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a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 10 January 2015
Received in revised form
8 October 2015
Accepted 8 November 2015
Available online xxx
The SEA-Clam wave energy device has undergone the metamorphic changes presented in the historical
development. Each variation leads to more complex hydrodynamic and motion responses. The most
recent novel Oscillating Water Column (OWC) form of the device has multiple internal free surfaces, the
motions of which are required to predict power take-off once a device specication with structural
integrity has been identied. Motion equations for structure and the large number of degrees-of-freedom
of the free surfaces modelled as massless plates are derived and presented in a very compact form. This
paper also proffers two simpler models consistent with standard offshore engineering calculations. These
are investigated within since structural integrity of device requires further renement; as demonstrated
in the companion paper. Quality checks of the hydrodynamic analyses are explained and applied to
justify the numerical investigations undertaken. Sea spectra for the possible operational site of South Uist
are used to generate motion transfer functions for associated wave frequency range. The peak pitch
response of this large annular shaped structure is a main concern regarding survivability. The analyses
undertaken reect conceptual rather than detailed design status of the device.
2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords:
Multiple degrees-of-freedom
Free-surface inuences
Hydrodynamic quality checks
Negative added mass
Fredholm integral equations
Boundary elements
1. Introduction
The SEA-Clam device has undergone a number of metamorphisms. Initially it had a long (275 m) terminator form
(1979e1984) with pressurised exible air bags facing the incident
waves. A one-tenth model in Loch Ness is illustrated in Fig. 1a.
Stability of device and wave direction independence led to the ring
form of Fig. 1b with the pressurised exible bags on the outer face
(1984e1992). Standard shear force and bending moment calculations can be readily applied to the long form of the device [1], but a
special analysis had to be developed for the ring form [2]. Various
specic design improvements took place in the period 1992e2008.
The device is essentially a regular dodecagon as illustrated in
Fig. 2a with one airbag per section. The initial 60 m outer diameter
of ring was increased to 80 m in 2008. Further development led to
the hybrid clam in which some of the ballast space in each of the
twelve sections was replaced by an N-shaped channel form of
oscillating water column (OWC) with an opening at the base of the
structure; compare Fig. 2b and c. That is, the outer surface extracted
energy through pressurised airbags, whereas the inner section
221
Fig. 1. a Straight Clam Loch Ness tests (1982). b Circular Clam Loch Ness tests (1984e1992).
Fig. 2. a Plan view of SEA-OWC-Clam. b Transverse section of Circular Clam (1992). c Transverse section of Hybrid Clam (1994). d Transverse section of SEA-OWC-Clam (2008).
222
120
100
80
Surge OWC
60
Heave OWC
OWC Clam
40
20
0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
(1)
Fig. 4. Environmental characteristics captured as spectral density versus wave frequency (rad/s).
223
Table 1
Wave characteristics and indication of hydrodynamic analysis performed.
Frequency (rad./s)
Depth
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.465
0.500
0.522
0.550
0.620
0.645
0.669
0.717
0.750
0.798
0.870
0.878
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
Finite
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
depth
Wavelength (m)
Frequency (rad./s)
Depth
Wavelength (m)
1379.72
672.07
428.23
300.50
244.52
219.81
205.81
189.49
154.89
144.39
135.11
118.70
108.90
96.51
81.36
79.90
0.878
0.930
0.975
1.000
1.020
1.035
1.055
1.068
1.085
1.100
1.125
1.150
1.240
1.375
1.500
1.760
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Finite depth
Deep Water
Deep Water
Deep Water
Deep Water
79.90
71.25
64.83
61.63
59.24
57.54
55.38
54.05
52.36
50.94
48.70
46.61
40.09
32.61
27.39
19.90
224
the location of the interior water ballast. Given the interior mass of
water below the undisturbed free surface cannot exceed the displaced mass of water minus the material mass of the structure
(appealing to Archimedes Principle), the extent to which the underwater part may be ooded has to be determined to match
preferred device draught. Device draught was initially specied by
device inventor without mass distribution and engineering details
being specied. Archimedes principle is satised as discussed in
Section 3.3.
