AC Bridges and their Applications

EE 305 Electrical Measurements

Lecturer Esra Saat
Version: 22 July 09

The AC bridge is a natural outgrowth of the DC bridge and in its basic

form consists of four bridge arms, a source of excitation, and a null
detector. The power source supplies an ac voltage to the bridge at the
desired frequency. For measurements at low frequencies, the powerline
may serve as the source of excitation; at higher frequencies, an oscillator
generally supplies the excitation voltage. The null detector must respond
to ac unbalance currents and in its cheapest (but very effective) form
consist of an ac amplifier with an output meter, or an electron ray tube
(tuning eye) indicator (Figure 1).

Z1
+

Z2

Z3

Z4

Figure 1. General form of the bridge.

Analysis of the AC bridge is same as the Wheatstone bridge. Resistors

are replaced with the impedances at the bridge arms in the ac bridges.
Boldface type is used to indicate quantities in complex notation.
VA = VB

Z3 =

Z1 + Z 3
Z2 + Z 4
Z
Z 4 = 2 Z3
Z1

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Z4

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(8.1)

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If the impedance is written in the form Z = Z where Z represents

the magnitude and the phase angle of the complex impedance, equation
8.1 can be written as:

( Z11 ) ( Z 4 4 ) = ( Z 22 ) ( Z 33 )
Z1Z 4 (1 + 4 ) = Z 2Z 3 (2 + 3 )

(8.2)

The products of the magnitudes of the opposite arms must be equal and
the sum of the phase angles of the opposite arms must be equal.

Impedance
Impedance is an important parameter used to characterize electronic
circuits, components, and the materials used to make components.
Impedance (Z) is generally defined as the total opposition a device or
circuit offers to the flow of an alternating current (AC) at a given
frequency, and is represented as a complex quantity which is graphically
shown on a vector plane. An impedance vector consists of a real part
(resistance, R) and an imaginary part (reactance, X) as shown in the
Figure. Impedance can be expressed using the rectangular-coordinate
form R + jX or in the polar form as a magnitude and phase angle:
Z = Z . Figure also shows the mathematical relationship between R, X,
Z, and . In some cases, using the reciprocal of impedance is
mathematically expedient. In which case 1/Z = Y = G + jB, where Y
represents admittance, G conductance, and B susceptance. The unit of
impedance is the ohm (), and admittance is the siemen (S). Impedance is
a commonly used parameter and is especially useful for representing a
series connection of resistance and reactance, because it can be
expressed simply as a sum, R and X. For a parallel connection, it is
better to use admittance.
Reactance takes two forms: inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC). By
definition, XL = 2fL and Xc = 1/(2fC), where f is the frequency of
interest, L is inductance, and C is capacitance. 2f can be substituted by
the angular frequency (: omega) to represent XL = L and XC =1/(C).

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Z = R + jX = Z
R = Z cos
X = Z sin
Z = R2 + X 2
X

= tan 1

Z = R + jX

Y=

1
1
+
= G + jB
R jX

X L = 2 fL = wL
Inductor

XC =

1
1
=
2 fC wC

Capacitor

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Example 1:

The impedances of the basic ac bridge of Figure 1 are given as follows:

Z1 = 10080 (inductive impedance)
Z2 = 250 (pure resistance)
Z3 = 40030 (inductive impedance)
Determine the unknown impedance.
From equation 8.2:

Z4 =

Z 2Z 3
Z1

250 400
= 1, 000
Z4 =
100

(8.3)

4 = 2 + 3 1
4 = 0 + 30 80 = 50

(8.4)

Z 4 = 1, 000 50

(8.5)

Z4 can be written as:

Comparison bridges
A basic capacitance comparison bridge is shown in Figure 2.

R1
E

+
-

R2

Detector
Cs

Rx
Rs

Cx

Figure 2. Capacitance comparison bridge.

Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

Z1 = R1 (pure resistance)
Z2 = R2 (pure resistance)

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1
j (capacitive impedance)
wCs
1
Z 4 = Rx j (capacitive impedance)
wCx

Z3 = Rs -

Substituting these impedances in equation 8.2, the general equation for

bridge balance, we obtain:

R2
Rs
R1
R
C x = 1 Cs
R2
Rx =

(8.6)
(8.7)

Equations 8.6 and 8.7 describe two balance conditions that must be met
simultaneously. To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must
contain two variable elements in its configuration. Rs and R1 are variable
elements for adjustment of the balance conditions. Since we are
measuring an unknown capacitor whose resistive effects could be small,
first R1 should be adjusted then Rs is adjusted for balance of the
resistive term. Also it should be noted that the frequency of the voltage
source does not enter either of the balance equations and the bridge is
therefore is said to be independent of the frequency of the applied
voltage.
Inductance comparison bridges are similar to the capacitance comparison
bridge (Figure 3).

R1
E

+
-

R2

Detector
Ls

Rx
Lx

Rs
Figure 3. Inductance comparison bridge.

