International Journal of Early Years Education

ISSN: 0966-9760 (Print) 1469-8463 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ciey20

ICT and play in preschool: early childhood

teachers beliefs and confidence
Kleopatra Nikolopoulou & Vasilis Gialamas
To cite this article: Kleopatra Nikolopoulou & Vasilis Gialamas (2015) ICT and play in preschool:
early childhood teachers beliefs and confidence, International Journal of Early Years Education,
23:4, 409-425, DOI: 10.1080/09669760.2015.1078727
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2015.1078727

Published online: 02 Sep 2015.

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Date: 28 January 2016, At: 19:57

International Journal of Early Years Education, 2015

Vol. 23, No. 4, 409425, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2015.1078727

ICT and play in preschool: early childhood teachers beliefs

and condence
Kleopatra Nikolopoulou* and Vasilis Gialamas

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Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Athens, Navarinou 13A, 10680 Athens,
Greece
(Received 23 April 2015; accepted 26 July 2015)
This study investigated early childhood teachers beliefs about information and
communications technology (ICT) and play in preschool, as well as their
condence in integrating ICT in the classroom. A 28-item questionnaire was
compiled and administered to 190 early childhood teachers in Greece. Although
ICT play (which can provide learning opportunities) has largely replaced
traditional childhood play, in Greece, there is inadequate integration of ICT in
early childhood education. In this study, two factors were extracted: playing
with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing childrens
technological competence and ICT use as free play. The fewer the years of
teaching experience and the higher the teachers computer self-efcacy, the
stronger was the view that ICT play is not just free play. Teachers beliefs and
condence affect their classroom practices and, consequently, the childrens
learning. Viewing ICT as a mode of learning that should be embedded in the
curriculum is expected to lead to ICT integration in a teachers daily practices.
The implications for in-service teacher training are therefore discussed.
Keywords: information and communications technology; computer; play;
preschool; Greece

Introduction
A growing body of literature on information and communications technology (ICT)
use in preschools reveals the positive effects on young childrens learning (Clements
and Sarama 2003; Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012; McCarrick and Li 2007;
McKenney and Voogt 2012), although there are some concerns about the effect of
technology upon young childrens learning and development (Lindahl and Folkesson
2012a). Todays children interact with a wide range of technology in their everyday
lives, and become competent users of devices, such as computers, mobile phones,
video game consoles, digital video and communication-based devices, without any
formal instruction (Morgan and Kennewell 2005, 2006; Rosen and Jaruszewicz
2009). The technological resources available in the home and other informal environments are increasingly widespread, while many homes possess more sophisticated
resources than do schools. As children are exposed to new technological experiences
on a daily basis, these experiences are likely to inuence their competency and skills
*Corresponding author. Email: klnikolopoulou@ath.forthnet.gr; klnikolop9@yahoo.gr
2015 Taylor & Francis

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410 K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

in using new technological tools. The computer, in particular, supports and extends
childrens learning and development, as they use computers to explore, play, solve
problems, do puzzles and manipulate objects on the screen (Clements and Sarama
2003; McCarrick and Li 2007; McKenney and Voogt 2012). Much traditional childhood play is being replaced by time spent on computer play, and often at a very early
age (Verenikina and Herrington 2006). In discussing computer use in kindergarten
classes, the phrase playing with the computer is often used by teachers and children
(Plowman and Stephen 2005). This phrase designates a series of qualitatively different
activities (associated with different types of software, including computer games) in
which children may, for example, engage in exercise control, play or create.
The early childhood literature still discusses the inadequate integration of digital
technologies into early childhood curricula (Parette and Blum 2013), and this is
often attributed to early childhood teachers (Edwards 2013). Although the early childhood curriculum is traditionally based on play, and several studies have examined the
link between computers-ICT and play (Ljung-Djrf 2008; Morgan 2010; Plowman
and Stephen 2005; Verenikina and Herrington 2006; Verenikina et al. 2010), there is
limited evidence regarding preschool teachers beliefs about computers-ICT and
play in early childhood education settings. The purpose of the study described in
this paper was to investigate preschool teachers beliefs about ICT and play in preschool, as well as their condence in integrating ICT in the classroom. Such an investigation is important, because teachers beliefs and condence inuence their
classroom practices (e.g. their efforts to integrate ICT in preschool classes) and, as a
consequence, young childrens learning.
First, some specic terms used in this paper will be briey explained. Initially, the
term ICTwas used synonymously with the terms computer and technology. There is consensus that today children are using computers, multiple desktop and mobile technologies even before they know how to read and write (McKenney and Voogt 2010;
OHara 2011). Apart from computers, a number of products that incorporate some
aspect of ICT are available to young children, such as digital cameras, gaming consoles
and programmable toys. The technologies available to support early childhood education include, for example, computers, e-mail, the Internet, word-processing and
graphics software and mobile phones (Parette and Blum 2013). The denitions of technologies vary, and many of the areas where play and ICT appear to function harmoniously rely on a denition of ICT that reaches beyond the desktop computer
(Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012). The phrases computer play and ICT play
denote the process of children using computers-ICT, through which they can achieve
different goals, such as familiarity with letters and numbers and the acquisition or development of various skills. Computer-ICT play is not restricted to computer games;
rather, it includes everyday electronic objects and toys that generate a response when
stimulated by the child (Arnott 2013). Finally, the terms preschool, kindergarten and
early childhood setting are used synonymously to refer to formal educational settings
for children above three years of age.
Literature review
Common features of traditional play and computer play
Play has been identied as essential for childrens development and as a key element in
effective learning (Bruce 1991; Yelland 1999). The research has shown that play does
assist in childrens development and learning in many ways, depending on the