2.2.1. Hydrodynamic characteristics
The hydrodynamic analysis assumes that weight-buoyancy
equilibrium exists. Satisfaction of this requirement is addressed in
Section 3. The interaction of incident waves with the structure,
assumed xed, gives rise to diffraction waves, whereas the radiation waves result from the structure oscillating in any one of its
rigid body degrees-of-freedom in otherwise calm water.
2.2.2. Exploiting geometric planes of symmetry
The origin of the Cartesian hydrodynamic coordinate system
will be located in the undisturbed free surface at a horizontal
location that permits geometric symmetry to be exploited. Selection of such an origin leads to additional mechanical coupling in the
motion response equations because of the location of the centre of
gravity. Clearly an origin that allows two planes of symmetry to be
exploited reduces the size of the full matrices formulated to a
quarter of the complete device formulation.
8
>
< r
Akj
>
:Sja u
Z
SW
9
8
>
>
=
<r
j
fIm nk dS and Bkj
>
>
;
:Sja
Z
SW
9
>
=
j
fRe nk dS :
>
;
(2)
Table 2
Single rigid structure velocity potential sign changes of image structure relative to
Input section.
Motion
Input section
1st image
2nd image
3rd image
Surge
Sway
Heave
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
225
Fig. 8. BEM discretization a & b used with closed and open form of SEA-OWC-Clam.
FkDirect
Excitation
r4I 4D
SW
and
FkHaskind
Excitation
"
r 4I
SW
v4k
dS exp iut
vn
v4
v4
4k I
vn
vn
(3)
#
dS exp iut
12
12
i X
i
X
X h SJ J
X h SN N
SJ J
SS _S
S S
S S
S iut
i _Ni
S
MS ASS
A1ji sji B1ji s_ji
A1j i sj i BSN
s
11 s1 B11 s1 M xg s6 M yg s5 F1 e
j
1j
12
12
i X
i
X
X h SJ J
X h SN N
SJ J
SS _S
S S
S S
S iut
i _Ni
S
MS ASS
A2ji sji B2ji s_ji
A2j i sj i BSN
s
22 s2 B22 s2 M yg s4 M zg s6 F2 e
2j j
i1 j3;4;5
SS _S
SS S
S S
S S
S
MS ASS
33 s3 B33 s3 C33 s3 M zg s5 M xg s4
i1 j3;4;5
i1 j3;4;5
12
X
X h SJ J
F3S eiut
A3ji sji
i1 j3;4;5
represent emergency safety closure-plates activated when operation of OWC wave extraction is not considered prudent in terms of
device survivability. The plate thickness is consistent with the rest
of the structure.
i1 j3;4;5
12
i X
X h SN N
SJ J
A3j i sj i
B3ji s_ji
i1 j3;4;5
i _Ni
BSN
s
3j j
(4a)
i
The additional moments of the mass on the left hand side of Eq.
(4a) are associated with the centre of gravity (xg, yg, zg ) being
distinct from the origin of the Cartesian reference system presented
in Fig. 5. The symmetry of geometry and mass distribution will
226
12
12
i X
i
X
X h SJ J
X h SN N
SJ J
S
SS _S
SS S
S S
S S
S iut
i _Ni
S
I44
A4ji sji B4ji s_ji
A4j i sj i BSN
ASS
s
44 s4 B44 s4 C44 s4 M yg s2 M xg s3 F4 e
4j j
12
12
i
i
X
X
X h SJ J
X h SN N
SJ J
S
SS _S
SS S
S
S
S iut
i _Ni
S
I55
A5ji sji B5ji s_ji
A5j i sj i BSN
ASS
s
55 s5 B55 s5 C55 s5 M yg s1 M zg s3 F5 e
5j j
i1 j3;4;5
i1 j3;4;5
i1 j3;4;5
i1 j3;4;5
(4b)
12
12
i X
i
X
X h SJ J
X h SN N
S
SS _S
S S
S S
S iut
i Ji
i _Ni
S
I66
A6ji sji BSJ
A6j i sj i BSN
ASS
s_
s
66 s6 B66 s6 M xg s1 M zg s2 F6 e
6j j
6j j
i1 j3;4;5
k k
k k
k k
s3k B33
A33
s3k F3k eiut
s_3k C33
J J
J J
J J
12
X
X h
i1 j3;4;5
k k
k k
k k
s4k B44
s4k F4k eiut
s_4k C44
A44
J J
J J
J J
isk
12
X
X h
i1 j3;4;5
k k
k k
k k
s5k B55
s5k F5k eiut
A55
s_5k C55
J J
J J
J J
isk
12
X
X h
i1 j3;4;5
isk
i1 j3;4;5
S S
S S
S S
S S
I44
s4 /I44
s4 I45
s5 I46
s6
S S
S S
S S
S S
I55 s5 /I54 s4 I55 s5 I56
s6 :
S S
S S
S S
S S
s6 /I64
s4 I65
s5 I66
s6
I66
(5)
_N
kj sj :
(6)
Since these reactive forces are a function of the unknown motions, this mathematically equivalent way of expressing the reaction terms permits their correct inclusion in the dynamic motion
equations. Essentially the radiation forces and moments are
resolved in a right handed reference system recognising that velocity and acceleration are orthogonal.
