MSc/PgD in Fire and Safety Engineering

BSE 533 Fire Dynamics

Flame Spread

Department of Building Services

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
2015

Subjects for discussion

Flame spread fundamentals

Flame spread theories
Flame spread mechanism
Flame spread and related phenomenon
Video on fundamental concept of fire science/dynamic
Flame spread tests and video on fire test (ISO 9705)
Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in buildings
with video
Discussion session

Fundamentals

Background

Importance of flame spread

A major element in controlling the fire hazard

Critical to the fires destiny

Spread time vs burn time

Preheat adjacent combustibles

Cause pilot ignition
Formation of hot gas layer

High radiation feedback

Increase in heat release rate

Shorten the time to flashover

Important terms

Fire spread

The growth of the combustion process including surface flame spread,

smouldering growth & fire ball in premixed flame propagation

Flame spread

Involve participation of liquid or solid fuel

The process in which the perimeter of fire grows
The extend of burning region, i.e. the region volatilizing & supplying the
fuel

Flame propagation (in premixed fuel & air systems)

Flame propagates in gas phase; a form of flame spread

Flame front
A formal boundary between the un-burnt and burning fuel

Flame front velocity / Rate of flame spread

Rate of movement of the flame front, determined by the ability of the
flame to transfer the necessary heat to pyrolyse the solid and to ignite
the combustible mixture ahead of it.
5

Concept of flame spread

A very complex non-steady state problem

Involve transient processes

Result from the interaction of transport

Transport processes in gas & condensed phases

Fuel vaporization
Chemical reactions of fuel vapours with gaseous oxidizer

Dependent on fuel

Physical properties

Chemical composition,

T, kc, thickness, surface orientation, geometry, continuity

application of fire retardants

Environmental factors,

Humidity, pressure, temperature, direction of flow, air velocity, imposed

heat flux

Flame spread theories

Result from the interaction of

transport processes in gas & condensed phases

fuel vaporization
chemical reactions of fuel vapors with gaseous oxidizer

Advancing ignition front

Heat source
Preheating of fuel ahead of flame
Source of pilot ignition

Flame spread mechanism

Solid phase

1.
2.
3.
4.

Gas phase

5.

6.
7.

8.

A solid fuel exposed to an external heat flux

Heat flux absorbed at solid surface
Solid heated up
Solid pyrolyse
Pyrolised fuel vapor convects & diffuses outward
Pyrolised vapor mixes with hot oxidizer gas
Forming a combustible mixture near the solid surface
Gas phase combustion reaction between fuel vapor & oxidizer

HEAT FLUX
entering into the surface
Balance between the inward conduction, outward convection,
local catalytic reactions & ACCUMULATION OF HEAT
PREHEAT the solid
DEGRADATION of the POLYMER
(endothermal)
SMALL MOLECULES in CONDENSED PHASE
Molecules further break up and vaporize to
PYROLISED VAPORS & GASES
DIFFUSE & FLOW OUT through hot char to further break up,
and possibly catalytically react with the hot char
Forming FINAL PRODUCTS of pyrolysis
Ready to burn as the vapours escape out of the surface to
the GAS PHASE and MIX with oxygen
Ref: [4]

FLAME

10

C
CO2
CO
O2
N2
H2O

Thermal
radiation

O2N2

Smoke

O2N

Air

Flame: A gaseous
oxidation reaction
O2N2

O2N

O2N2

Fuel
Vapour

Liquid
fuel

Combustion zone (Hydroxylation: Chain reactions)

O2N2

Pyrolysis zone

Anatomy of a fire. (Courtesy of Walter M. Haessler.)