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International Journal of Early Years Education

411

educational and social frameworks where the play occurs (Avgitidou 2001; PramlingSamuelsson and Johansson 2009). Play can be described as informal (it is typically
given a higher value in preschool curricula) when initiated by the children themselves,
and as formal when organised by the teachers (Lindahl and Folkesson 2012b). The
research has also identied various characteristics that distinguish play from other
human activities (Garvey 1977). Play has been characterised as spontaneous, pleasant,
child-led and voluntary (freely chosen), opportunistic, creative, focused on the activity
and process rather than the product, low risk and highly engaging (Ashiabi 2007;
Bruner 1976; Rubin, Fein, and Vandenberg 1983). Furthermore, childrens play has
been connected to terms such as creativity, adaptation, experimentation, learning,
communication and socialisation (Piaget [1946] 1962; Vygotsky [1978] 1997).
At the same time, learning to use the computer may be characterised by the active
involvement of the children in interacting with the software, investigation and experimentation, and focusing on the discovery process rather than the product (Clements
and Sarama 2003). For example, childrens sign-making extends to computer screens
and keypads, showing that the children transform the content of the meanings of the
signs they make, whether on screen or on paper, through playful manipulation (Labbo
2006). Many different kinds of educational software have been presented in the form
of play in order to make them attractive to young children (Verenikina and Herrington
2006; Verenikina et al. 2010). Stephen and Plowman (2014) surveyed the contested
nature of young childrens play with digital technologies and the empirical evidence
about the nature of that play: on the basis of their review, they concluded that
digital play can provide opportunities for entertainment and learning, but one
childs experience will depend on individual motives, adult/peer support and a
match between the design and the purpose of the childs play episode. Others (Verenikina et al. 2010) have identied features of childrens traditional play that can be
supported and further enhanced by different kinds of computer play. Common characteristics between childrens traditional play and computer play include, for example,
the active involvement of the children, self-motivation, experimentation with new
and different situations and the players high levels of engagement.
Beliefs about ICT and play: claims and research ndings
ICT and play in preschool are linked. Computer use is often something that may be
allowed between planned or adult-led activities, which means that it is typically used
during the time that is organised as free play (Ljung-Djrf 2008). Furthermore, it is a
fact that childrens play changes over time, and the computer and video games inuence
the way that children play (Doliopoulou and Rizou 2012). Recently, the USA National
Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center reported
that interactions with technology and media should be playful and support creativity,
exploration, pretend play, active play (NAEYC FRC 2012, 7).
However, there are contrasting beliefs regarding the relationship between ICT and
play. Play usually includes physical activities manipulating tangible objects and not
digital ones. Some educationalists view ICT as a threat to playful learning (Cordes
and Miller 2000), while others regard it as a resource or toy (Facer et al. 2003;
Plowman and Stephen 2003). The positions of sceptics were reected, in particular,
in the report Fools Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood (Cordes
and Miller 2000), in which computers were presented as dangerous to childrens physical health, socio-emotional development and intellectual development, and focusing