There are 72 coupled free surface equations of motion for the
massless plates modelling the 24 free surfaces and their 3 associated degrees-of-freedom. That is, each free surface for each OWCshape is identied according to k 1, 2, , 12, with j 3, 4 & 5
denoting the heave, roll and pitch motions. The 72 newly derived
motion equations for the J related and the N related free surfaces
are readily expressed in the compact form of Eqs. (7a) and (7b),
namely:
12
i X
i
X h JN N
J J J
J J J
J N
i
A3jk i sji B3jk i s_ji
A3jk i sj i B3jk i s_N
j
i1 j3;4;5
12
i X
i
X h JN N
J J J
J J J
J N
i
A4jk i sji B4jk i s_ji
A4jk i sj i B4jk i s_N
j
i1 j3;4;5
12
i X
i
X h JN N
J J J
J J J
J N
i
A5jk i sji B5jk i s_ji
A5jk i sj i B5jk i s_N
j
i1 j3;4;5
(7a)
Nk Nk _Nk
Nk Nk Nk
Nk iut
k Nk Nk
AN
33 s3 B33 s3 C33 s3 F3 e
12
12
i X
X
X h N J J
N J J
A3jk i sji B3jk i s_ji
i1 j3;4;5
Nk Nk _Nk
Nk Nk Nk
Nk iut
k Nk Nk
AN
44 s4 B44 s4 C44 s4 F4 e
12
X
X h
i
N J J
N J J
A4jk i sji B4jk i s_ji
Nk Nk Nk
C55
s5
F5Nk eiut
12
X
isk
12
X
X h
k Ni Ni
k Ni _Ni
AN
sj B N
sj
4j
4j
i1 j3;4;5
isk
k Nk _Nk
BN
55 s5
i
X h NN N
k Ni _Ni
A3jk i sj i BN
sj
3j
i1 j3;4;5
i1 j3;4;5
k Nk Nk
AN
55 s5
227
(7b)
isk
X h
AJ5jk Ji sJji
BJ5jk Ji s_Jji
12
X
i
X h NN N
k Ni _Ni
A5jk i sj i BN
sj
5j
i1 j3;4;5
i1 j3;4;5
isk
isk
S
M A11 s1 B11 s_1 A15 s5 B15 s_5 M S xgs6 M S ygs5 F1S eiut
S
M A33 s3 B33 s_3 C33 s3 MS zgs5 MS xgs4 F3S eiut
S
I55
A55 s5 B55 s_5 C55 s5 A51 s1 B51 s_1 M S yg s1 MS zg s3 F5S eiut
S
M A11 s1 B11 s_1 A15 s5 B15 s_5 M S ygs5 F1S eiut
S
M A33 s3 B33 s_3 C33 s3 F3S eiut
S
I55 A55 s5 B55 s_5 C55 s5 A51 s1 B51 s_1 M S yg s1 F5S eiut
(8a)
(8b)
228
Author experience in offshore analysis shows that mooring inuences, often included as additional stiffness terms in Eq. (8), has
less inuence on the structural excursions than the structural excursions have on the mooring line analyses. Hence mooring effects
are not addressed here since only rst order inuences are being
modelled [Chapter 9 of 18, [30]].
