What Are Enzymes?

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in all living organisms microorganisms, plants, animals, and humans. Catalysts are compounds
that increase the rate of chemical reactions in biological systems. Very
small quantities of enzymes can increase the rate of reactions up to ten
million times. Enzymes operate within a narrow set of conditions, such as
temperature and pH (acidity), and are subject to inhibition by various
means.
Enzymes are classified by the type of reaction they catalyse and the
substance (called a substrate) they act upon. It is customary to attach the
suffix "ase" to the name of the principle substrate upon which the enzyme
acts. For example, lactose is acted upon by lactase, proteins by proteases,
and lipids by lipases. Additionally, many long-used enzymes have common
names, such as papain, from papaya, which is used to tenderize meat.
History of Enzyme Use in Food Production
Enzymes extracted from edible plants and the tissues of food animals, as
well as those produced by microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and fungi),
have been used for centuries in food manufacturing. Rennet is an example
of a natural enzyme mixture from the stomach of calves or other domestic
animals that has been used in cheese making for centuries. Rennet
contains a protease enzyme that coagulates milk, causing it to separate
into solids (curds) and liquids (whey). Alternatively, for centuries enzymes
produced by yeast have been used to ferment grape juice in order to
make wine.
Modern Production of Food Enzymes
In the twentieth century, enzymes began to be isolated from living cells,
which led to their large-scale commercial production and wider application
in the food industry. Today, microorganisms are the most important source
of commercial enzymes. Although microorganisms do not contain the
same enzymes as plants or animals, a microorganism can usually be
found that produces a related enzyme that will catalyse the desired
reaction. Enzyme manufacturers have optimized microorganisms for the
production of enzymes through natural selection and classical breeding
techniques.
Direct genetic modification (biotechnology) encompasses the most precise
methods for optimizing microorganisms for the production of enzymes.
These methods are used to obtain high-yielding production organisms.
Biotechnology also provides the tools to have a genetic sequence from a
plant, animal, or a microorganism, from which commercial scale enzyme
production is not adequate, to be transferred to a microorganism that has
a safe history of enzyme production for food use.

Although the production organism is genetically modified the enzyme it

produces is not. Enzymes produced through biotechnology are identical to
those found in nature. Additionally, enzymes produced by microorganisms
are extracted and purified before they are used in food manufacturing.
Genetically modified microorganisms are useful from a commercial
standpoint but would not survive in nature.
Enzymes have been applied in food processing for millennia, and
today they are enabling various food industries to provide the quality and
stability of its products, with increased production efficiency.
They also provide environmental friendly products to consumers that were
manufactured, reducing consumption in energy, water and raw materials and generating less waste. Enzymes are very useful catalysts in industrial
processes: they perform specific reactions essential for the production
process but have no technological function in the final food while
ensuring the quality of the end product. Food enzymes are mainly used as
processing aids (>99% of the cases):

Enzymes are intentionally added to perform a function during the

processing of raw materials, ingredients or food. But they have no
technological
function
in
the
final
food.

Industrial enzymes share the same properties as the enzymes

naturally found in food raw materials. In most cases the added
enzymes merely accelerate the processes that already occurs
naturally by the endogenous enzymes - and only small quantities
are needed to perform the function

Food enzymes are used to improve a great variety of food production

processes - from protein and starch processing - to processing of raw
materials for alcohol fermentation and dairy. Enzymes have played a key
role in baking ever since humans learned how to make bread. Enzymes
are naturally present in cereal grains and, hence, also in flour. Amongst
other things, they facilitate the handling and fermentation of the dough.
Due to natural changes in the harvest, flour composition varies and so
does the level of endogenous enzymes. Therefore, exogenous enzymes
are added during processing to standardize flour content. Food enzymes
are invaluable processing aids for the baked goods industry (buns and
bread, cakes, biscuits, snacks, pasta), delivering many benefits to the food
processors in terms of production process improvement and consistent
high product quality. Each enzyme acts as a biocatalyst converting a
specific component (generally referred to as the substrate) of the flour
(starch, lipids, proteins) into various reaction products.

Some of the main enzyme Group

Lipases, Alpha-Amylases, Proteases, Oxidases, Xylanases
Lipases help to hydrolyse lipids to increase their polarity. Polar lipids, in
turn, have a positive effect on gas retention within the dough and
therefore help to ensure uniform volume of the bread and crumb structure
of bakery products.

Alpha-Amylases help to convert starch, facilitating the production of

maltose. Maltose is used then as a substrate by the yeast during dough
fermentation. This results in a more controlled fermentation process.
Besides, alpha-amylases promote the generation of Maillard reaction
products, which intensify bread flavour development and crust colour.

Proteases are catalysing the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in proteins. This

results in improved processability, which otherwise would result in dough
rigidness and toughness. Especially strong flours (rich in gluten) often
require very long mixing times for optimal gluten development.
Consequently, the dough becomes too stiff for processing. In these cases,
the addition of proteases, helps to reduce mixing times and improve the
consistency of the dough.