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412 K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

on the essentials of childhood, like play, hands-on activities and experiences of the
natural world were suggested as alternatives. The non-sceptics believe that children
are often the technological experts at home, learning to program videos and use
mobile phones through play. Children can make sense of new programs and computers
by playing with them to nd out what they can do and how they can do it. For
example, Clements and Sarama (2003) examined survey results and discussed the
impact of childrens use of ICT on various areas, such as socio-emotional development, cognitive development and creativity. Moreover, Facer et al. (2003) noted the
features of learning about and through ICT in the home, and showed that children
who have well-supported access to computers at home develop the ability to use multiple resources (playful discovery and working with others) and work interactively with
the technology. The condence gained from playing around with the technology in
these informal experiences is likely to inuence the childrens technological skills in
more formal settings (a fact which is often ignored within traditional classrooms),
and it has implications for learning about and with ICT.
Regarding the research ndings on ICT and play, Yelland (1999) discussed the
impact of new information technologies on play and as play for young children. She
highlighted the opportunities for young children to play in technological environments
and the changing nature of the concept of a toy over the last decade due to the advent
of new technologies (referring to the potential of the digital revolution to transform the
world of toys and play). Later, Yelland (2005) examined several studies regarding
computer use in early childhood education and illustrated the advantages of using
computers and play; for example, the manipulation of symbols and images on
the computer screen represents a new form of symbolic play, and there is potential
for exploring the affordances of computer play in the development of childrens
higher order thinking.
Research on children has indicated that play can make a major contribution to
developing ICT competence and skills (Morgan and Kennewell 2005). Morgan
(2010) investigated teachers beliefs about interactive whiteboards and play in the
classroom with children aged 37 years. All teachers felt positively about the presence
of this technology in their classroom, and stated that they promoted play as a vehicle
for learning. Additionally, the teachers identied the affordances of interactive whiteboard technology to support the pedagogy of play.
Wohlwend (2009) conducted a three-year study with children aged 57 years and
demonstrated that the children accessed new literacies through pretend play by exploring normally unavailable multimedia, such as cell phones, iPods and video games. She
referred to two simultaneous identities for young technology users: (1) developing learners of new literacies and technologies and (2) curious explorers who willingly play
with new media.
A study (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012) investigated computer use within
a play-based early years curriculum and found that the teachers condently delivered
various computing experiences and the children consistently rated these activities as
play, regardless of the presence of adults. Lindahl and Folkesson (2012b) showed
that preschool student teachers were ambivalent about computer use. Some of the
student teachers associated computer use with informal learning activities, such as
free play (they interpreted the childrens use of computers as playful), while others
viewed computers as a threat to traditional play. In Doliopoulou and Rizous
(2012) study, 19% of kindergarten teachers (and 30% of parents) expressed the view
that childrens play was heavily inuenced by television and computers.

International Journal of Early Years Education

413

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Regarding early childhood teachers condence and competence in ICT, Aubrey

and Dahl (2014) found that teachers were positive and actively promoted the use of
ICT in early years settings, while an earlier study (Gialamas and Nikolopoulou
2010) showed that preschool teachers computer self-efcacy inuenced the teachers
views and intentions about ICT use in preschool. The higher the teachers condence
with technology, the higher was their intention to use a computer in a preschool class.
The above ndings show the importance of investigating teachers beliefs about
ICT and play in preschool. The teachers beliefs about the use of ICT inuence
their classroom practices (Ihmeideh 2010), and these beliefs often limit their efforts
to integrate ICT into their classroom practices (Pelgrum 2001).

The study
Research objectives
The aim of the study was to investigate preschool teachers beliefs about ICT and play
in preschool, as well as their condence in integrating ICT in the classroom. The
research objectives were as follows:
(1) to compile an instrument for investigating preschool teachers beliefs about
ICT and play in preschool classes;
(2) to investigate the effects of the teachers individual characteristics (years of
teaching experience, years of computer experience, in-service training in
ICT and computer self-efcacy) on their beliefs;
(3) to investigate preschool teachers condence in their knowledge and ability to
integrate ICT in the classroom.