11

Criteria for combustion for different states of matter

but only the vapour to burn
12

Flame spread

Complex
Non-steady state problem
Transient process
Dependency on fuel

Physical properties
Chemical composition
Environmental factors

13

2 modes of flame spread

Opposed flow flame spread

The gas flow either naturally induced or forced, opposes the

direction of spread
The flow keeps the flame close to the surface downstream of the
pyrolysis front, altering the heat transfer ahead of the flame
The flow is generally slow
It occurs in downward or horizontal direction of flame spread

14

Opposed flow flame spread

Easier to be studied experimentally

Conduction & radiation heat from flame balanced by opposed
convective heat transfer
Smaller rate of spread
Complicated interactions between the gas & solid phases and
between the flame & flow structure

0o

- 45o

15

Opposed flow flame spread

Direction of
flame spread

Ref: [5]

16

Concurrent flow flame spread or wind-aided

flame spread

In the direction of the flame spread

the flame is pushed forward ahead of the pyrolysis region
favours the transfer of heat from the flame to the unburnt
material
the spread process is generally fast
occurs during the upward spread of flames in natural
convection or in forced flows in the direction of flame
propagation

17

Concurrent flow flame spread

Heat transfer through conduction, convection and radiation

Under turbulent conditions with radiation playing important role
Rapid/ in accelerating rate
More difficult to study experimentally
Finite chemical kinetics effects

0o

+ 45o

+ 90o

18

Concurrent flow flame spread

Direction of
flame spread

Ref: [5]

19

Direction of
flame spread

OPPOSED FLOW FLAME SPREAD

Direction of flame spread
Little radiation
feedback

Conduction
Unburnt fuel
Convective
heat

Direction of
flame spread

CONCURRENT FLOW FLAME SPREAD

Direction of flame spread

Strong radiation
feedback

Conduction
Convective
heat

Unburnt fuel
20

Factors affecting flame spread

Material factors

Chemical

Composition of fuel
Application of fire retardants

Physical

Initial temperature
Surface orientation
Direction of propagation
Thickness
Thermal capacity
Thermal conductivity

Density
Geometry
Continuity

21

Factors affecting flame spread

Environment factors

Composition of atmosphere
Pressure
Ambient temperature
Imposed heat flux
Air velocity

O2 concentration

Variation of flame spread rate over

horizontal PMMA with pressure of
Oxygen & Nitrogen
(Markstein & de Ris 1969) [3]

22

Surface orientation/
Direction of propagation

Rate of vertical spread

accelerates exponentially
Orientation

Rate of flame
spread
(mm s-1)

0o (horizontal)
+ 22.5o
+ 45o
+ 75o
+ 90o
(vertically
upwards)

3.6
6.3
11.2
29.2
46-74 (erratic)

Flame spread rate over filter paper

(Magee & McAlevy 1971) [3]

Illustration of the exponential growth in flame height

for vertical spread (Alpert & Ward 1984) [3] 23

Surface orientation/
Direction of propagation
Material

Orientation
and direction

Rate of flame spread

(mm s-1)

Cardsa

-90o
0o

1.3
~4

PMMA (thick) b

-90o
0o

0.04
~0.07

0o
0o
0o

3.7
2.5
1.6

Polyurethanec

= 15 kgm-3

= 22 kgm-3

= 32 kgm-3
aHirano

et al. (1974)

bFernandez-Pello
cPaul

(1979) [3]

& Williams (1974)

24

Spread of flames on liquids

Temperature above fire point

If an ignition source is applied to a pool of liquid which is at

a temperature above its fire point, then a premixed flame
will spread throughout the combustible mixture which has
been closed to the surface.

If the liquid in the pool had been at a higher temperature,

the rate of spread of premixed flame could have been
higher.

25

Spread of flames on liquids

Temperature below fire point

If the liquid in a pool is at a temperature below its flash

point, it will be difficult to ignite.
Ignition can be achieved only by the prolonged application
of a flame.
Once ignited, rate of surface spread across the surface will
be comparatively low.
It might be expected that the spread would be dependent
on the rate of heat transfer to the surrounding fuel by
radiation from the flame.

26

Spread of flames on solids

There must be a sufficient flow of heat to the fuel to achieve

the critical flow of combustible volatiles.
The surface temperature must be raised to the fire point.
The flame is both the heat source and ignition source.
The rate of spread over the surface is dependent on the
following factors:

Physical and chemical properties

Thickness
Orientation
Geometry
Temperature
Air flow and oxygen concentration

27

Spread of flames on solids

Physical and chemical properties

The time taken to reach the fire point temperature must

depend on the absorptivity, the thermal conductivity, the
specific heat, and the density of the material.

