The gross structure of the human gas exchange system

Plan diagrams of the structure of the walls of the trachea, bronchi,

bronchioles

Cartilage: provides support and prevents the tubes collapsing when the air pressure
inside them is low.
Ciliated epithelium: found lining the trachea, bronchi and some bronchioles. Single
layer of cells including cilia and goblet cells
Cilia: sweep mucus upwards towards the mouth prevent dust particles and bacteria
reaching the lungs.

Goblet cells: secrete mucus trapping dust particles and bacteria.

Smooth muscle: found in the walls of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. This type of
muscle can contract slowly but for long periods without tiring. When it contracts, it
reduces the diameter of the tubes. During exercise it relaxes, widening the tubes so
more air can reach the lungs.
Elastic fibres are found in the walls of all tubes and between the alveoli.
Stretching alveoli and airways expand to contain more air
Recoiling reducing volume of alveoli, expelling air more efficiently

Gas exchange at the alveolar surface

- The air inside an alveolus contains a higher
concentration of O2, and a lower concentration of
CO2, than the blood in the capillaries.
- This blood has been brought to the lungs in the
pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated
blood from the heart.
- O2 therefore diffuses from the alveolus into the
blood capillary, through the thin walls of the
alveolus and the capillary. CO2 diffuses from the
capillary into the blood.

The diffusion gradients for these gases are maintained by:

breathing movements (inhaling and exhaling), which draw air from outside
the body into the lungs, and then push it out again maintains high
concentration of O2 and low concentration of CO2 in the alveoli
Good blood supply: bringing deoxygenated blood + carrying away
oxygenated blood.
Short distance of diffusion: single layer of squamous epithelium (alveoli)
and single layer of endothelium (capillaries)
Large surface area to volume ratio
Many alveoli

SMOKING
Component of
smoke

Effect

Signs +
Symptoms

Disease

Tar

Sticks to the surface of

bronchioles paralyses cilia
Contains carcinogens

Coughing
Breathlessness
Increases chance
of infection

Chronic bronchitis
Emphysema
Cancer

Carbon
monoxide

Binds irreversibly to Hb
Damage lining of arteries

Breathlessness
Fatigue

CHD
Stroke

Nicotine

- Addictive (releases dopamine)

- Stimulate nervous system
- Reduces diameter of arteriole
less blood to extremities
- Releases adrenaline
- Increases blood pressure +
heart rate
- Increases likelihood of blood
clotting

Dizziness
Craving

High blood pressure

CHD
Stroke

Effects of smoking on the gas exchange system

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
This is a condition in which a person has chronic bronchitis and emphysema. It can be
extremely disabling.

Chronic bronchitis
Cilia paralysed + More mucus
secreted
Mucus builds up block alveoli
gas exchange more difficult (greater
diffusion distance between the air in the
alveoli and the blood in the capillaries).
Mucus traps bacteria, causing
infection and inflammation of the trachea,
bronchi and bronchioles (bronchitis)
The mucus stimulates persistent
coughing, which can damage the tissues in
the walls of the airways, making them
stiffer and the airways narrower.

Emphysema
Smoking causes inflammation in the
lungs.


elastic

Increases numbers of white blood cells secrete chemicals that damage

fibres.
Alveoli become less elastic and burst, resulting in larger air spaces.
This reduces the surface area available for gas exchange.

Lung cancer
Carcinogens cause mutation in the genes of the lung cells.
Some of these mutated cells begin to divide uncontrollably, forming tumour (cancer)
Lung cancer can spread to other part of the body (metastasis) because there is a good
supply of blood in the lungs

Effects of smoking on the cardiovascular system

Nicotine stimulates the nervous system.

High heart rate and blood pressure
Arteries become damaged due to high blood pressure
White blood cells gather build-up plaques and blood clots
Blood clot breaks, preventing blood passing through stroke, heart attack
The loss of elasticity in an artery or arteriole also makes it more likely that
the vessel will burst when high-pressure blood

pulses through.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
GAS EXCHANGE
1 A large, thick-walled blood vessel lies alongside a bronchus.
Which row names the vessel and describes its contents?

2 The diagram shows part of the wall of a bronchus in cross-section.

3 The table shows the presence or absence of ciliated epithelium and goblet
cells in airways.
Which row describes a bronchiole?