Sample
The participants were 190 preschool teachers, who teach in various kindergartens in
and around Athens, Greece. They were all female, consistent worldwide with the predominance of females within the population of early childhood teachers (Chen and
Chang 2006). Table 1 displays the demographic and individual characteristics of the
sample (years of teaching experience; years of computer experience; access to, and
use of, a computer at home; views on computer appropriateness in kindergarten
classes and in-service teacher training in ICT) and computer use in class. Those teachers who did not use a computer in class (14.7%, n = 28) mentioned that they did
not have one in kindergarten. Indeed, a recent study (Nikolopoulou and Gialamas
2015) identied a lack of equipment as the main barrier to the integration of computers in Greek early childhood settings. In Greece, many kindergartens recently
acquired computers (predominantly one computer) for children to use. The national
curriculum for preschool education sets general directions for programmes regarding
the planning and development of activities in ve subjects (not considered as independent), with computer science among them. The curriculum proposes free activities,
chosen and carried out by the children themselves, and teacher-organised activities,
which are planned and organised by the teachers according to the set objectives of the
curriculum (Kallery 2015). It also refers to the potential of ICT to support childrens
learning, but it does not include specic guidelines for teachers. Regarding in-service
teacher training in ICT in Greece, A-level training includes training in technical skills

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K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

Table 1. Demographic and individual characteristics of the sample (190 teachers) and computer
use in class.

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Teachers characteristics
Years of teaching experience
15 (13.7%)
610 (31.6%)
1115 (23.2%)
1620 (12.6%)
20+ (18.9%)
Views on computer appropriateness
Positive views (89.5%)
Not sure (9.5%)
Negative views (1%)
A-level teacher training in ICT (technical)
Yes (65.3%)
No (34.7%)
Computer use in class
Yes (85.3%)
No (14.7%)

Years of computer experience

< 1 (4.2%)
12 (6.3%)
35 (15.8%)
5+ (73.7%)
Access to, and use of, a computer at home
Yes (98.9%)

B-level teacher training in ICT (pedagogical)

Yes (28.4%)
No (71.6%)

(use of word-processing, spreadsheets, presentation programs and the Internet), while

B-level training is dedicated to providing teachers with the pedagogical skills for integrating ICT in the classroom (e.g. the objectives are to familiarise kindergarten teachers with appropriate educational software and the skills to integrate ICT in their
everyday practices). Table 1 shows the percentage of participant teachers who completed A-level and/or B-level training in ICT. The questionnaire was administered
during the 20132014 academic year. The responses were anonymous and the teachers
were assured that there was no right or wrong answer. Regarding ethical research practice, permission was gained from the gatekeeper-teachers.

Research instrument and procedure

The data were collected using a questionnaire comprising two sections. Section A
included statements regarding the teachers demographic and individual characteristics
(sex; years of teaching experience; years of experience with computers; in-service training in ICT; access to, and use of, a computer at home; and computer self-efcacy), the
teachers views about the appropriateness of using computers in preschool and information about childrens computer use in class. Computer self-efcacy was assessed
according to four items on a condence with technology subscale (Pierce, Stacey,
and Barkatsas 2007) (see Appendix). To assess the teachers views on the appropriateness of computer use in class, the teachers were asked to answer the following question
using a three-point rating scale (yes, no and not sure): Do you believe the computer to
be an appropriate tool in a kindergarten class (in supporting developing childrens
learning)?
Section B included 25 statementsitems aiming to investigate the teachers beliefs
about ICT and play in preschool. These statements were separated into three groups.
The rst group comprised 11 items (Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6, Q9, Q11, Q12, Q13, Q15, Q21

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International Journal of Early Years Education