The combined effects of low thermal conductivity and low

density can increase both the ease of ignition and the rate
of flame spread, e.g. foamed plastics used in furniture.

28

Spread of flames on solids

Thickness

Thin sections of fuel can be heated by radiation more

rapidly than thick ones.

This is because of reduced losses by conduction, and

because of the high surface to volume ration.

As the thickness is increased, the rate of spread is reduced

until a critical size is reached beyond the rate remains
constant.

29

Material thickness

Characteristic thermal conduction length, ( t)0.5 depth of

heated layer of a thick material

For an advancing flame front, t = V (exposure time for the

unburnt fuel)

Critical thickness cr

0.5

l : heating length (length of sample perpendicular to the

advancing flame over which the temp. rises from ambient
temperature to the ignition temperature)

For cr , thermally thin

For cr , thermally thick
30

Orientation

The most rapid flame spread over a solid surface is

obtained when the surface is vertical and the flame is
travelling upwards.

The flame becomes very long because it is receiving air

from one side only and also because the pyrolysis zone,
which is supplying volatiles to the flame, increases in length.

The burning rate can be 50 times that of a flame burning

vertically downwards over the same fuel, and about 3 times
the rate of horizontal spread.

31

Geometry

The width of a vertical fuel surface has no effect on the rate

of downward spread of flame, but there is an increase in
the upwards spread with increased width. This can be
related to an increase in the height of the flame, which
results from the increased area of burning.

Flames will spread more rapidly along an edge or at a

corner because here the fuel is being heated from both
sides.

If the fuel is discontinuous, the rate of spread of fire

throughout the array of fuel will depend on the separation
between the pieces, and on the bulk density of the fuel.
32

Geometry

Edge/ Corner effect

V 4 /3

Rate of downward flame spread on

edges/ in corners over PMMA
(Markstein & de Ris 1972) [3]

33

Temperature

If the unburned fuel has been heated, flame spread will be

enhanced because less time will be needed to heat the
surface layers to the fire point.

The heating of unburned fuel by radiation in a room fire

eventually causes the dramatic spread of a flashover.

The importance of the effect of radiation on flame spread is

recognized in the various standard tests which are used to
classify materials according to their fire behaviour.

34

Air flow and oxygen concentration

A flow of air over a surface in the direction of burning

causes an increase in the rate of spread up to the blow-off
velocity.

This is because the flame is bent over towards the surface,

and combustion becomes more efficient: both effects
increase the heat transfer to the unburned fuel.

Similarly, an increase in oxygen concentration increases

the temperature of the flame and at the same time reduces
its thickness, again enhancing heat transfer.

35

Flame spread tests

36

Flame spread tests

How do we rate materials based on flame spread

Standard tests

Small scale
BS 476: Part 7
ASTM E1321 (Lateral Ignition and Flame spread Test; LIFT)
Medium scale
BS EN 13823 (Single Burning Item Test; SBI)
Model Box test (RMB)
Large/Full-scale
ASTM E84 Tunnel Test
ISO 9705

37

BS 476: Part 7

Existing approach used in Hong Kong

Initiated by some disastrous fires caused by rapid flame spread along

wall linings
To simulate a corridor situation with a fire at one end

38

BS476: Part 7

BS476 specifies a method of test for measuring the lateral

spread of flame along the surface of product orientated in
the vertical position under opposed flow conditions.
A classification system is based on the rate and extent of
flame spread.
It provides data suitable for comparing the end-use
performances of essentially flat materials, composites or
assemblies, as for use as the exposed surfaces of walls or
ceilings.
Test results relate only to the behaviour of the test
specimens of product under the particular condition of test,
but not the potential fire hazard.
39

BS 476: Part 7
Class

Spread of flame / mm
At 1.5 min.