Whilst it is quite common to solve the motion responses
numerically, using Gaussian elimination, the axi-symmetric nature
of the SEA-OWC-Clam device geometry permits analytic solution of
the uncoupled heave response and the coupled surge-pitch
responses.
Since all the hydrodynamic and hydrostatic quantities produced by the MATTHEW software are per unit uid density, it
follows that upon dividing the motion equations by the uid
density r then the calculated hydrodynamic and hydrostatic data
can be used directly and the mass term MS replaced by the
calculated displaced volume V. Hence the solution of the heave Eq.
(8b) yields:
s1R
s3I
S
F3I
S
F3R
uB33
C33 u V A33
h
i2
C33 u2 V A33 uB33 2
(9)
o
:
S
I55
1
W
I Steel I55
;
r 55 r
(10)
S
S
F5I
C55 u2
uB15 F1R
DR 2 DI 2
i
o
E
S
S
I55
A55 F1I
uB55 F5R
u2 V yg A15 DR
DR 2 DI 2
n
h
i
o
S
S
E
S
S 2
F1R
C55 u2 I55
uB55 F1I
A55 F5R
uB15 F5I
u V yg A15 DR
n
s5R
and
n
h
i
o
S
S
E
S
S 2
F1R
C55 u2 I55
uB55 F1I
A55 F5R
uB15 F5I
u V yg A15 DI
n
s1I
s3R
n h
o
i
S
S
F3R
C33 u2 V A33 F3I
uB33
h
i2
C33 u2 V A33 uB33 2
S
S
F5I
C55 u2
uB15 F1R
DR 2 DI 2
i
o
E
S
S
I55
A55 F1I
uB55 F5R
u2 V yg A15 DI
DR 2 DI 2
(11)
n
h
o
i
S
S
S
S
F1I
u2 V A11 F5I
uB51 F5R
uB11 F1R
u2 V yg A51 DR
n
DR 2 DI 2
h
o
i
S
S
S
S 2
F5R
u2 V A11 F1R
uB11 F1I
uB51 F1I
u V yg A51 DI
n
s5I
n
S
S
F5R
uB11 F1I
DR 2 DI 2
o
i
S
S 2
u2 V A11 F1R
uB51 F1I
u V yg A51 DR
DR 2 DI 2
h
o
i
S
S
S
S
F1I
u2 V A11 F5I
uB51 F5R
uB11 F1R
u2 V yg A51 DI
DR 2 DI 2
(12)
h
i
E
DI uB11 C55 u2 I55
A55 u3 V A11 B55 u3 B15 V yg A51 u3 B51 V yg A15
i
h
E
V yg A51 u2 B51 B15 :
A55 u2 B11 B55 u4 V yg A15
DR u2 V A11 C55 u2 I55
(13)
229
3. Device modelling
Whatever the actual structural arrangement, closed or open,
the mass-inertial characteristics of the structure must be evaluated
to be consistent with the Archimedean state of balance; this is
addressed next for both open and closed structural models.
3.1. SEA-OWC-Clam geometric models
vF
vt
iur4Re x; y; z; u; q i4Im x; y; z; u; qeiut :
(14a)
The most general resulting velocity potential is determined in
accordance with:
6
X
Fx; y; z; t a Fincident FDiffracted
FSj
S
radiation sj
j1
12
X
X
k1 j3;4;5
12
X
X
k
FN
sNk
j radiation j
k1 j3;4;5
(14b)
Here a is the amplitude of the incident wave propagating in the
0
direction
x
and
described
analytically
by
0
ag coshkyd
Fincident u
expikx
ut.
F
is
the
change
in
Diffracted
coshkd
the incident wave potential due to the presence of the structure,
assumed to be xed. FDiffracted is determined in each quadrant
automatically by the MATTHEW code.
For the simplied single body analysis one simply sets each sJjk
k
and sN
to zero and reduces the number of structural degrees-ofj
freedom to surge, heave and pitch; since loading is effectively independent of wave heading (see Section 4.1).