415

and Q24) investigating the teachers beliefs about childrens learning via ICT and play
in kindergarten; the second group comprised 11 items (Q7, Q8, Q10, Q14, Q16, Q17,
Q18, Q19, Q20, Q23 and Q25) investigating the teachers beliefs about the ways of
using ICT in class (e.g. during formal or free play activities); and the third group comprised 3 items (Q1, Q2 and Q22) investigating the teachers general beliefs about ICT
in preschool. The statements were constructed taking into account the relevant literature. This section also included three items (Q26, Q27 and Q28) aimed at investigating
the teachers condence in their ability to integrate ICT in the classroom. These three
items were adapted from Chen et al. (2014), who investigated early childhood teachers
condence about early math. Although desktop computers remain a predominant
means of providing ICT in most Greek preschool classes, in the questionnaire, ICT
was dened more broadly (as explained in the introduction). This is because many
of the areas where play and ICT appear to function harmoniously rely on a denition
of ICT that reaches beyond the desktop computer (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies
2012; Stephen and Plowman 2014). In the questionnaire, the 28 items were presented
in mixed order, and the teachers were asked to rate their beliefs on a 5-point Likerttype scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = I am not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly
agree) (Likert 1932). The instrument was piloted with 17 teachers (who did not participate in the main survey) to ensure that there was no ambiguity in interpreting the
wording of the items. Before administering the questionnaire, it was given to two
specialists in ICT in education, to check its face and content validities. There was
an agreement on the categorisation of the items.
Data analysis
The statistical software SPSS version 20.0 (2011) was used for managing the data and
conducting the statistical analyses (descriptive statistics, factor analysis, and correlation analysis).
Results
Descriptive measures for teachers beliefs and factorial structure of the questionnaire
To explore the early childhood teachers beliefs about and condence in using ICT and
play in preschool classes, a descriptive analysis was performed. Table 2 shows the preschool teachers (n = 190 teachers) response rates (%) on the 28 items of the
questionnaire.
In order to explore the structure of the 25 items regarding the teachers beliefs
(Q26, Q27 and Q28 were left out at this stage), a factor analysis was performed (principal axis factoring) using OKN (Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization) as the rotation
method. The screen plot inspection revealed a two-factor structure (Table 3). In the
analysis, .35 was used as the cut-off loading value. The rst factor, labelled playing
with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing childrens competence
with technology, was associated with 12 items and the second factor, labelled ICT
use as free play, was associated with 5 items (Table 3). The factor loadings of the
12 items on the rst factor (F1) varied from .38 to .78. The 5-item loadings on the
second factor (F2) varied from .40 to .70. The item Q9, children can learn through
exploration with ICT, in specic school subjects, had a negative loading on F1
(.43) and a positive loading on F2 (.45). A negative statistically signicant correlation coefcient between F1 and F2 (r = .29) was found. Reliability analyses were

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K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

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Table 2. Teachers response rates (%) on the 28 items (n = 190 teachers).

Q1 Children can learn through

exploration with ICT, in every
school subject
Q2 Computer use is peripheral to real
learning in classroom
Q3 Play is a basic method of learning
with or about ICT
Q4 Children playing around with ICT
gain condence
Q5 Playing with ICT can make a major
contribution to childrens
developing technological skills
Q6 Playing with ICT is an effective
mode of learning for young children
Q7 ICT and play must be integrated
into the early childhood curriculum
Q8 ICT use by children in
kindergarten, is not a play
Q9 Children can learn through
exploration with ICT, in specic
school subjects
Q10 ICT use by children, in
kindergarten is a free play activity
Q11 Play is a vehicle for developing
childrens competence with ICT
Q12 Children can acquire new
technological skills via playing with
computers
Q13 Children explore the possibilities
of a new software when they are left
to play with it
Q14 Computer use should be
embedded in formal learning
activities
Q15 ICT can be used to enhance &
support childrens play
Q16 ICT can be used to replace
childrens play
Q17 Teachers presence facilitates
childrens play with ICT
Q18 Computer use is a threat to the
traditional free play
Q19 Computer use is associated to
formal (planned) activities

Disagree

I am
not
sure

Agree

Strongly
agree

1.1

22.1

48.4

28.4

13.7

26.3

46.3

12.6

2.1

21.1

52.6

24.2

15.8

35.8

34.7

13.7

5.3

60

34.7

2.1

3.2

28.4

50.5

15.8

1.1

17.9

55.8

25.3

7.4

26.3

21.1

34.7

10.5

7.4

46.3

21.1

21.1

4.2

9.5

53.7

14.7

14.7

7.4

8.4

7.4

62.1

22.1

1.1

4.2

65.3

29.5

1.1

3.2

18.9

55.8

21.1

1.1

4.2

34.7

41.1

18.9

1.1

10.5

22.1

50.5

15.8

57.9

31.6

1.1

6.3

3.2

1.1

5.3

13.7

55.8

24.2

6.3

33.7

21.1

24.2

14.7

1.1

25.3

13.7

55.8

4.2

Strongly
disagree
0

1.1

(Continued )

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417

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Table 2. Continued.