4 Two airways each have smooth muscle in their walls, but only one has
cartilage.
What are the airways?

A alveolus and bronchus

B alveolus and trachea
C bronchiole and bronchus
D bronchus and trachea
5 The mucus secreted into the airways is a solution of the glycoprotein mucin.
Which statement about mucin contains a mistake?
A Carbohydrate chains make mucus sticky enough to trap dust particles.
B Mucus is secreted by goblet cells by the process of endocytosis.
C Carbohydrate chains are added to protein in the Golgi apparatus of goblet cells.
D Mucus is moved over the surface of the airways by the action of ciliated cells.
6 A carbon dioxide molecule dissociates from haemoglobin and diffuses along
the shortest path into an alveolus.
Assuming that the molecule diffuses through a gap in a capillary wall, how
many phospholipid bilayers did the molecule pass through?
A 2
B 3
C 4
D 5
7 What maintains the diffusion gradient for the diffusion of oxygen out of an
alveolus?
1 binding of oxygen with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
2 blood flow bringing a new supply of red blood cells
3 increased surface area of red blood cells as they are forced through narrow capillaries
4 complete replacement of the air in the alveolus with each breath
A 1, 2 and 3 only
B 1, 2 and 4 only
C 2 and 3 only
D 3 and 4 only
8 What are the adaptations of an alveolus for its role in gas exchange?

1 very thin epithelial walls

2 close contact of walls and capillaries
3 walls with elastic fibres which recoil after stretching, to help force air out
4 stiff walls to prevent collapse of the alveolus when breathing out
A 1, 2 and 3 only
B 1, 2 and 4 only
C 1 and 2 only
D 3 and 4 only
9 Which event occurring at an alveolus does not require a red blood cell?
A carbon dioxide dissociates from carbaminohaemoglobin
B carbon dioxide is formed from hydrogencarbonate ions
C carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into an air space
D oxygen binds with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
10 Measurements of an adults breathing show that at rest:

the volume of air in a single breath is 500cm3

350 cm3 of each breath reaches the alveoli
2500 cm3 of air remain in the lungs after breathing out.

Which is not a correct conclusion from these measurements?

A About one sixth of the air in the lungs is replaced by breathing out and then in.
B Almost one third of each breath does not reach a gas exchange surface.
C Large changes in the composition of the air in the alveoli do not occur.
D The volume of air in the alveoli after breathing in is 3.0dm3

SMOKING
1 Tar in cigarette smoke contains carcinogens and is mostly deposited in the
bronchi.
What is the effect of these carcinogens?
A

cause mutations in bronchial epithelial cells

destroy the cilia in the bronchi

stimulate goblet cells to produce more mucus

reduce the diameter of the bronchi

2 Which component of tobacco smoke binds with haemoglobin to form

carboxyhaemoglobin?
A carbon monoxide
B carcinogens
C nicotine
D tar
3 What is not a symptom of emphysema?
A alveoli burst
B alveoli lose elastic fibres
C bronchi are blocked by tumours
D the total surface area of the alveoli is reduced
4 Two lifelong cigarette smokers, X and Y, both have persistent coughs. X also
has difficulty breathing out and Y is getting much thinner. From these
symptoms it is possible that:
A X has bronchitis and Y has emphysema.
B X has emphysema and Y has chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
C X has chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Y has lung cancer.
D X has lung cancer and Y has bronchitis.
5 Both carbon monoxide and nicotine are absorbed into the blood from tobacco
smoke.
What describes their effects on the body?

6 What is the sequence of events leading to atherosclerosis?

1

blood clot forms at site of plaque

phagocytes attracted to site of damage

low density lipoproteins transport cholesterol to artery

4 damage to the lining of an artery

5 atheroma builds up and breaks through the endothelium
A

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23514

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Which of the following explains the increased risk of stroke, caused by

smoking tobacco?
A

CO increases the blood pressure and increases the chance of a blood vessel in the

brain bursting.
B

Carcinogens increase the blood pressure and increase the chance of a blood vessel in

the brain bursting.

C Nicotine increases the chance of a blood clot blocking a blood vessel in the brain.
D Tars increase the chance of a blood clot blocking a blood vessel in the brain.
8

Which observation is experimental evidence that smoking tobacco causes

lung cancer?
A

Most people who develop cancer are smokers.

B Death rates from lung cancer are highest in people who smoke more than 25
cigarettes per day.
C Lung cancer was a rare disease until smoking became common in the 20th century.
D When substances extracted from tar in cigarette smoke were painted onto the skin of
mice, the mice developed tumours.
9 Which dietary factors increase the risk of coronary heart disease?
A

high intake of fruit and vegetables

B high intake of saturated fat and cholesterol

C low intake of sodium chloride and alcohol

D moderate intake of unsaturated fat

10 What would not form part of an effective screening programme for CHD?
A screening for high blood pressure
B screening for high cholesterol
C monitoring heart rhythms
D screening blood samples for bacterial infection

Answers to gas exchange questions

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. B

7. A
8. A
9. C
10. D
Answers to smoking questions
1. A
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. C
8. D
9. B
10. D

Useful notes: http://biology4alevel.blogspot.com/