Limit

Class 0

Limit for one

specimen in
sample

Final

Limit

Limit for one

specimen in
sample

BS 476: Part 6
Composed throughout of materials of limited combustibility; or
Class 1 material which has a fire propagation index (I) 12
and sub-index (i1) 6

Class 1

165

165+25

165

165+25

Class 2

215

215+25

455

455+45

Class 3

265

265+25

710

710+75

Class 4

Exceeding the limits for Class 3

40

Fire Test Standard - BS 476

(Fire tests on building materials and structures)

Part 3: External fire exposure roof test

Part 4 Non-combustibility test for materials
Part 5 Ignitability
Part 6 Fire Propagation index
Part 7 Surface flame spread tests
Part 8 Fire Resistance of elements of building construction
Part 10 Guide to the principles and application of fire testing
Part 11 Heat emission from building materials
Part 12 Ignitability of products by direct flame impingement
Part 13 Ignitability of products subjected to thermal irradiance
41

Fire Test Standard BS 476

Part 15 Rate of heat release of products

Part 20 Determination of the fire resistance of elements of
construction
Part 21 Determination of the fire resistance of load-bearing
elements of construction
Part 22 Determination of the fire resistance of non-load bearing
elements of construction
Part 23 Determination of the contribution of components to the
fire resistance of a structure
Part 24 Determination of the fire resistance of ventilation ducts
Part 31 Measuring smoke penetration through doorsets and
shutter assemblies
Part 32 Full scale fire tests within buildings
Part 33 Full scale room test for surface products (ISO 9705)
42

Fire development curve

Time

Fire Curve and Phenomena

43

Testing for different stages of a fire

44

BS 476 part 7 as local legislative

requirements
Relevance as per FSD requirements:

Part 7 All linings acoustic and thermal insulation purposes

in ducting and concealed locations shall be of class
1 or 2 Rate of surface flame spread of flame as per
BS 476 Pt. 7 or its international equivalence or be
brought up to that standard by use of an approved
fire retardant products

45

BS 476 part 7 as local legislative

requirements

As required as licensing requirement for the issuance of fire

safety certificate in license application by the application of fire
retardant to the combustible materials such as window curtain,
false ceiling, wall furnishing etc.
> Restaurant
> Factory Canteen
> Public Places of Entertainment
> Child Care Centres
> Non-design School
> Karaoke Establishments
> Hotel, Bed-space Apartment .etc
46

BS 476 part 7 as local legislative

requirements

Since early sixties, more than one hundred and forty fire
retardant solution and about twenty fire retardant products
were approved by the Fire Services Department (mainly
class 1 rate of surface flame spread as per BS 476 part 7)

47

BS 476 part 8, 20 24 as local legislative

requirements

Part 8 or 20 to 23 for fire resisting material of the smoke

barrier to contain the smoke in the smoke control system

Part 20 and BS 7346 part 3 for smoke curtain system

Part 22 and 23 for fire resisting material of door sets for use
in the protected areas, such as staircase enclosure

Part 24 Determination of the fire resistance of ventilation

ducts
48

Fire Test Standards

Relevance as per BD Codes/requirements:

Before early nineties, BD did approve the fire resisting

products

The current practice as per Practice Note for Authorized

Persons (PNAP) and Registered Structural Engineers (RSE)
No. 251, BD will recognize those laboratories accredited by
the HK Laboratory Accreditation Scheme (HOKLAS) or
those with mutual recognition agreements/arrangements
with HOKLAS for testing of building materials

49

Standard Fire Tests

PNAP 292 - BD has maintained a Central Data Bank (CDB)

containing lists of building materials, components and
construction systems that have been accepted by some
government departments. The CDB will initially contain
information accepted by BD

APs/RSEs who make use of or relies on any information in

the CDB shall take full responsibility for the application and
performance of the building material or construction system

50

About the Central Data Bank

Central Data Bank Important Notes

Practice Note for Authorized Persons and Registered
Structural Engineers 292
List of Building Materials
List of Building Components
List of Construction Systems

Buildings Department has declared that the Central Data Bank contains
only Historical information on material acceptance in respect of a building
development. Therefore, BD will not accept direct application from a
supplier, manufacturer or alike for including its products in the CDB.
51

ASTM E1321, LIFT

Lateral Ignition and Flame spread Test

Using simple theories for ignition and flame spread to obtain materials
flammability properties
Focus on fire spread over vertically oriented materials