Oxidases catalyse oxidation reactions. They improve the strength of the

gluten in the dough. As the gluten network is oxidised during mixing and
fermentation, strong bonds are formed between the gluten molecules.
Oxidative enzymes also have a drying effect on the dough surface which
improves the dough handling.

Xylanases solubilise special types of sugar molecules called

arabinooxylans, leading to the dough having an improved stability and the
gluten matrix also improved. It results in bread with improved structure,
shape and volume.

The action of enzymes is very targeted (or substrate-specific). That is why

enzymes are often used in conjunction with other enzymes in order to
reach the desired synergistic effect.

STARCH PROCESSING
Starch is widely used for the production of glucose, maltose, high fructose
and other syrups, which are used in multiple food processing sectors.
Starch itself is also used as an ingredient in various food processes, such
as baking and alcohol production.
Wheat and other cereals are important sources of starch. These are highly
complex raw materials causing technical difficulties during processing.
Enzymes help to facilitate this process in a number of ways. During starch
processing, enzymes help to separate raw milled cereals into
polysaccharides, gluten and fibres.
Enzymes are also used to further break down the long chains of sugars
(polysaccharides) into multiple sugars (e.g. glucose, fructose, sucrose,
maltose, maltotriose, raffinose).
Benefits for the starch processors:
- Efficient and better starch conversion into valuable products: glucose,
maltose, high fructose and other syrups
- Increased capacity utilisation during conversion, due to rapid viscosity
reduction and low fouling frequency of process equipment such as
evaporators
- Improved starch purity due to greater extraction yield from raw
materials, and efficient removal of fibres and proteins
- Energy savings due to less use of process water, lower evaporator costs
and decreased production time.
FRUIT & VEGETABLE PROCESSING
Processing of raw fruit and vegetables is a very delicate, energy and time
consuming process. Enzymes help to optimize fruit and vegetable
processing in many ways. Enzymes break down specific components
within fruit & vegetables such as pectin, starch, proteins and cellulose
which results in increased yields, shortening of processing time and
improving sensory characteristics.

Some examples:
Pectinases and Cellulases are used to break down cell walls in fruit and
vegetables, resulting in improved extraction and increase in yield. They
can also be used to decrease the viscosity of purees or nectars, and to
provide cloud stability and texture in juices.

DAIRY PRODUCTION
Food enzymes provide many benefits to the dairy industry. They can
prolong the resilience in cheese, remove liquid milk and reduce whey
bitterness.

BREWING
Today, industrial brewers produce beer in pretty much the same way as it
has always been done, although on a truly industrial scale. But large-scale
beer production is dependent on a number of factors outside their
influence. Harvests may fail, the properties of the raw materials may vary
(especially in geographies where it is more sustainable to use local raw
materials, like sorghum in Africa), and still the end product must always
be the same. Therefore, brewers are looking at ways to improve their
production processes in order to minimize the element of uncertainty and
maximize the output of beer.
Food enzymes aid brewers in cutting down production time and cost while
still delivering the quality product that consumers have come to expect.
Such enzymes are specifically selected to perform highly specific tasks
and improve the overall effectiveness of the process. Key benefits include:

Malt separation
Better extraction yield
Efficient fermentation
Beer filtration and stabilization
Utilization of local raw materials

Browning is the process of becoming brown, especially referring to food.

Browning foods may be desirable, as in caramelization, or undesirable, as
in an apple turning brown after being cut. Foods, including beverages, can
turn brown through either enzymatic or non-enzymatic processes.
Browning has an important economic cost, causing deterioration of the
value of products in the market of food.
Enzymatic browning

An example of enzymatic browning in the skin of a banana

Enzymatic browning is a chemical process, involving polyphenol oxidase,

catechol oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and
benzoquinone from natural phenols, resulting in a brown colour. In
general, enzymatic browning requires exposure to oxygen, for example
the browning that occurs when an apple is cut.
Enzymatic browning can be beneficial for:

Developing flavour in tea

Developing colour and flavour in dried fruit such as figs and raisins.

Enzymatic browning is often detrimental to:

Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, bananas and

avocados

Seafood such as shrimp

A variety of techniques for preventing enzymatic browning exist, each

exploiting a different aspect of the biochemical process.

Lemon juice and other acids lower the pH and remove the copper
cofactor necessary for the responsible enzymes to function

Blanching or roasting, to denature enzymes and destroy responsible

reactants, as used in the "kill green" phase of tea processing

Low temperatures can also prevent enzymatic browning by reducing

rate of reaction.

Inert gas, like nitrogen, prevent necessary oxygen from reacting

Chemicals such as sodium bisulfite and citrates

Arctic Apples are a suite of trademarked apples that contain a

nonbrowning trait. Specifically, gene silencing is used to turn down the
expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing the fruit from
browning.