It can be shown that the inductive and resistive balance equations yield:

Lx =

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R2
Ls
R1

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(8.8)

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Rx =

R2
Rs
R1

(8.9)

The measurement range of the standard comparison bridge can be

extended by modifying the circuit slightly. Variable resistance can be
connected by means of switch S to either the standard arm or the
unknown arm. Since the resistive component of an inductor is usually much
larger than that of a capacitor, the resistive adjustment becomes rather
important and should be carried out first.
Maxwell bridge

The Maxwell bridge, whose schematic diagram is shown in Figure 4,

measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance.

R1

R2

C1
A

Detector

R3

Rx
Lx

Figure 4. Maxwell bridge for inductance measurement.

Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

Y1 =

1
+jwC1
R1

Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx

Substituting these impedances in equation 8.2, the general equation for

bridge balance, we obtain:

R2
R3
R1
Lx = R2R3C1
Rx =

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(8.10)
(8.11)

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The Maxwell bridge is limited to the measurement of medium-Q coils

(1<Q<10). High-Q coils are measured on the Hay bridge. The usual
procedure for balancing the Maxwell bridge is by first adjusting R3 for
inductive balance and then adjusting R1 for resistive balance. Returning to
the R3 adjustment, we find that the resistive balance is being disturbed
and moves to a new value. This process is repeated and gives slow
convergence to final balance. For medium-Q coils, the resistance effect
is not pronounced, and balance is reached after a few adjustments.
Hay bridge

The Hay bridge of Figure 5 differs from the Maxwell bridge by having
the resistor R1 in series with standard capacitor C1 instead of in parallel.
It is immediately apparent that for large phase angles, R1 should have a
very low value. The Hay circuit is therefore more convenient for
measuring high-Q coils.
The quality factor (Q) serves as a measure of a reactances purity (how
close it is to being a pure reactance, no resistance), and is defined as the
ratio of the energy stored in a component to the energy dissipated by the
component. Q is a dimensionless unit and is expressed as:

XL
R
X
tan C = C
R
tan L =

(8.12)
(8.13)

Phase angles are very close to 90

R1

R2

C1
A

Detector

R3

Rx
Lx

Figure 5. Hay bridge for inductance measurement.

Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

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Z1 = R1 -

1
j
wC1

Z 2 = R2
Z 3 = R3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx

Substituting these impedances in equation 8.2, the general equation for

bridge balance, we obtain:

w 2C12R1R2R3
Rx =
1 + w 2C12R12
R2R3C1
Lx =
1 + w 2C12R12

(8.14)
(8.15)

From these equations it can be seen that inductance and resistance are
dependent on the w, which is the frequency of the voltage source.
However it is not true if we measure high-Q values:

XL wLx
=
=Q
R
Rx
X
1
tan C = C =
R
wC1R1

tan L =

tan L = tan C Q =

(8.16)
(8.17)

(8.18)

wC1R1

After submitting equation 8.18 in the equation 8.15:

Lx =

R2R3C1
2
1 + (1 Q )

(8.19)

For a value of Q greater than 10, the term (1 Q ) will be neglectable.

2

Therefore equation 8.19 reduces to:

Lx = R2R3C1

(8.20)

Shering Bridge

The Schering bridge, one of the most important ac bridges, is used

extensively for the measurement of capacitors. Although the Schering
bridge is used for capacitance measurements in a general sense, it is

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particularly useful for measuring insulating properties, i.e., for phase

angles very nearly 90. The basic circuit arrangement is shown in Figure 6.

R1

R2

C1
E

Detector

Rx

C3

Cx

Figure 6. Schering bridge for the measurement of capacitance.

Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

Y1 =

1
+jwC1
R1

Z 2 = R2

1
j
wC3
1
Z 4 = Rx j
wCx

Z3 = -

Substituting these impedances in equation 8.2, the general equation for

bridge balance, we obtain:

C1
R2
C3
R
C x = 1 C3
R2
Rx =

tan C Q =

(8.21)
(8.22)
1

wC x Rx

(8.23)

Dissipation factor is the reciprocal of the quality factor:

D=

Rx
= wC x Rx
Xx

(8.24)

By substituting the value of Cx and Rx in equation 8.24 we obtain:

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D = wR1C1

(8.25)

If the resistor R1 in the Schering bridge of Figure 6 has a fixed value,

the dial of capacitor C1 may be calibrated directly in dissipation factor D.
This is the usual practice in a Schering bridge. Notice that the term
appears in the expression for dissipation factor (Equation 8.25). This
means, of course, that the calibration of the C1 dial holds for only one
particular frequency at which the dial is calibrated. A different
frequency can be used, provided that a correction is made by multiplying
the C1 dial reading by the ratio of the two frequencies.

Example:

Consider the circuit of Figure 7. And determine whether or not the

bridge is in complete balance. If not, show two ways in which it can be
made to balance and specify numerical values for any additional
components. Assume that bridge arm 4 is the unknown that cannot be
modified.
E
+

XC1=1000

A
R2=500
Detector

R3=1000
B

R4=100
XL4=500

Figure 7. Bridge balancing problem.

Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

Z1 = -

1
j = 1000 90
wC1

Z2 = R2 = 500
Z 3 = R3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx = 100 + j 500 = 509.978.69
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From equation 8.2 the first balance condition (magnitudes) can be easily
met by adjusting R3:

Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

(8.26)

1000 509.9 = 500 R3 R3 = 1019.8

However second balance condition can be met only by modifying the

bridge:

1 + 4 = 2 + 3

(8.27)

90 + 78.69 0 + 0

E
+

XC1=1000 A
R1

R4=100
XL4=500

C3
R3=1000

(a)

A
R2=500
Detector

Detector

R3=1000

R2=500

XC1=1000

R4=100
XL4=500

(b)

Figure 8. Restoring the bridge balance.

1. arrangement shown in Figure 8 (a): Balance can be restored by

modifying the circuit in such a way that the phase angle condition is
satisfied. The first option is to modify Z1 so that its phase angle is
decreased to less than 90 (equal to 4) by placing a resistor in parallel
with the capacitor. The modification results in a Maxwell bridge
configuration.
Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

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Y1 =

R1

+wC1 j

Z2 = R2 = 500
Z3 = R3 = 1000
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx = 100 + j 500 = 509.978.69

Z4
= Z2 Z3
Y1
100 + j 500
1
+ j 1000
R1

= 500 1000 R1 = 5000

(8.28)

It should be noted that the addition of R1 upsets the first balance

condition of the circuit and variable resistor R3 should be adjusted to
compensate for this effect.
2. arrangement shown in Figure 8 (b): The second option is to modify the
phase angle of arm 2 or arm 3 by adding a series capacitor.
Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

Z1 = -

1
j = j 1000 = 1000 90
wC1

Z2 = R2 = 500
1
Z3 = R3 j = 1000 - jXc
wC3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx = 100 + j 500 = 509.978.69

Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

j 1000 (100 + j 500 ) = 500 (1000 jXc )

(8.29)

Xc = 200
Wien bridge

The Wien bridge is presented here not only for its use as an ac bridge to
measure frequency, but also for its application in various other useful
circuits. We find, for example, a Wien bridge in the harmonic distortion
analyzer, where it is used as a notch filter, discriminating against one
specific frequency. The Wien bridge also finds application in audio and HF
oscillator as the frequency-determining element. In this chapter, the

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Wien bridge is discussed in its basic form, designed to measure

frequency.

R1

R2

C1
E

+
-

Detector
C3

R4

R3

Figure 9. Frequency measurement with Wien bridge.

Impedances of four bridge arms in complex notation are:

Z1 = R1 -

1
j
wC1

Z 2 = R2
1
Y3 = +wC3 j
R3
Z 4 = R4

Equating the real terms, we obtain:

R2 R1 C 3
=
+
R4 R3 C1

(8.30)

Equating the imaginary terms, we obtain:

R4
wC1R3

(8.31)

1
C1C 3R1R3
2

(8.32)

wC 3R1R4 =
where w = 2f

f =

Notice that the two conditions for bridge balance now result in an
expression determining the required resistance ratio, R2/R4, and another

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expression determining the frequency of the applied voltage. In other

words, if we satisfy equation 8.31 and also excite the bridge with a
frequency described by equation 8.32, the bridge will be in balance. In
most Wien bridge circuit, the components are chosen such that R1=R3 and
C1=C3. This reduces equation 8.31 to R2/R4=2 and equation 8.32 to

f =

2 RC

(8.33)

This is the general expression for the frequency of the Wien bridge. In a
practical bridge, capacitors C1 and C3 are fixed capacitors, and resistors
R1 and R3 are variable resistors controlled by a common shaft.
Wagner ground connection

The discussion so far has assumed that the four bridge arms consist of
simple lumped impedances which do not interact in any way. In practice,
stray capacitances exist between the various bridge elements and ground,
and also between the bridge arms themselves. These stray capacitances
shunt the bridge arms and cause the measurement errors, particularly at
the higher frequencies or when small capacitors or large inductors are
measured. One way to control stray capacitances is by shielding the arms
and connecting the shields to ground. This does not eliminate the
capacitances but at least makes them constant in value, and they can
therefore be compensated.
One of the most widely used method for eliminating some of the effects
of stray capacitance in a bridge circuit is the Wagner ground connection.
This circuit eliminates the troublesome capacitance which exists between
the detector terminals and ground. Figure 10 shows the circuit of
capacitance bridge, where C1 and C2 represent these stray capacitances.

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Rw
R2

R1
E

+
-

C1

2
C3

Cw

R3

C2

B
Cx

Rx

Figure 10. The Wagner ground connection.

Universal impedance bridge

One of the most useful and versatile laboratory bridges is the universal
impedance bridge. Several of the bridge configurations discussed so far
is combined in a single instrument capable of measuring both dc and ac
resistance, the inductance and storage factor Q of an inductor, and the
capacitance and dissipation factor Q of a capacitor.

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