Too
(xf -xp) No degradation or vaporization

Flame heat flux receiving region

Receive most of flame heat transfer

xb

Tig

Burn-out region

xp
(xp -xb) Pyrolysis region
xf

(Tip of flame)

52

ASTM E84 Tunnel Test

Existing approach used in USA

To simulate the growth stage of a fire when interior finishes

are ignited & consumed
The flame source is comparable to a fire in a large waste
container or a small upholstered chair

53

The Tunnel Test

Tunnel: 0.451 m (W) x 0.305 m (D) x 7.62 m (L)

Gas burner: 2 x 88 kW for 10 min
1.35 m flame covering 0.63 m 2 of the specimen
Specimen: 0.61 m (W) by 7.62 m (L)
3.34 m2, Max. thickness of 0.1 m

54

The Tunnel Test

Classification system:

Measurement of flame front distances at

every 0.6 m, or
time intervals 30 s
Flame front distances vs time curve
Flame Spread Index (FSI)

Example of distance-time curve with flame front recession

55

ISO 9705

It is a fire test for Full Scale Room Test for Surface

Products as in the BS 476 Part 33

56

ISO 9705 - Fire tests - Full-scale room test for

surface products with video demonstration

ISO 9705 specifies a test method by simulating a fire under

well ventilated conditions which starts in a corner of a small
room with a single doorway.

To evaluate the contribution to fire growth provided by a

surface product using a specified ignition source.

A test performed in accordance with the method specified

in this standard provides data for early stage of a fire from
ignition up to flashover.

57

ISO 9705

Room: 3.6 m (L) x 2.4 m (W) x 2.4 m (H)

Gas burner: 0.17 m x 0.17 m by 0.145 m (H)
100 kW for 10 min; 300 kW for further 10 min
(if no flashover)
Specimen: 31.68 m2 in full thickness

58

Testing results

59

Testing results Chipboard + FR

A
C D Time to reach HRRmax

60

Testing results

No official classification system

Ranking parameters:

Peak HRR
Total heat release
Time to flashover
Amount of smoke evolution

Assessment on contribution to fire growth

61

Full-scale test on chipboard

2 1

3
4

62

Flame spread in
Buildings

63

Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in

buildings

Some photos on flame spread in buildings

Video on flame spread in a residential building
Buildings Department requirement
(passive fire protection system)
Fire Services Department requirement
(active fire protection system)

64

A case study domestic fire

Source: Centaline Property Agency

65

131800

131811

131812

131855

66

132720

132917

67

Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in buildings

Windsor Tower in Madrid, Spain - February 12 2005

68

Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in buildings

69

Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in buildings

70

Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in buildings

A big
apartment
fire in
Shanghai
15 Nov.
2010

71

Practical thinking of controlling flame spread in buildings

72

References
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

James G. Quinitere, Surface flame spread, The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, 3rd edition, Society of Fire Protection Engineers and National Fire Protection
Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.
J.G. Quintiere, Principles of fire behavior, Delmar Publishers, NY, 1998.
D. Drysdale, An introduction to fire dynamics, 2nd edition, Wiley, UK, 1999.
A.M. Kanury, Thermal decomposition kinetics of wood pyrolysis, Combustion and
Flame, No. 18, pp. 75-83, 1972.
Combustion fundamentals of fire, edited by G. Cox, Academic press, UK, 1995.
Flame spread, Underdowns Practical Fire Precautions, Gower Technical, UK, 1989
Codes of practice for minimum fire service installations and equipment and inspection,
testing and maintenance of installations and equipment, Fire Services Department, Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region, 1998.
BS476: Part 7: 1997, Fire tests on building materials and structure, Part 7, Method of test
to determine the classification of the surface spread of flame of products, British
Standards Institution, London, UK, 1997.
ASTM E1321-97a, Standard test method for determining material ignition and flame
spread properties, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA,
1997.
ASTM E84-99, Standard test method for surface burning characteristics of building
materials, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 1999.
NFPA 255: 2000, Standard method of test of surface burning characteristics of building
materials, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, USA, 2000.
ISO 9705: 1993(E), Fire tests Full-scale room test for surface products, International
Standards Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1996.

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