Table 3
Determined characteristics of closed form of SEA-OWC-Clam.
Restoration coefcients per unit uid density
GMT 1.04344D02
GML 1.04343D02
SA 4.22864D03
C33 1.74851D04
C43 0.00000D00
C53 0.00000D00
C34 0.00000D00
C44 1.07868D07
C54 0.00000D00
C35 0.00000D00
C45 0.00000D00
C55 1.07868D07
Table 4
Determined characteristics of open form of SEA-OWC-Clam.
Restoration coefcients per unit uid density
GMT 1.15213D02
GML 1.15213D02
SA 7.84871D03
C33 1.50786D04
C43 0.00000D00
C53 0.00000D00
C34 0.00000D00
C44 9.01349D06
C54 0.00000D00
C35 0.00000D00
C45 0.00000D00
C55 9.01347D06
230
(15)
1
Mwater rwater Vwater rwater 2htwater 2p Rm twater
2
Rm twater rwater 4pRm htwater
(16)
Next the SEA-OWC-Clam is considered a dodecagon circumscribed to an external circle of radius Ro 38.6454 m, and a
smaller internal circle of radius Ri 30.6454 m; these two radii
values give a radius mean value of Rm 34.6454 m as shown in
Fig. 9b.
Clearly for each of the two strategies the mean radius Rm is
different. In fact using the average value of these two mean radii
leads to Rm 0:535:8676 34:6454 35:2565 m. Hence rearranging Eq. (16) and utilising said radius yields:
twater
Mwater
3:48 m:
4prwater hRm
(17)
2
2
1
Mwater Rm twater Rm twater
4
1
Mwater h2
12
(18)
231
Fig. 10. a Plan view of open SEA-OWC-Clam as inscribed dodecagon. b Plan view of
open SEA-OWC-Clam as circumscribed dodecagon.
Table 5
Interim calculations of moment of inertia for open structure.
Cylinder
Inner
Outer
Inner
Outer
Totals
3711837.293
2855259.457
3711837.293
2855259.457
6567096.750
2057536810
2071532324
1932379954
1926279810
1027947000
5157016134
5031235.253
1027947000
4886606765
4767421.234
Means
5021811449
4899328.243
232
Fig. 14. Variation of pure surge added mass versus wave frequency.
Fig. 17. Variation of pure heave uid damping versus wave frequency.
Fig. 15. Variation of pure surge uid damping versus wave frequency.
Fig. 18. Variation of pure pitch added mass versus wave frequency.
Fig. 16. Variation of pure heave added mass versus wave frequency.
they have the same phase relation with the incident wave since
their displaced volumes and wetted surface areas of Tables 3 and 4
are quite distinct. The corresponding changes in the hydrostatics
(particularly the pitch restoration coefcient) will inuence the
phasing relationship. Openings within the structure allow some
internal ow and this reduces the loading at longer wavelengths
(higher periods). This will ultimately inuence the stress levels
predicted.
Figs. 14e19 provide the pure surge, heave and pitch reactive
(radiation) coefcients of Akk & Bkk: k 1, 3 & 5 for both geometries.
Fig. 19. Variation of pure pitch uid damping versus wave frequency.
233
Fig. 20. Variation of pitch induced surge added mass (A15 A51) versus wave
frequency.
Fig. 22. Modulus of surge motion per unit wave amplitude versus wave frequency.
Fig. 21. Variation of pitch induced surge uid damping (B15 B51) versus wave
frequency.
Negative pitch added inertia for the closed structure, negative surge
and heave added mass for the open structure, are not a readily
appreciated concept for those who think in terms of entrained
mass. However, in an offshore engineering context it is expected
e.g. negative added mass values for submerged cylinders [33] and a
oating torus [34]; clearly of relevance to this device.
Only the surge-pitch cross-terms presented in Figs. 20 and 21
are non-zero. For both geometries the numerical differences are
not readily detectable in these graphs.
Fig. 23. Modulus of heave motion per unit wave amplitude versus wave frequency.
Fig. 24. Modulus of pitch motion per unit wave amplitude versus wave frequency.
234
the natural frequency the term [C33 u2 (V A33)] of Eq. (9) will
equal zero. Inspection of detailed related computational les shows
that zeroing of this term and the observed peak response occurs
near 0.95 rad/s and 1.0 rad/s for the open and closed forms
respectively in Fig. 23. Approximate hand calculation of this situation is possible using Table 3 or 4 for appropriate geometric form
and use of added mass plots presented in Fig. 16.
There is very little difference in the heave response of the closed
and open forms of the device.
For the closed form of the device pitch (Fig. 24) is equally
dramatic for a frequency close to 1 rad/s. For the open device the
pitch motion is relatively normal with a small secondary peak at
1 rad/s.
Operation of the closed form of the device in a sea state with
excessive energy at a period of 6 s could prove interesting in terms
of resulting vertical motion (vector sum of heave and pitch).
In offshore engineering analysis apparent over predicted resonances can be addressed by introducing a viscous damping
correction based on the peak uid damping coefcient. For
example, the pitch uid damping term B55 s_5 can be replaced in the
_ _
pitch motion equation by the nonlinear term B55 a Bpeak
55 js5 js5 ,
peak
where a B55 js_5 j is treated as the equivalent viscous damping
term. The scaling term alpha is assigned a value up to, but not
usually exceeding 0.2.
In practice the motion equations are solved as originally
formulated. Thereafter the pitch solution is used to assign js_5 j and
for a selected alpha value the viscous damping term is evaluated to
permit solution of the nonlinear formulation as a linear equation.
Iteration will then yield a steady convergent value of pitch motion.
The viscous damping correction will only affect responses in the
region of the resonance peak.
To assess the sensitivity of the linear predicted pitch to viscous
damping we will rst address the pitch response spectra generated
using Eq. (1) and the spectral data of Fig. 4 for the higher energy
March and November observation for the South Uist location.
Fig. 25 shows that the high peak resonance of closed form in Fig. 24
is prominent in the generated response spectrum. Fig. 26 investigates the inuence of viscous damping terms for different
values of alpha.
For an alpha value as small as 0.05 the reduction in peak
amplitude for both March and November is 36%.
Fig. 26. Increasing viscous damping inuences on peak pitch response of closed SEAOWC-Clam.
5. Closure
Hydrostatic and inertial properties have been deduced in each
model to provide preferred draught and centre of gravity so as to
ensure device is capable of oating at required draught.
As an operational wave energy device with some condence in
the structural integrity the more complex 222 degrees-of-freedom
hydrodynamic and motion response analysis is required together
with the indicated form of power take-off effects. At the current
preliminary design two simpler hydrodynamic models have been
investigated. The closed form structure is expected to exhibit
higher stresses than the open model, which in turn will experience
higher stresses than the operational full J & N tube based OWCs.
The quality of the hydrodynamics has been checked for numerical stability, in terms of conditioning numbers provided by the
principal author's MATTHEW software suite, together with checking of equality of radiation cross terms of added mass (inertia) and
uid damping coefcients and agreement between direct and indirect Haskind calculations of wave excitation.
Sensitivity of excitation to wave heading is negligible and hence
a head sea wave with formulation of coupled surge, heave and pitch
is sufcient to permit representative motion response analysis;
although all six degrees-of-freedom were investigated for hydrodynamic quality purposes.
Therefore the hydrodynamic velocity potentials and motion
responses are of sufcient quality to provide the complex variable
based dynamic pressure loads necessary to proceed with the
structural integrity enquiry pursued in the companion paper.
The distinct pitch response of the simpler closed form model
illustrated in Fig. 24 has signicant impact within the response
spectrum of Fig. 25. In reality the responses of interest are the
resultant vertical motion (acceleration) dependent upon combined
heave and pitch amplitude and phase information. For mooring
considerations the surge and pitch inuence upon horizontal
excursion would be studied in greater depth, although viability of
the moored device would ultimately be addressed in the time
domain with inclusion of integral memory terms, since actual
response at any instant is as much a function of previous levels of
excitation and response as current wave loading.
An ad hoc procedure fort adding peak responses through the
235
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