Q20 Computer use is associated to

informal (free play) activities
Q21 Computer play can be applied in
class as a cognitive tool
Q22 ICT is another toy in the
classroom
Q23 Computer use should be
embedded in informal learning
activities
Q24 Computer play can be applied in
class as a teaching method
Q25 Computer use must take place
only in the hour of free play
activities
Q26 I am condent in my knowledge
of the best practices and strategies
for helping children learn with/
about ICT
Q27 I am condent in my ability to
integrate ICT in kindergarten class
Q28 I am condent in my ability to
plan activities or educational
scenarios to help children learn with/
about ICT

Disagree

I am
not
sure

Agree

Strongly
agree

35.8

25.3

31.6

4.2

4.2

72.6

23.2

6.3

26.3

15.8

41.1

10.5

5.3

22.1

29.5

35.8

7.4

2.1

2.1

14.7

65.3

15.8

17.9

56.8

17.9

5.3

2.1

3.2

6.3

27.4

46.3

16.8

4.2

3.2

23.2

53.7

15.8

7.4

8.4

33.7

38.9

11.6

Strongly
disagree
3.2
0

then performed for the two factors and the other two scales used in this study
(teachers condence scale and computer self-efcacy scale), and the reliability was
calculated. The Cronbachs alpha coefcient showed satisfactory internal consistency:
.84 and .63 for factors F1 and F2, respectively, .90 for teachers condence in ICT integration (items Q26, Q27 and Q28), and .85 for computer self-efcacy.

Impact of individual characteristics on teachers beliefs

Correlation coefcients were estimated in order to investigate the effects of some individual characteristics on the factors extracted by the previous factor analysis (Table 4).
Signicant correlation coefcients were found between the rst factor (F1: playing
with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing childrens competence
with technology) and each of the following individual characteristics: years of teaching experience (r = .290), computer self-efcacy (r = .298) and condence in ICT
integration (r = .297). The higher the teachers computer self-efcacy and their condence in integrating ICT in class, the more positive were their views about ICT use as
a mode of learning. Similarly, the teachers with fewer years of teaching experience (a
characteristic related to age, i.e. younger teachers) tended to strongly believe that ICT
use in preschool is a mode of learning. No signicant coefcients were found between

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K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

Table 3. Factor loadings, means and standard deviation per item (25 items regarding teachers
beliefs).
Factor
Mean

Standard
deviation

.781

3.75

0.84

.717

3.73

0.86

.690

4.23

0.57

.609

4.05

0.69

.578

3.93

0.79

.573

4.04

0.74

.569

3.98

0.80

.566

3.69

0.90

.545

3.91

0.76

.460
.403

3.46
4.29

0.92
0.56

.382

3.18

1.03

.362

3.56

0.92

4.19

0.49

3.23
3.97

1.14
0.83

3.37

0.95

.702

3.15
2.17

1.15
0.86

.567

2.57

1.09

.447

2.68

1.02

.436

3.07

1.20

.399

1.65
3.99

1.01
0.74

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1 (F1)
Q6 Playing with ICT is an effective mode of learning
for young children
Q14 Computer use should be embedded in formal
learning activities
Q12 Children can acquire new technological skills via
playing with computers
Q7 ICT and play must be integrated into the early
childhood curriculum
Q13 Children explore the possibilities of a new
software when they are left to play with it
Q1 Children can learn through exploration with ICT
in every school subject
Q11 Play is a vehicle for developing childrens
competence with ICT
Q15 ICT can be used to enhance & support childrens
play
Q24 Computer play can be applied in class as a
teaching method
Q4 Children playing around with ICT gain condence
Q5 Playing with ICT can make a major contribution
to childrens developing technological skills
Q23 Computer use should be embedded in informal
learning activities
Q2 Computer use is peripheral to real learning in
classroom
Q21 Computer play can be applied in class as a
cognitive tool
Q22 ICT is another toy in the classroom
Q17 Teachers presence facilitates childrens play with
ICT
Q19 Computer use is associated to formal (planned)
activities
Q8 ICT use by children in kindergarten is not a play
Q25 Computer use must take place only in the hour of
free play activities
Q10 ICT use by children in kindergarten is a free play
activity
Q9 Children can learn through exploration with ICT
in specic school subjects
Q18 Computer use is a threat to the traditional free
play
Q16 ICT can be used to replace childrens play
Q3 Play is a basic method of learning with or about
ICT

.431

2
(F2)

(Continued )

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419

Table 3. Continued.
Factor
1 (F1)
Q20 Computer use is associated to informal (free play)
activities

2
(F2)

Mean

Standard
deviation

2.98

0.99

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Note: Extraction method: Principal axis factoring. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

F2 and the individual characteristics. Table 5 shows the factor means by teacher
training level. Note that in Greece, A-level technical training in computer use is a prerequisite for attending the B-level pedagogical training in ICT use in class. The B-level
teachers training in ICT showed a positive but insignicant (r = .18) effect on the teachers beliefs about ICT as a free play activity (Table 4). Differences in the mean level
on F2 among the three groups of teachers (with no ICT training, only with A-level
technical training, with both A-level and B-level training), with respective means of
2.58, 2.44 and 2.23 (Table 5), conrm that the teachers with B-level training tended
to strongly believe that ICT use is not only a free play activity.

