 KN/m

21.4KN/m

=
=

0.856025
1.315025

Uniform weight of Girder

0.85625

Extra weight of girder due to Web thickening

Load =

(cross sectional area at support cross sectional area at center) 25

=

(1.3150-0.8560) 25

11.475KN/m

4.6 Perform analysis:

1. Select Analyse
2. Perform run analysis
2. If no errors than we can get the bending moments and shear force values.
4. Now Run load generator
5. Select design code, it will generate the details. And staad model will be created.
Finally we get bending moment, shear force diagram.

18

Modelling page

Moving loads on bridge

19

Staad output
STAAD SPACE DXF IMPORT OF 25.DXF
START JOB INFORMATION
ENGINEER DATE 27-Jun-14
END JOB INFORMATION
INPUT WIDTH 79
UNIT METER MTON
JOINT COORDINATES
1 0 0 0; 2 0.3 0 0; 3 2.3 0 0; 4 4.3 0 0; 5 6.3 0 0; 6 8.3 0 0; 7 10.3 0 0;
8 12.3 0 0; 9 14.3 0 0; 10 16.3 0 0; 11 18.3 0 0; 12 20.3 0 0; 13 22.3 0 0;
14 24.3 0 0; 15 26.3 0 0; 16 28.3 0 0; 17 30.3 0 0; 18 32.3 0 0; 19 34.3 0 0;
20 36.3 0 0; 21 38.3 0 0; 22 40.3 0 0; 23 42.3 0 0; 24 44.3 0 0; 25 46.3 0 0;
26 48.3 0 0; 27 50.3 0 0; 28 50.6 0 0; 29 50.8113 0 -0.453154;
30 51.6143 0 -2.17514; 31 52.4173 0 -3.89712; 32 53.2202 0 -5.61911;
33 54.0232 0 -7.34109; 34 54.8262 0 -9.06308; 35 55.6292 0 -10.7851;
36 56.4321 0 -12.507; 37 57.2351 0 -14.229; 38 58.0381 0 -15.951;
39 58.8411 0 -17.673; 40 59.0524 0 -18.1262; 41 0.211309 0 -0.453154;
42 1.01428 0 -2.17514; 43 1.81726 0 -3.89712; 44 2.62023 0 -5.61911;
45 3.42321 0 -7.34109; 46 4.22618 0 -9.06308; 47 5.02916 0 -10.7851;
48 5.83213 0 -12.507; 49 6.63511 0 -14.229; 50 7.43808 0 -15.951;
51 8.24106 0 -17.673; 52 8.45236 0 -18.1262; 53 8.75237 0 -18.1262;
54 10.7524 0 -18.1262; 55 12.7524 0 -18.1262; 56 14.7524 0 -18.1262;
57 16.7524 0 -18.1262; 58 18
DEFINE MATERIAL START
ISOTROPIC CONCRETE
E 2.21467e+006
POISSON 0.17
DENSITY 2.40262
ALPHA 1e-005
DAMP 0.05
TYPE CONCRETE
STRENGTH FCU 2812.28
END DEFINE MATERIAL
MEMBER PROPERTY AMERICAN
20

1 TO 27 52 TO 78 418 TO 444 661 TO 686 687 PRIS AX 0.185 IX 0.0019 IY 0.000951 IZ 0.000951
391 392 416 417 472 473 497 498 526 527 551 552 580 581 605 606 634 635 659 660 PRIS AX 3.19934 IX 0.48626 IY 0.000951 IZ 3.49685
393 415 474 496 528 550 582 604 636 658 PRIS AX 2.50862 IX 0.25898 IY 0.000951 IZ 3.03594
394 TO 414 475 TO 495 529 TO 549 583 TO 603 637 TO 656 657 PRIS AX 1.8179 IX 0.0317 IY 0.000951 IZ 2.57503
445 TO 471 499 TO 525 553 TO 579 607 TO 632 633 PRIS AX 0.365 IX 0.0038 IY 0.000951 IZ 0.0019
79 TO 90 379 TO 390 PRIS AX 1.5445 IX 0.07548 IY 0.000951 IZ 1.31012
141 TO 148 201 TO 208 261 TO 268 321 TO 327 328 PRIS AX 1.313 IX 0.02689 IY 0.000951 IZ 1.17831
28 TO 51 PRIS YD 0.25 ZD 0.05
91 TO 140 149 TO 200 209 TO 260 269 TO 320 329 TO 377 378 PRIS AX 0.5 IX 0.00521 IY 0.000951 IZ 1.17831
CONSTANTS
MATERIAL CONCRETE ALL
SUPPORTS
80 82 84 86 88 PINNED
355 357 359 361 363 PINNED
DEFINE MOVING LOAD
*Class A vehicle with 10% Impact
TYPE 1 LOAD 3.74 3.74 3.74 3.74 6.27 6.27 1.485 1.485
DIST 3 3 3 4.3 1.2 3.2 1.1 WID 1.8
*Class 70R Wheeled Vehicle with 10% Impact
TYPE 2 LOAD 9.35 9.35 9.35 9.35 6.6 6.6 4.4
DIST 1.37 3.05 1.37 2.13 1.52 3.96 WID 1.93
*Class 70R Tracked Vehicle with 10% Impact
TYPE 3 LOAD 1.925 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 1.925
DIST 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 0.457 WID 2.06
*********************************************************************
**
LOAD 1 DL & SIDL
21

SELFWEIGHT Y -1
**Crash Barrier
MEMBER LOAD
1 TO 27 52 TO 78 418 TO 444 661 TO 687 UNI GY -1.3212
*Wearing Coat
FLOOR LOAD
YRANGE 0 0 FLOAD -0.165 GY
*********************************************************************
***
*3 Lanes of Class A
LOAD GENERATION 120 ADD LOAD 1
TYPE 1 3.723 0 -7.341 XINC 0.5
TYPE 1 3.723 0 -10.841 XINC 0.5
TYPE 1 3.723 0 -14.341 XINC 0.5
*1 Lane of Class 70R (Wheeled) + 1 Lane Class A
*LOAD GENERATION 120 ADD LOAD 1
*TYPE 2 26.52 0 -9.063 XINC 0.5
*TYPE 1 31.92 0 -12.563 XINC 0.5
*1 Lane of Class 70R (Tracked) + 1 Lane Class A
*LOAD GENERATION 120 ADD LOAD 1
*TYPE 3 38 0 -3 XINC 0.5
*TYPE 1 52 0 -6.5 XINC 0.5
*********************************************************************
****
PERFORM ANALYSIS
PRINT MEMBER FORCES
FINISH

22

Load

Ske

Skew

% of Ske

Skew

% of Skew Skew % of

Combi

w-0

-25

Varia

-25

Varia

nation

w-0

tion
226

23489 3.65

302

30877 1.89

of

M
S.

30.7
121.

.98
122.3

%
0.53

91.8
1.54

.53
1.872

F
B.

702
226

53
%
23105 2.06

M
S.

30.7
121.

.798
122.5

F
B.

702
226

M
S.
F

70R(W
h)+
Class A
70R(Tr
)+
Class A

-25

tion

3 Lanes B.
Class A

-0

Varia
tion

2234

2246

0.50

%
1.66
17.36 218.

1.1
248.

%
11.98

7
302

%
836
30296 0.014 2234

635
2257

%
1.01

%
0.60

91.8
1.54

.118
1.895

0.24
261.

%
13.14

48
23115

%
2.09

7
302

%
30305 0.05

525
2234

942
2249

%
0.68

30.7
121.

.832
122.6

%
0.77

91.8
1.54

.49
1.927

%
1.66
19.71 123.

4.08
123.

%
0.09

702

52

264

Conclusion:
23

1.66
18.36 227.

155

As we are increasing the skew angle we cannot see much difference in bending
moments, only 5% change can be observed.

24

CHAPTER-5
Design of typical Tee- beam girder
5.1 DESIGN OF BRIDGES
1.
2.
3.
4.

Design of super structure

Design of sub-structure
Design of foundations
Design of bridge components

In this project we design only super structure.

5.2 Types of super structures:

1. Deck slabs in VRCC M20, M25
2. T-beam decks in VRCC M20, M25.
3. T-beam decks in PSC
4. Voided slab in VRCC M25, M30,
5. Single cell box girder in VRCC
6. Twin cell box girder in VRCC
7. Single cell box girder in PSC
8. Twin cell box girder in PSC
9. Balanced cantilevers in PSC
10. Steel bridge decks
11. Composite decks (PSC + RCC)
12. Cable stayed decks

5.3 DESIGN OF DECK SLAB:

It is very easy to design the deck slab super structures as it is a case of simply
supported one way slab subjected to dead load and live load concentric point load.
We find design examples in bridge engineering books by victor, vazirani, etc.

25

RCC T- BEAM TYPE SUPER STRUCTURES DESIGN:

1. This type of Super Structure involves rigorous analysis of load distribution
between longitudinal girders, cross girders and panel slabs.
2. We have readymade charts developed by SERC Roorkee for shear force and
bending moments at critical points in girders to design steel
3. The SERC Roorkee have also developed design charts bending moments at
salient points in slab panels to design steel
4. We can also develop model in STAAD- pro with beam and slab elements and
analyze with moving loads input. Output gives BM and SF in girders and BM
in panel slabs so that the required steel can be calculated.

26

CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
In this project, a single span, simply supported bridge, slab-on-girder Bridge
with a skew 25 was analysed. A Grillage Analogy method was used to analyse the
bridge. The influence of diaphragms and support modelling was studied. The results
were compared with Skew 0.
Loads are applied on the bridge. The maximum positive strains always
occurred in the edge girder or one girder in from the edge i.e. 2 & 5.The transverse
distribution of strains was parallel to the skew line. Negative moments appeared at the
pinned ends at the obtuse corner. The bridge is behaving linearly.
The Grillage Analogy provided close results to the measured values. The
influence of slight variation was very small, so it was not concern in evaluating load
distribution of the bridge. Diaphragms plays more important role in load distribution.
After adding diaphragms load distribution factor decreased. At the obtuse corner of
the skewed bridge, negative moments appear at the pinned ends due to effect of
diaphragms. It plays same effect on deck.
As a result, the effect of end diaphragm might be considered as an equivalent
thickness. It should be noted that the moments at pinned ends of girders may not be
zero.
As we are designing a bridge with a skew angle areas, moment of inertia,
neutral axis have to be calculated. And finally need to calculate area of steel,
percentage of steel that to be provided to keep safe the structure.

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References
1. Trilok Gupta, Anurag misra (2007), Effect on support reaction of skew
bridges, Journal of bridge engineering, ARPN. Vol. 2, No. 1.
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University, Varanasi.
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angles on longitudinal girder (shear, moment) and deck slab of an IRC skew
bridge, The Indian Concrete Journal.
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Delaware, Newark.

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