Discussion and conclusions

There is emerging evidence about the value of ICT and play in preschool classes.
Although several studies have investigated the link between ICT and young childrens
play (in preschool settings or at home), there is still limited evidence regarding preschool
teachers beliefs about ICT and play in early childhood settings. This study was driven
by the facts that computer play has replaced much traditional childhood play (Verenikina and Herrington 2006), ICT-digital play can provide opportunities for childrens
learning (Stephen and Plowman 2014) and teachers beliefs inuence their classroom
practices (Pelgrum 2001). Currently, in Greece, there is inadequate ICT integration in
early childhood education. This study contributes to the body of empirical evidence,
by investigating Greek early childhood teachers beliefs about ICT and play in kindergarten. The sample size and its origin from one region do not allow for broad generalisations. However, the ndings are useful for early childhood teachers, researchers and
education policy-makers. The integration of technology into teaching and learning is
inuenced by the teachers technical skills and beliefs (Hew and Brush 2007). Thus, it
might be concluded that the teachers beliefs are linked to the childrens learning and
development.
With regard to the rst objective (to develop an instrument for investigating preschool teachers beliefs about ICT and play in preschool classes), the ndings show
a very strong belief: that ICT play is an effective mode of learning and developing childrens technological competence. As seen in Table 2, most of the sample believed that
ICT play is an effective mode of learning for young children (66% agreed or strongly
agreed with item 6). Most of the teachers also stated that ICT use is not only a free play
activity (around 75% and 63% for items 25 and 10, respectively) and that computer use
should be embedded in formal learning activities (60% agreed or strongly agreed with
item 14). The teachers beliefs align with earlier studies (e.g. Morgan 2010; Yelland
2005) which illustrated the advantages of ICT use and play in the classroom.

Correlation coefcient

Spearmans
rho

F1
F2

Years of teaching
experience

A-level
training

B-level
training

Years of computer
experience

Computer selfefcacy

Condence in ICT
integration

.290**
.044

.065
.140

.020
.180

.170
.062

.298**
.094

.297**
.038

**Correlation is signicant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 5. Factor means by teacher training level.

B-level training

F1
F2

Yes

No

A-level training

A-level training

Yes

No

Yes

No

3.84
2.23

3.85
2.44

3.87
2.58

K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

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420

Table 4. Correlations among factors and individual characteristics.

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International Journal of Early Years Education

421

Additionally, the teachers expressed less ambivalence than the student teachers
(Lindahl and Folkesson 2012b). Interestingly, around 80% of the teachers in this
study believed that ICT and play must be integrated in the early childhood curriculum
(they expressed agreement or strong agreement with item 7). However, as the curriculum does not provide specic guidelines, the choice/ nature of the teacher-organised
activities is left to the teachers discretion (Kallery 2015). The above have implications
for curriculum planning and for teacher training (discussed later in the section). The
manner in which ICT and play are integrated in the early childhood curriculum
(e.g. teachers choice to include ICT within the free or teacher-organised activities)
affects the childrens learning.
With regard to the second objective (to investigate the effects of teachers individual characteristics on their beliefs), two characteristics (years of teaching experience
and computer self-efcacy) were statistically related to the preschool teachers
beliefs, and mainly to the rst factor, playing with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing childrens competence with technology (as shown in Table 4).
More specically, fewer years of teaching experience and higher computer self-efcacy
resulted in more positive beliefs. This result aligns with earlier research (Chen and
Chang 2006) which showed that early childhood teachers beliefs were shaped by
their knowledge of, and experience with, computers and the relevant in-service training they had received. The teachers views (F1) were not statistically related to inservice teacher training in ICT (neither A-level nor B-level training). However,
within factor F2, there was a tendency for the teachers to adopt the view that ICT
is only for free play. This view was especially predominant among the teachers
who did not receive in-service training in ICT (Table 5). Those who had attended
in-service training in ICT (A-level technical training and B-level pedagogic training)
adopted the above view to a lesser extent. Thus, teacher training in ICT inuences
the teachers beliefs, and this has implications for teacher training.
With regard to the third objective (to investigate the teachers condence in their
knowledge and ability to integrate ICT in the classroom), the majority of the early
childhood teachers expressed condence in their skills-knowledge for integrating
ICT in preschool classes: around 63% and 69% of the sample either agreed or strongly
agreed with items Q26 and Q27, respectively (Table 2). However, in item 28, I am condent in my ability to plan activities or educational scenarios to help children learn
with-about ICT, around half of the sample expressed condence (50% agreed or
strongly agreed). It was also found that around one-fth of the sample expressed
uncertainty (as they did with the rest of the questionnaire). The teachers condence
in ICT integration (i.e. items 26, 27 and 28) was correlated with each of the following
individual characteristics: years of teaching experience, years of computer experience,
in-service teacher training in ICT and computer self-efcacy. From the above correlations, statistically signicant, positive correlations between condence and years
of computer experience (r = .55), as well as between condence and computer self-efcacy (r = .75), were found. More years of computer experience and higher computer
self-efcacy were found to lead to higher condence in integrating ICT in the classroom. There was no correlation with A-level training (r = .045), while the correlation
with B-level training was not signicant (r = .2). ICT integration in preschool classes is
often attributed to the teachers (Edwards 2013); thus, those teachers who expressed
positive beliefs and higher condence are expected to integrate ICT in their classes.
Indeed, research (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012) has revealed that condent
teachers delivered a variety of computing experiences in preschool classes.

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422

K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas

Previous research has also indicated that beliefs and condence are closely related
to teachers knowledge acquisition and classroom practice (Vartuli 2005). Investigating preschool teachers beliefs about ICT and play is important because their
views affect their classroom practices. For example, they affect whether ICT will be
used during the free play activities, as well as the possible combination with typical
organised activities. The essential role of kindergarten teachers in ICT environments,
in supporting childrens experiences, has been discussed in the relevant literature
(Nikolopoulou 2014; Stephen and Plowman 2008). Additionally, this studys nding
supported an earlier research nding (Gialamas and Nikolopoulou 2010; Nikolopoulou and Gialamas 2015): the higher the teachers condence with technology, the
higher their intention is to use a computer in a preschool class.
The ndings have implications for education policy-makers and, in particular, for
in-service teacher training in ICT. Teachers condence with technology can be
increased via attending appropriate in-service teacher training. Such programmes
should be carefully designed in order to help the teachers, among others, with integrating ICT in kindergarten and with acquiring skills for software evaluation. For
example, teachers need to make the best out of the ICT features (see Facer et al.
2003; Verenikina et al. 2010) in order to support the childrens learning. The
number of early childhood teachers in Greece who attend B-level ICT training is
increasing annually, and this is expected to inuence their beliefs positively. Professional development must address the views of the teachers (Mueller et al. 2008).
The limitations of this study include the size of the sample and the use of a strictly
quantitative approach. Further research employing a larger sample and utilising a
mixed-methods approach would add to the body of knowledge by offering rich
insight into teachers practices and beliefs about the role of ICT in a playful learning
environment.
Identifying early childhood teachers beliefs about ICT and play in preschool is not
an end in itself. As boundaries shift between what is possible in life and what is possible in
the computer environment, there is a need for new denitions of what it means for children to play with digital technologies (Yelland 1999). Computer-digital play is a qualitatively different form of play (Salonius-Pasternak and Gelfond 2005; Stephen and
Plowman 2014), and it is gradually becoming a signicant part of young childrens
lives. In parallel, ICT is not a static technology; new forms of technology are being developed. Future research should investigate the effects of different types of play with ICTon
childrens learning. Traditional activities may be complemented by different experiences
that have been made possible due to the new ICT. Early childhood teachers must be
aware of the potential of such environments and contexts for learning, in order to
support young children with opportunities to play and learn with (and about) them.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the teachers who participated in this study, and the anonymous reviewers
for their constructive comments.

Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the authors.

International Journal of Early Years Education

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Appendix
Condence with technology subscale (Pierce, Stacey, and Barkatsas 2007)
1. I am good at using computers
[strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree]
2. I can x a lot of computer problems
[strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree]
3. I am quick to learn new computer software needed for school
[strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree]
4. I am good at using things like VCRs. DVDs. MP3s and mobile phones
[strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree]