Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph
The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian
Chain (Spain): Quantitative geomorphological analysis and geochronology
V.N. Scotti a, P. Molin a,, C. Faccenna a, M. Soligo a, A. Casas-Sainz b
a
b
Dipartimento di Scienze, Universit degli Studi Roma Tre, Largo S. L. Murialdo, 1-00146 Rome, Italy
Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de Zaragoza, c/Pedro Cerbuna, 12-50009 Zaragoza, Spain
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 18 February 2013
Received in revised form 12 September 2013
Accepted 21 September 2013
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Landscape evolution
Iberian Chain
Uplift
Topography
Hydrography
Incision rate
a b s t r a c t
In tectonically active areas, the landscape response to tectonic forcing is described and possibly quantied by
regional topographic and hydrographic features as well as by spatial variation in rates of surface processes. We
investigated the recent landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (NE Spain), an intraplate thrust-belt formed in
Cenozoic times and characterized by a dome-shaped topography. In its central sector the landscape is dominated
by low relief surfaces, Late Neogene (?) in age, presently standing at an average altitude of 1300 m. A recent
regional uplift controlled the organization of the present uvial network and dissection of the landscape. In
this framework we investigated the geomorphic responses to tectonic forcing by the calculation of morphometric
parameters, focusing on topography (map of local relief, swath proles) and hydrography (basin hypsometric
curve and integral, basin asymmetry factor, river longitudinal proles and relative indices), and using SRTM
DEM. The results of morphometric analysis have been coupled with radiometric uranium-series dating of calcareous tufas lying on uvial strath terraces. The obtained ages allow the estimation of incision rate along the High
Tajo and Martn rivers. Our results indicate that uplift and rock-type erodibility are the main factors inuencing
landscape evolution of the study area. The incision rates are very similar throughout the central sector of the
range, indicating that, despite subtle local variation, the rivers are responding to a main tectonic input: the regional uplift. In conclusion, the Iberian Chain landscape is in a transient state in response to a recent dome-like
uplift. Indeed, the uvial processes that weakly incised this landscape at a rate of ~0.6 mm/yr are approaching
a radial pattern. On the basis of geological and geomorphic constraints, we hypothesize that the uplift started
around or after 3 Ma.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
First-order topographic features, drainage system pattern and
spatial variation in surface processes rates in tectonically active areas
represent proxies with which to quantitatively characterize landscape
response to crustal and sub-crustal processes (Harbor, 1997; Burbank
and Pinter, 1999; Willett, 1999; Molin et al., 2004; Lock et al., 2006).
The competing forces of most of these processes that build-up topography and of erosion that shapes it tend to balance over time (Hack,
1960; Willett et al., 2001). So, if a low relief landscape is uplifted, the
steepening of river channels and adjacent hillslopes induces a progressive increase in erosion rates that eventually could counterbalance
rock uplift rate (Whipple, 2001). In this case, the landscape changes
from a transient state of disequilibrium to a steady state. The response
times of landscape to tectonic or climatic perturbation range from 104
to 106 yr (Whipple, 2001; Wegmann et al., 2007). Generally speaking,
the timescale of regional tectonic input is long with respect to landscape
response time, whereas the timescale of recent climate changes is
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 657338026.
E-mail address: paola.molin@uniroma3.it (P. Molin).
0169-555X/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Fig. 1. Topography of the Iberian Peninsula (SRTM DEM database). The black box delimits the studied area. Mountain ranges: Galician Massif (GM), Cantabrian Mts (CM), BasqueCantabrian
Mts (BCM), Pyrenees (Pi), Leon Mts (LM), Cameros Massif (CaM), Central System (CS), Iberian Chain (IC), Catalan Coastal Range (CCR), Toledo Mts (TM), Sierra Morena (SM), External
Betics (EB), Internal Betics (IB). Basins: Aquitaine B. (AB), Duero B. (DB), Almazn B. (AmB), Ebro B. (EB), Madrid (High Tajo) B. (MB), Low Tajo B. (LTB), Guadiana-La Mancha B. (GB),
Guadalquivir B. (GqB).
debate. Some models proposed that the uplift is generated by largescale lithospheric folding (Cloetingh et al., 2002; De Vicente et al.,
2007), by late stage compressive episode or erosional unloading
(Casas-Sainz and De Vicente, 2009), or by the possible action of a mantle
upwelling (Boschi et al., 2010; Faccenna and Becker, 2010).
Here, we investigate the geomorphology and the recent landscape
evolution of the Iberian Chain. Geomorphic responses to tectonic
forcing have been analyzed by the calculation of morphometric parameters, focusing on the rst order features of the present topography
(map of local relief, swath proles, frequency plots of slope and local
relief values and their relationships with elevation) and hydrography
(basin hypsometric curve and integral, basin asymmetry factor, river
longitudinal proles and relative indices) using the SRTM DEM as the
main data source (Snyder et al., 2000; Molin et al., 2004; Wobus et al.,
2006; Molin et al., 2012). Morphometric analysis has been also combined with radiometric uranium-series dating of calcareous tufas lying
on uvial strath terraces in order to estimate incision rates.
Our goal is to investigate the landscape evolution of an intraplate
orogen where crustal or sub-crustal processes have driven a regional
dome-like uplift. The dominance of this upheaval in geomorphic evolution is just partially disturbed by local scale changes in rock-type or tectonic features. The results are consistent with a poorly incised landscape
where erosion rates are far from counterbalancing the uplift rate. We
used these results to develop a conceptual model for the long-term
evolution of the Iberian Chain landscape.
2. Geological setting
The Iberian Chain is an intraplate double vergent thrust belt, formed
as consequence of the convergence between Africa and Iberia (Late
CretaceousMiddle Miocene). The range itself results from the positive
inversion of faults originated during the Mesozoic extension of the
Iberian Basin (lvaro et al., 1979; Guimer et al., 2004), accommodating Cenozoic intraplate shortening (Casas-Sainz and Faccenna,
2001). Estimates of shortening range up to 22% (30 km) along the
DemandaCameros Unit (northwestern sector of the chain, Casas-Sainz,
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Fig. 2. A) Geological map of the study area compiled from 1:1,000,000 scale map of the Iberian Peninsula (IGME, 1994), draped over 1000 m DEM. Major streams of Iberian Chain
are displayed for reference. The trace of prole ab is also shown; B) simplied geological cross-section of Iberian Chain (modied after De Vicente and Vegas, 2009; C) geological
cross-section along the trace ab of the Pramo Fm., showing its outcropping and interpolated base, the top surface envelope, and the planation surface developed on the Mesozoic
basement. The restored base of Pramo Fm. before its hypothetical upwarping is also shown. Note that in this case, the maximum uplift of the Pramo Fm. would be ~500 m with respect
to the Madrid Basin.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
controversial, being related either to compressional episode or to extensional structures that can be correlated with NESW extensional structures evident along the Mediterranean coast and related to the Neogene
opening of the Valencia Trough (Guimer and Alvaro, 1990; Roca and
Guimer, 1992; Vegas, 1992; CortsGracia and Casas-Sainz, 2000).
The topography of the belt is characterized by a regional-scale nearly
at erosion surface, the so-called Main Planation Surface of the Iberian
Chain (Birot, 1959; Sol Sabars, 1979; Pea et al., 1984; Simn, 1984),
or by two distinct nested surfaces (S2 and S3; Gracia-Prieto et al.,
1988; Gutirrez Elorza and Gracia, 1997). The planation surfaces are
from Late Miocene to middle Pliocene in age according to their morphological correlation with the uvial/lacustrine deposits of the intermontane basins (Pea et al., 1984; Gracia-Prieto et al., 1988; Gutirrez,
1996). These planation surfaces are younger than the so-called IntraMiocene Erosion Surface (Pea et al., 1984) or S1 (Gutirrez Elorza
and Gracia, 1997), which is located on top of the highest peaks of the
Iberian Chain at an elevation of 17002000 m. The Main Planation
Surface of the Iberian Chain has been often used as a regional morphological feature marker (Pea et al., 1984; Simn, 1984; Gracia-Prieto
et al., 1988; Simn, 1989; Gutirrez Elorza and Gracia, 1997; Rubio
and Simn, 2007). Alternatively, the planation surfaces are considered
as originally stepped erosional surfaces (Casas-Sainz and Corts-Gracia,
2002; Gracia et al., 2003; Benito-Calvo and Prez-Gonzlez, 2007)
developed either during a compressional uplift of the chain (Gonzlez
et al., 1998; Guimer and Gonzlez, 1998; Casas-Sainz and CortsGracia, 2002) or the Neogene stage (Gracia-Prieto et al., 1988; Gracia
et al., 2003; Benito-Calvo and Prez-Gonzlez, 2007). The planation surfaces as well as the endorheic basins appear not to be affected by the
consequence of the strong base-level drop (~1500 m below the present
sea level; Clauzon et al., 1996) related to the Messinian Salinity Crisis.
Indeed, this base-level lowering, which lasted for around 600 ka,
produced in the Ebro River a knickpoint presently located at 10 km
from the present coastline and completely buried by Pliocene deposits
(Babault et al., 2006; Loget and Van Den Driessche, 2009 and references
therein).
A regional tectonic uplift occurred producing a general upwarping
of the range, smoothly tilting the Pramo carbonates. The present-day
river network dissects the planation surface. The regressive erosion of
Ebro, Tajo and Turia rivers drove the progressive capture of the intermontane basins and their transformation into exorheic basins from the
Pliocene onward (Gutirrez et al., 2008). At present, Upper Pliocene
Quaternary deposits are conned mostly in internally drained or recently captured intermontane basins (Rubio and Simn, 2007; Gutirrez
et al., 2008 and references therein; Lafuente et al., 2011).
The timing and extent of uplift of the Iberian Chain are poorly
constrained. Fig. 2C shows a cross-section of the belt illustrating the
extent and attitude of the Pramo Fm. carbonates and of the Upper planation surface. The Pramo Fm. is gently tilted towards the SW, linking
the top Madrid Basin inll with the at Main Planation Surface on top of
the belt. Currently, the elevation difference between them is more than
500 m (Fig. 2C). These structural relationships simply indicate that
uplift occurred after the deposition of the Pramo Fm., and therefore
post-dates the main compressional phases. Casas-Sainz and De Vicente
(2009) interpreted the uplift of the Iberian Chain as the recent stage of a
more general uplift that involved Central Iberia, forming highly elevated
at surfaces (the Iberian Meseta) presently located at 600800 m a.s.l.
These high plains are rimmed by mountain chains reaching heights of
up to 1500 m: Cantabrian Mountains, Central System, Iberian Chain,
and Sierra Morena (Fig. 1).
Several hypotheses attempt to explain ages and tectonic origin for
the uplift of Central Iberia. Because of the lack of intrusive rock outcrops,
no absolute thermochronological data have been obtained in the Iberian
Chain. Fission track analyses performed in the Central System (De
Bruijne and Andriessen, 2002; Ter Voorde et al., 2004) as well as in
the Catalan Coastal Range (Juez-Larr and Andriessen, 2006) suggest a
pronounced cooling acceleration starting in the Early Pliocene (5 My).
E
:
R
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Fig. 3. A) Local relief map of the Iberian Peninsula, computed by subtracting a minimum from a maximum topography enveloping surfaces (see text for explanation); B) relief anomaly
(Local relief/Elevation) map of the Iberian Peninsula. See caption of Fig. 1 for name abbreviations.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Fig. 4. A) DEM of the study area and location of traces of the four swath proles; B) swath proles showing the trend of the maximum, minimum, and mean topography of the Iberian
Chain. In each prole local relief has been computed by subtracting the minimum from the maximum elevation. IC: Iberian Chain; TB: Teruel Basin; MB: Madrid Basin; JB: Jiloca Basin;
GB: Guadiana Basin; EB: Ebro Basin; CM: Cameros Massif.
cc and dd, Fig. 4) the relatively steeper anks of the range make
a general asymmetric dome-shape. The general dome-shape is also
interrupted by the Teruel and Jiloca intermontane basins (proles aa
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Remnants of higher at surfaces can be also recognized in the interior, standing at ~1650 m and ~1800 m a.s.l. west and east of the Teruel
Basin respectively (Fig. 4). Presently, these surfaces are not topographically connected with the lower ones.
Generally speaking, throughout the chain the local relief values are
mostly constant, around 200 m, even where the intermontane basins
are located (proles aa, bb, cc, Fig. 4). This at pattern indicates
a very low spatial variation in uvial incision in the whole study area.
The highest local relief values are along the eastern Mediterranean
ank, east of Teruel Basin (swath prole aa, Fig. 4), where active or
recent extensional faults are located (e.g.: Perea et al., 2012). To the
north, a small increase in local relief is where the Ebro River tributaries
are located. On the contrary, the lowest values (~0 m) are along the
southern ank where the Iberian Chain topography decreases gently
down to the Guadiana Basin (swath proles cc and dd, Fig. 4).
3.1.3. Slope and local relief distribution in the Iberian Chain
We calculated the frequency of slope and local relief (Fig. 5) and we
investigated the relationships between elevation, slope and local relief
to quantify the rst order features of the Iberian Chain. A slope map
and a local relief map were used as data sources. The raw elevation
data were divided into altitude intervals of 50 m and we extracted the
slope and local relief modal value for each of them. These values were
plotted in frequency diagrams (Fig. 5A, B).
1,27
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
Count (%)
Count (%)
20
50
40
30
84.44
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
60
100
Slope ()
Slope Mode ()
10,00
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
0
500
200
300
400
500
1000
1500
2000
500
1000
1500
2000
Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)
Slope Mode ()
10,00
8,00
R=0.63
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
0
50
100
150
200
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
the remnants of upland low relief surfaces (between 1700 and 2000 m,
Fig. 5 D).
AF 100
Ar
At
where Ar is the area of the basin on the downstream right of the main
trunk, and At is the total area of the drainage basin. AF values close to
50 are typical of symmetric drainage basins, AF values greater than 50
indicate that the channel has shifted towards the downstream left and
values less than 50 are indicative of channel shifting towards the downstream right.
According to Prez-Pea et al. (2010), we classied the AF using
the index:
A
AF 50100 r
A
Fig. 6. Map of the analyzed drainage basins of eastern Central System and Iberian Chain with their asymmetry factor. The plotted arrows indicate the direction of the asymmetry and their
colors indicate the intensity of the asymmetry. Alberche (Al), Guadarrama (Gr), Jarama (Jr); Madrid Basin side: Henares (He), Tajua (Ta), Tajo (Tj); Jcar (Ju), Cabriel (C), Magro (Mg),
Turia (Tu), Mijares (Mj); Guadalope (Gp), Martn (Mt), Aguasvivas (Ag), Huerva (Hu), Jiloca (Ji) and Jaln (Ja). (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
AF* (asymmetry
factor)
HI (hyps.
integral)
(concavity)
ksn (norm.
steepness)
0.27
0.17
0.24
0.28
0.47
0.38
0.60
0.67
0.49
0.22
0.28
0.42
0.15
0.085
0.17
0.085
0.063
0.100
68.6
43.3
51.6
31.3
26.5
31.4
Mediterranean side
Jcar
1.90
Cabriel
5.85
Magro
0.08
Turia
6.31
Mijares
2.59
0.4502
0.44
0.48
0.48
0.54
0.24
0.20
0.35
0.29
0.17
0.098
0.130
0.047
0.057
0.098
39.9
44.8
41.3
58.1
81.4
0.42
0.41
0.46
0.42
0.51
0.47
0.34
0.28
0.29
0.15
0.30
0.24
0.096
0.048
0.13
0.055
0.16
0.071
80.4
58.5
56.6
45.7
52.1
58.9
5.86
2.08
21.06
1.02
5.84
17.97
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
10
1.0
0.8
Henares
Tajua
Alto Tajo
Alberche
Guadarrama
Jarama
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
Ebro Side
1.0
Jcar
Cabriel
Magro
Turia
Mijares
1.0
Mediterranean Side
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.8
Guadalope
Martn
Aguasvivas
Huerva
Jiloca
Jaln
0.2
0,7
0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
Iberian Chain
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
Hypsometric
Integral
Ebro Basin
Mediterranean Sea
Madrid Basin
l
s
s
e
n
a
a
a
e
a
jo
a
n vas
ar
ie gro
l
ria re
rv iloc
ch ram ram are ju
op art
i
Ta Jc abr
a
Ja
ue
n
Tu Mija dal
J
r
a
sv
o
a
M
t
e
M
a
C
H
l
l
J
a
T
a
d
H
u
A
A
u
ua
G
Ag
G
r
be
Alberche
Guadarrama
Jarama
Henares
Tajua
Alto Tajo
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0
500
1000
Elevation (m)
1500
2000
Mediterranean Side
12.0
Jcar
Cabriel
Magro
Turia
Mijares
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0
500
1000
Elevation (m)
1500
2000
Guadalope
Martn
Aguas.
10.0
Huerva
Jiloca
Jaln
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Elevation (m)
Fig. 7. AC) Hypsometric curves of the studied drainage basins. H: maximum elevation within the basin; h: elevation; A: total surface area of the basin; a: area within the basin above a
given elevation h; D) values of hypsometric integral for the analyzed drainage basins displayed from the SW to the NE following a counterclockwise direction; EG) variation of normalized
drainage area values of analyzed basins as function of elevation.
In the Iberian Chain, the river prole concavity ranges from 0.15 to
0.42 with the exception of the Jiloca River that has a negative concavity
(0.35) (Table 1, Fig. 9). In general the rivers that drain the Iberian
Chain are characterized by low or very low values of concavity (average
value = 0.27), suggesting that they are in a transient state of disequilibrium. The concavity of the rivers that drain the Central System is
higher (0.490.67), indicating that here the hydrography is much closer
to the equilibrium state (Figs. 9, 10, Table 1).
The analysis does not show any clear relationship between and ksn
(Fig. 10). The values of the normalized steepness index vary from 26.5 to
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
11
Fig. 8. Map of channel steepness indices extracted throughout the Iberian Chain and its surroundings from SRTM DEM using the Stream Proler tool, available at www.geomorphtools.org,
with procedures described in Wobus et al. (2006). Steepness indices are normalized (ksn) to a reference concavity (ref) of 0.45 (Wobus et al., 2006).
81.4 (Table 1); the lowest values are relative to the rivers owing
through the southern ank of the Iberian Chain. The highest values are
relative to the Mijares and Guadalope rivers whose source is located
where the chain topography is more elevated (Figs. 2, 9B, 10). A general
increase in normalized steepness index occurs from the SW ank of the
Iberian Chain to its NE corner; from here the values decrease to the NW
(Fig. 10). The rivers of the Central System have values of ksn higher than
the ones of the adjacent Henares, Tajua and Alto Tajo rivers (Fig. 10).
Fig. 8 shows that anomalously high values of steepness index are
widely present in the lower segment of channels located in the
northern and eastern anks of the Iberian Chain (ksn = 50150, excepting knickpoints and knickzones), whereas low gradient reaches
(ksn = 050) characterize the chain interior. In contrast, the southern
ank is characterized by lower values for most of the channels length
(ksn = 3050), except for discrete knickpoints (ksn = 50150). The
rivers draining the eastern sector of the Central System have lowgradient reaches (ksn = 050) downstream, but high steepness indices
(ksn = 50150) upstream. The Guadiana, Loranca, Duero, Almazn basins and the Pyrenean side of Ebro Basin show a similar general pattern
characterized by low-gradient proles.
The longitudinal proles of the rivers draining the eastern sector
of the Central System are characterized by concave-up shape, with
knickzones related to the presence of less erodible granites (Fig. 9A).
The longitudinal proles of rivers draining the Iberian Chain are less
concave, sometimes are straight or even convex. They are also characterized by knickpoints often related to lithological changes (gray arrows
in Fig. 9). In more detail, among the streams that drain the southeastern ank of the Iberian Chain and ow down to the Madrid basin
(Fig. 9DF), the Henares and Tajua river proles exhibit a rectilinear
shape, while the Alto Tajo River reveals a concave-up shape. All the rivers
that ow to the Mediterranean Sea show almost rectilinear proles. Jcar
and Magro rivers exhibit a change in channel slope at ~630 m a.s.l.
that denes an upstream low gradient segment ( ~ 0.48, ksn ~ 28 for
ref = 0.45), owing in the upland low-relief surfaces (Fig. 9A).
The knickpoints above 1000 a.s.l. in the Turia and Mijares river
proles dene the upstream segments corresponding with the Teruel
basin and the Mijares Graben, respectively.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
12
V.N. Scotti et al. / Geomorphology xxx (2013) xxxxxx
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
Fig. 9. River longitudinal proles (AF: Madrid Basin-side rivers; GM: Mediterranean-side rivers; NS: Ebro Basin-side rivers). Each plot consists of two diagrams: elevation vs. distance (longitudinal prole) and log slope vs. log area. Longitudinal
prole plots: gray arrows show the location of main knickpoints related to rock-types changes and tectonic structures, while black arrows show the location of the knickpoints dividing the proles in two different segments; D indicates dams. Log
slope vs. log area plots: blue and cyan lines represent regression lines tting data with the concavity as a free parameter and the reference concavity ref = 0.45, respectively. Red squares are log-bin averages of the slope-area data. (For interpretation
of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
13
Fig. 9 (continued).
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
90
0,9
80
0,7
70
0,5
60
0,3
50
0,1
40
-0,1
30
Concavity
Steepness
14
-0,3
20
10
l
r
he ma ma res a ajo ca rie gro ria res ope rtn ivas rva loca ln
e Ji
ra ara na aju o T J ab
a Tu ija dal Ma sv
Ja
r
b
t
e
M
a
C
M a
Hu
T Al
J
H
ua
Al ad
u
g
u
G
A
G
c
er
-0,5
Steepness
Concavity
Fig. 10. Values of concavity and steepness indices of longitudinal proles of the studied rivers, displayed from the SE to the NE following a counterclockwise direction.
(e.g.: Henning et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1993; Dramis et al., 1999;
Horvatini et al., 2000).
4.1. Sampling and method
Calcareous tufas have been dated by the uranium-series disequilibrium method (Ivanovich and Harmon, 1992) using alpha spectrometry.
This method is based on the measurement of authigenic 230Th developed from radioactive decay of 234U. Calcareous tufas are a mixture of
calcium carbonate and detrital minerals, in which the radionuclides
are present both in the authigenic and detrital fractions. Only the
authigenic fraction enables to estimate the age of the carbonates. Four
sub-samples from each outcrop were collected at the same stratigraphic
level within a distance of 1 m in order to obtain coeval samples with different proportions of homogeneous detrital and authigenic carbonate.
Samples were obtained from compact, micritic layers.
About 30 g of the samples was dissolved in 1 N HNO3 and ltered to
separate the leachates from the insoluble residue. The leachate was
heated at 100 C after adding few milliliters of hydrogen peroxide
in order to destroy the organic matter. The residue was dissolved in
HF + HClO4, dried and redissolved in 1 N HNO3. Both fractions were
then combined and spiked with a 228Th/232U tracer. Chemical separation and extraction of the isotopic complexes of uranium and thorium
were performed using ion-exchange columns containing organic
resin, eluted with HNO3 and HCl. The ages of tufas were calculated following the technique outlined for impure carbonates in Bischoff and
Fitzpatrick (1991), the so-called total-sample dissolution (TSD) procedure. This method was chosen over using leachates alone (Schwarcz
and Latham, 1989) because the leaching method gives reliable results
only in the case of selective dissolution of the carbonate fraction, without any removal of U and Th isotopes from the detrital component, or
when U and Th are leached without any fractionation. Generally, this
condition is not veried because U and Th are often fractionated and
Th can be reabsorbed into the residual component. When analyzing
samples consisting of simple mixtures of carbonate and a detrital component, the use of the TSD method is preferred to determine the age because the sample is totally dissolved and consequently no preferential
leaching or re-adsorption can occur. The presence of detrital fraction
was marked by 232Th deriving from the surrounding environment.
Corrections required in the presence of non-radiogenic 230Th were
performed for samples with 230Th/232Th activity ratio less than or
equal to 50. We measured the 230Th/232Th, 234U/232Th, and 238U/232Th
activity ratios of four coeval sub-samples in order to obtain the value
of the 230Th/234U and 234U/238U activity ratios in the pure carbonate
fraction. These values were respectively calculated from the slopes of
the regression lines in the 230Th/232Th vs 234U/232Th and 234U/232Th vs
238
U/232Th isochron plots. The ages were calculated using ISOPLOT, a
plotting and regression program for radiogenic-isotope data (Ludwig,
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
15
Table 2
Isotope data, activity ratios and ages for calcareous tufa sub-samples of Iberian Chain.
Sample
RUG 3
RUG 4
PSP 3-1
PSP 7-2
Sub-sample U (ppm)
RUG 3b
RUG 4a
PSP 3-1d
PSP 7-2a
PSP 7-2b
PSP 7-2d
PSP 7-2e
PSP 12-1 PSP 12-1a
PSP 12-1b
PSP 12-1c
PSP 12-1e
MON 3 MON 3b
RP 1
RP 1b
0.129
0.141
0.095
0.090
0.103
0.086
0.087
0.071
0.074
0.076
0.070
0.296
0.200
230
Th/232Th
0.004
1.569 0.052
0.005 138.773 22.313
0.003 143.322 42.751
0.003
1.340 0.208
0.004
2.639 0.335
0.003
4.174 0.619
0.003 24.646 6.802
0.003
4.233 0.608
0.002
3.618 0.501
0.004
3.654 0.260
0.002
4.828 0.688
0.012 80.632 13.780
0.010 92.480 21.498
234
U/238U
1.169
1.167
1.079
1.323
1.395
1.426
1.366
1.325
1.495
1.450
1.431
1.331
1.264
0.040
0.041
0.038
0.055
0.055
0.056
0.052
0.075
0.058
0.081
0.054
0.034
0.040
230
Th/234U
0.711
0.567
0.624
0.132
0.047
0.059
0.050
0.089
0.144
0.067
0.054
0.315
0.581
0.030
0.026
0.027
0.010
0.004
0.006
0.004
0.009
0.014
0.007
0.005
0.017
0.031
234
U/232Th
238
U/232Th
(230Th/234U)c
(234U/238U)c
2.210 0.101
17.631 1.397
55.016 6.174
70.543 9.612
492.195 133.784
47.283 6.525
25.067 3.166
31.003 3.365
82.277 11.744
1.891 0.087
13.318 1.063
39.411 4.430
49.472 5.545
360.260 97.456
35.697 4.955
17.099 2.169
21.378 2.348
54.481 8.231
0.595 0.043a
0.0449 0.00
96
89
105
1.435 0.023
5
0.023 0.003
Age (kyr)
11
6
8
0.8
41 2
91 7
Errors are quoted as 1. (230Th/234U)c and (234U/238U)c are referenced to the pure carbonate fraction used in the calculation of the age.
a
Age has been corrected for initial (230Th/232Th) activity ratio of 0.85 0.36 (upper crust value, Wedepohl, 1995).
230
Th/234U is much
Fig. 11. A) Panoramic view of Puente de San Pedro sampling location. The planation surface as well as the four levels of terraces are indicated. B) Outcrop of the rst level terrace showing
the bedrock (Cretaceous sandstone) overlaid by alluvial gravel and calcareous tufas.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
16
Fig. 12. A) local relief map of Iberian Chain showing the location of the analyzed fresh tufa samples (white circles) and the estimated incision rates for each site; B) radiometric ages of
strath terraces in Alto Tajo and Martn River valleys compared with the standard marine oxygen-isotope curve by Martinson et al. (1987).
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
35
230
25
20
15
MSWD:0.054
10
600
U/232Th
Th/232Th
30
700
234
17
500
400
300
MSWD:0.010
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
50
100
150
300
350
400
80
U/232Th
Th/232Th
230
250
100
5
4
200
238U/232Th
234U/232Th
234
60
40
MSWD:0.121
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
234U/232Th
10
20
30
40
50
60
238U/232Th
Fig. 13. 2-dimensional isochron plots, with 1 error crosses, of four coeval sub-samples from (A) terrace III (sample 7-2) and (B) terrace IV (sample 12-1), Puente de San Pedro site. The
slopes in the (234U/232Th) vs (238U/232Th) and (230Th/232Th) vs (234U/232Th) diagrams represent, respectively, the (234U/238U) and (230Th/234U) activity ratios of the pure carbonate fraction.
MSWD: mean square weighted deviation.
variation across the intermontane basins (Fig. 4), indicating that these
depressions could constitute pre-existing topographic features with respect to the regional uplift. Despite the high altitude, the central sector
of the range records the lowest local relief values, showing more similarity with the surrounding Madrid and Duero basins than with all the
other mountain belts of the Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 3). The longitudinal
proles of rivers draining the Iberian Chain are characterized by low
values of concavity (average value: 0.27), indicating that the basins
are in a transient state of disequilibrium. All these results evidence
how the Iberian Chain constitutes a well dened physiographic and
geological unity in the whole Iberian Peninsula.
The relationship between elevation and modal values of both slope
and local relief (Fig. 5) allows the identication of two topographic
domains. First, from ~100 to 1400 m of elevation, where slope and
local relief increase slightly (Fig. 5), a landscape with similar morphometric features includes the anks of the chain and a at surface above
~700 m, that corresponds with a poorly dissected area drained by low
gradient channels (Fig. 9) and interpreted as a relict landscape (Figs. 3,
4). Secondly, from ~1500 to ~2000 m a.s.l., slope and local relief increase
abruptly with elevation (Fig. 5), dening the remnants of mountain
ranges rising from the upland at surface, and above ~1700 m a homogeneously dissected landscape that corresponds with an older planation
surface now preserved just locally in the interior of the range (Fig. 5C, D).
Most of the longitudinal proles of the Ebro River tributaries show a
knickpoint, upstream of which channels are characterized by concave
proles ( = ~0.40) and low steepness indices (ksn b 50 for ref =
0.45, Fig. 8). These features suggest the reaches that drain the upland
surfaces are in an equilibrium with respect to base-level conditions different from the present ones. Indeed, the upland low relief surfaces together with the remnants of ranges (15002000 m) are part of an old
landscape that developed in stable base-level conditions with which
the upstream reaches were in equilibrium. In addition, in all the Iberian
Chain (Fig. 7E, F, G) the basin drainage areas reach their maximum
values between 700 and 1200 m. This evidence, together with the S-
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
18
shaped hypsometric curves of many of the analyzed catchments, suggests that the basins are more developed upstream where they reect
the river network of the old landscape. All these considerations conrm
that the erosive wave induced by the regional uplift and the change
from endorheic to exorheic drainage does not reach the interior of the
chain but it is still conned along the anks of the range where channels
are characterized by rectilinear proles and high steepness indices.
The asymmetry factor (AF*) and the almost radial pattern of the
main drainages of the Iberian Chain are indicative of an uplift, roughly
higher at the center of the chain but gradually decreasing outwards
(Figs. 1, 6). This dome-like process induced the tilting of the Iberian
Chain anks so that the channels oriented transverse to its axis
shift towards the peripheral areas (for example, Tajo, Jaln, and Jiloca
rivers), and those slightly transversal (Cabriel, Turia, and Guadalope
rivers) tend to rotate towards an orientation parallel to the maximum
slope of the chain anks, similarly to the symmetric basins pattern
(Tajua, Jcar, Magro, Mijares, Martn, Huerva rivers). The Central
System, topographically higher than the Iberian Chain, seems to control
the direction of migration of the Henares River trunk, located in
between the two ranges (Fig. 6).
Along the Mediterranean ank of the Iberian Chain, homogeneous
substrate properties and no spatial climatic variations allow the use of
ksn as an indicator of local differential uplift (Fig. 10). From SW to NE
the steepness progressively increases, reaching the highest value of the
Mijares and Guadalope rivers, and then decrease to the W (Fig. 10).
The high values of ksn in the NE sector of the Iberian Chain are evidence
of a local higher uplift rate that recently raised the river heads at high
elevation. This is conrmed by other considerations: a) the HI values
have a trend similar to the steepness index, as shown in Fig. 7D, where
the peak relative to the Mijares River is much higher than 0.5, indicating
an active tectonic area (Keller and Pinter, 2002); b) the relatively
low value of concavity of the Mijares River prole draining not particularly resistant bedrock indicates a uvial system in disequilibrium;
and c) the NE sector of the Iberian Chain characterized by the highest
elevation of the range presents remnants of planation surfaces at high
altitude (~2020 m a.s.l.), and is affected by extensional faults related to
the opening of the Valencia Trough.
In the Iberian Chain (e.g. Pea et al., 1984; Martnez Tudela et al.,
1986; Ordoez et al., 2005; Domnguez-Villar et al., 2011) as well as in
the rest of Europe (e.g.: Henning et al., 1983) the Quaternary climate
variation (interglacial and interstadial stages) favored intense calcareous tufa deposition. In agreement to these previous studies, our radiometric datings of fresh calcareous tufa indicate ages corresponding to
MIS 1, 3, and 5 (Table 2, Fig. 12B). Moreover, the datings of calcareous
tufas located on top of strath uvial terraces provide a good approach
for estimating incision rates because these deposits accumulate rapidly
(Pentecost, 2005; Andrews, 2006) and the time lag between shaping of
the strath surface and the deposition of the overlying deposits is generally short (lower than 102103 yr; Pazzaglia et al., 1998). The obtained
ages yield average incision rates of 0.6 mm/yr for Late Pleistocene
throughout the central sector of the chain. This evidence conrms
that, at least in the chain interior, rivers incise mainly in response to a
dominant regional input and secondary to other ones such as: i) the
drastic base-level fall due to the diachronous capture of the endorheic
basins that occurred during Late PlioceneLate Pleistocene (Gutirrez
et al., 2008); and ii) the lithology of riverbed basement, both poorly
consolidated sediments (Martn and Ruguilla rivers) and stronger limestone (Tajo River). Therefore, we interpreted the homogeneous erosion
rates of central Iberian Chain as related to regional rock uplift.
In the Alto Tajo River, at Puente de San Pedro, the incision rate calculated from the age of the Holocene terrace (2.54 0.33 kyr, MIS 1), is
much higher (1.18 0.18 mm/yr) than the Late Pleistocene rates.
This increase has been recognized in the nearby areas by dating similar
tufa deposits by ostracod shell amino acid racemization (Torres et al.,
2005; Ortiz et al., 2009). This phenomenon, reported also in many
river systems all over the world, is interpreted as the uvial response
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
7. Conclusions
Our morphometry analyses coupled with UTh dating and eld investigations evidence that the topographic and hydrographic features
of the Iberian Chain are very sensitive to a main tectonic input: the regional uplift. This dominance is only slightly inuenced by local geologic
and tectonic features. A summary of our results includes the following:
1) The landscape of the Iberian Chain is characterized by a poorly
incised interior constituted by a low relief topography, including planation surfaces and remnants of ranges. Just three rivers could enter
into the chain interior, whereas the rest of the hydrography drains
its anks. The lack of Late PlioceneQuaternary deposits, except
for internally drained or recently captured intermontane basins,
suggests that erosion is a dominant process mainly in response to
regional uplift. This consideration indicates the beginning of uplift
as at least Late Pliocene in age.
2) The morphometric analysis on drainage basins and stream longitudinal proles describe a landscape in which rivers are still adjusting
to a dominant tectonic input. The shape of longitudinal proles,
quantitatively measured by concavity and steepness indices, indicate that the rivers are far from equilibrium. The hypsometric curves
and the relative HI conrm that the Iberian Chain landscape is poorly
incised by hydrography, preserving an old landscape in its interior.
This setting is validated by comparing the morphometry of the
Iberian Chain with the adjacent Central System. This range, that
experienced a rapid uplift since 5 Ma, is close to steady state.
3) The UTh dating of calcareous tufas located on top of uvial
strath terraces allows us to calculate a homogeneous incision rate
of 0.6 mm/yr for the Late Pleistocene.
19
In summary, we conclude that the Iberian Chain is indeed an intraplate orogen that is experiencing a recent dome-like uplift. The rivers
are responding to this input incising topography at a rate of 0.6 mm/yr,
approaching a radial drainage pattern. The comparison with the adjacent
Central System, that experienced an increase in uplift since the beginning
of Pliocene, the age and geometry of the carbonates of the Pramo Fm.
and the almost complete lack of Late PlioceneQuaternary sediments
in the chain interior allow us to hypothesize that the uplift started at or
after ~3 Ma.
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Gerardo De Vicente for the helpful discussion, Valerio Olivetti and Giovanny Jimenez Diaz for the logistical support in the eld, two anonymous reviewers and the editor Andrew J.
Plater whose comments enabled the improvement of the original
manuscript.
References
Alcal, L., Alonso-Zarza, A.M., lvarez Sierra, M.A., Azanza, B., Calvo, J.P., Caaveras, J.C.,
van Dam, J.A., Garcs, M., Krijgsman, W., van der Meulen, A.J., Morale, J., PelezCampomanes, P., Prez Gonzalez, A., Snchez Moral, S., Sancho, R., Sanz Rubio, E.,
2000. El registro sedimentario y faunstico de las cuencas de Calatayud-Daroca y
Teruel. Evolucin paleoambiental y pal eoclimtica durante el Negeno. Rev. Soc.
Geol. Esp. 13, 323343.
Alonso-Zarza, A., 2008. El Negeno: de las crisis tectnicas a la tranquilidad de los lagos
someros. In: Calonge, A., Rodrguez, M., Segura, M. (Eds.), Geologa de Guadalajara,
Guadalajara (Spain), pp. 151165.
Alonso-Zarza, A., Calvo, J., 2000. Palustrine sedimentation in an episodically subsiding
basin: the Miocene of the northern Teruel Graben (Spain). Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 160, 121.
lvaro, M., Capote, R., Vegas, R., 1979. Un modelo de evolucin geotectnica para la
Cadena Celtibrica. Acta Geol. Hisp. 14, 172177.
Anadn, P., Moissenet, E., 1996. Neogene basins in the Eastern Iberian Range. In: Friend,
P., Dabrio, C. (Eds.), Tertiary Basins of Spain, the Stratigraphic Record of Crustal
Kinematics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), pp. 6876.
Anadn, P., Moissenet, P., Simn, J., 1990. The Neogene grabens of the Eastern Iberian
Chain (Eastern Spain). Paleontologia i Evolucio, Memoria Especial 2, 97130.
Andrews, J.E., 2006. Palaeoclimatic records from stable isotopes in riverine tufas:
Synthesis and review. Earth Sci. Rev. 75, 85104.
Armenteros, I., Dabrio, C., Guisado, R., Snchez de Vega, A., 1989. Megasecuencias
sedimentarias del terciario del borde oriental de la Cuenca de Almazn (Soria
Zaragoza). Studia Geologica Salmanticensia 5, 107127 (Special Volume).
Babault, J., Loget, N., Van Den Driessche, J., Castelltort, S., Bonnet, S., Davy, P., 2006. Did the
Ebro basin connect to the Mediterranean before the Messinian salinity crisis?
Geomorphology 81 (2006), 155165.
Baker, A., Smart, P.L., Ford, D.C., 1993. Northwest European palaeoclimate as indicated by
growth frequency variations of secondary calcite deposits. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 100, 291301.
Benito-Calvo, A., Prez-Gonzlez, A., 2007. Erosion surfaces and Neogene landscape
evolution in the NE Duero Basin (north-central Spain). Geomorphology 88, 226241.
Birot, P., 1959. Esquisse morphologique des Monts Celtibriques orientaux. Bulletin du
Comit des travaux historiques et scientiques, Section de Gographie. 1 (72),
101130.
Bischoff, J., Fitzpatrick, J.A., 1991. U-series dating of impure carbonates: an isochron
technique using total sample dissolution. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 543554.
Boschi, L., Fry, B., Ekstrm, G., Giardini, D., 2009. The European upper mantle as seen by
surface waves. Surv. Geophys. 30, 463501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10712-0099066-2.
Boschi, L., Faccenna, C., Becker, T.W., 2010. Mantle structure and dynamic topography
in the Mediterranean Basin. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2010GL045001.
Burbank, D.W., 1992. Characteristic size of relief. Nature 359, 483484.
Burbank, D.W., Pinter, N., 1999. Landscape evolution: the interaction of tectonics and
surface processes. Basin Res. 11, 16.
Calvo Hernndez, J.M., 1993. Cinemtica de las fallas discontinuas en el sector central de
la Cordillera Ibrica. PhD Thesis University of Zaragoza, Spain.
Calvo, J.P., Daams, R., Morales, J., Lpez-Martnez, N., Agust, J., Anadn, P., Armenteros, I.,
Cabrera, L., Civis, J., Corrochano, A., Daz-Molina, M., Elizaga, E., Hoyos, M., MartnSurez, E., Martnez, J., Moissenet, E., Muoz, A., Prez-Garca, A., Prez-Gonzlez,
A., Portero, J.M., Robles, F., Santisteban, C., Torres, T., van der Muelen, A.J., Vera, J.A.,
Mein, P., 1993. Up-to-date Spanish continental Neogene synthesis and paleoclimatic
interpretation. Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 6, 116.
Casas-Sainz, A., 1993. Oblique tectonic inversion and basement thrusting in the Cameros
Massif (Northern Spain). Geodin. Acta 6 (3), 202216.
Casas-Sainz, A.M., Corts-Gracia, A.L., 2002. Cenozoic landscape development within the
Central Iberian Chain, Spain. Geomorphology 44, 1946.
Casas-Sainz, A., De Vicente, G., 2009. On the tectonic origin of Iberian topography.
Tectonophysics 474, 214235.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
20
Casas-Sainz, A.M., Faccenna, C., 2001. Tertiary compressional deformation of the Iberian
Plate. Terra Nova 13, 281288.
Casas-Sainz, A.M., Corts, A., Gapais, D., Nalpas, T., Romn, T., 1998. Modelizacin
analgica de estructuras asociadas a compresin oblicua y transpresin. Ejemplos
del NE peninsular. Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 11 (34), 137150.
Casas-Sainz, A.M., Corts, A.L., Maestro, A., 2000. Intra-plate deformation and basin formation during the Tertiary at the Northern Iberian Plate: origin and evolution of the
Almazn Basin. Tectonics 19, 258289.
Cebri, J.M., Lpez-Ruiz, J., 1995. Alkali basalts and leucitites in an extensional
intracontinental plate setting: the late Cenozoic Calatrava volcanic province (Central
Spain). Lithos 35, 2746.
Cebri, J.M., Lpez-Ruiz, J., Doblas, M., Oyarzun, R., Hertogen, J., Benito, R., 2000. Geochemistry of the Quaternary alkali basalts of Garrotxa (northeast volcanic province, Spain):
a case of double enrichment of the mantle lithosphere. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
102, 217235.
Clauzon, G., Suc, J.P., Gautier, F., Berger, A., Loutre, M.F., 1996. Alternate interpretation of
the Messinian salinity crisis: controversy resolved? Geology 24, 363366.
Cloetingh, S., Burov, E., Beekman, F., Andeweg, B., Andriessen, P.A., Garca-Castellanos, D.,
De Vicente, G., Vegas, R., 2002. Lithospheric folding in Iberia. Tectonics 21 (5)
(1041.26 pp.).
Corts Gracia, A.L., Casas-Sainz, A.M., 1996. Deformacin alpina de zcalo y cobertera en el
borde norte de la Cordillera Ibrica. Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 9 (12), 5166.
Corts-Gracia, A.L., Casas-Sainz, A.M., 2000. Tiene el sistema de fosas de Teruel origen
extensional? Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 13 (34), 445470.
De Bruijne, C., Andriessen, P., 2002. Far eld effects of alpine plate tectonism in the Iberian
microplate recorded by fault-related denudation in the Spanish Central System.
Tectonophysics 349, 161184.
De Vicente, G., (ed.) 2004. Estructura alpina del Antepas Ibrico. In: J.A. Vera (Ed.),
Geologa de Espaa, SGE-IGME, Madrid, 587634.
De Vicente, G., Vegas, R., 2009. Large-scale distributed deformation controlled topography
along the western AfricaEurasia limit: tectonic constraints. Tectonophysics 474,
124143.
De Vicente, G., Vegas, R., Muoz Martn, A., Silva, P., Andriessen, P., Cloetingh, S., Gonzlez
Casado, J.M., Van Wees, J.D., lvarez, J., Carb, A., Olaiz, A., 2007. Cenozoic thickskinned deformation and topography evolution of the Spanish Central System.
Glob. Planet. Chang. 58, 335381.
Domnguez-Villar, D., Vzquez-Navarro, J.A., Cheng, H., Lawrence Edwards, R., 2011.
Freshwater tufa record from Spain supports evidence for the past interglacial being
wetter than the Holocene in the Mediterranean region. Glob. Planet. Chang. 77,
129141.
Dramis, F., Materazzi, M., Cilla, G., 1999. Inuence of climatic changes on freshwater travertine deposition: a new hypothesis. Phys. Chem. Earth A 24 (10), 893897.
Faccenna, C., Becker, T.W., 2010. Shaping mobile belt from small scale convection. Nature
465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09064.
Faccenna, C., Becker, T.W., Lallemand, S., Lagabrielle, Y., Funiciello, F., Piromallo, C., 2010.
Subduction-triggered magmatic pulses: a new class of plumes? Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett. 299, 5468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.08.012.
Ferreiro, E., Ruiz, V., Lendnez, A., Lago, M., Melndez, A., Pardo, G., Ardevol, L., Villena, J.,
Hernndez, A., Alvaro, M., Gmez, J.J., Carls, P., 1991. Mapa y memoria explicativa
de la Hoja 40 (Daroca) del Mapa Geolgico Nacional a escala 1:200.000, Instituto
Tecnolgico y Geominero de Espaa, 239 p.
Flint, J.J., 1974. Stream gradient as a function of order, magnitude, and discharge. Water
Resour. Res. 10, 969973.
Ford, T.D., Pedley, H.M., 1996. A review of tufa and travertine deposits of the world. Earth
Sci. Rev. 41, 117175.
Gardner, T.W., Back, W., Bullard, T.F., Hare, P.W., Kesel, R.H., Lowe, D.R., Menges, C.M., Mora,
S., Pazzaglia, F.J., Sasowsky, I.D., Troester, J.W., Wells, S.G., 1987. Central America and
the Caribbean. In: Graf, W.L. (Ed.), Geomorphic Systems of North America: Boulder,
Colorado. Geological Society of America, Centennial Special, 2, pp. 343401.
Glover, C., Robertson, A., 2003. Origin of tufa (cool-water carbonate) and related terraces
in the Antalya area, SW Turkey. Geol. J. 38, 329358.
Gonzlez, A., Guimer, J., Luzn, A., 1998. Edad Oligoceno superior-Mioceno inferiore para
las superfcies de erosin conservadas en el anco SW de la cubeta de Bordn
(Provincia de Teruel, Espaa). Geogaceta 24, 155158.
Gracia, F.J., Gutirrez, F., Gutirrez, M., 2003. The Jiloca karst polje-tectonic graben (Iberian
Range, NE Spain). Geomorphology 52, 215231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169555X(02)00257-X.
Gracia-Prieto, F.J., 1993. Evolucin geomorfolgica de la regin de Gallocanta (Cordillera
Ibrica Central). Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 30, 317.
Gracia-Prieto, F.J., 1995. Shoreline forms and deposits in Gallocanta Lake (NE Spain).
Geomorphology 11 (4), 323335.
Gracia-Prieto, F.J., Gutirrez-Elorza, M., Lernoz Istriz, B., 1988. Las supercies de erosin
negenas en el sector central de la Cordillera Ibrica. Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 1 (12),
135142.
Guimer, J., Alvaro, M., 1990. Structure et volution de la compression alpine dans la
Chane Ibrique et al Chane Ctire Catalane. Bull. Soc. Gol. Fr. 8 (6), 339348.
Guimer, J., Gonzlez, A., 1998. El relieve de la Cadena Ibrica como producto de la
compresin alpina. Geogaceta 24, 163166.
Guimer, J., Alonso, A., Mas, J.R., 1995. Inversion of an extensional ramp basin by a newly
formed thrust: the Cameros basin (N. Spain). In: Buchanan, J.G., Buchanan, P.G. (Eds.),
Basin Inversion. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 88, pp. 433453.
Guimer, J., Ms, R., Alonso, A., 2004. Intraplate deformation in the NW Iberian Chain:
Mesozoic extension and contractional inversion. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 16, 291303.
Gutirrez, F., 1996. Gypsum karstication induced subsidence: effects on alluvial systems
and derived geohazards (Calatayud Graben, Iberian Range, Spain). Geomorphology
16, 277293.
Gutirrez Elorza, M., Gracia, F.J., 1997. Environmental interpretation and evolution of the
Tertiary erosion surfaces in the Iberian Range (Spain). In: Widdowson, M. (Ed.),
Palaeosurfaces: Recognition, Reconstruction and Palaeoenvironmental Interpretation.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 120, pp. 147158. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1144/GSL.SP.1997.120.01.10.
Gutirrez, F., Gracia, F.J., Gutirrez, M., 1996. Consideraciones sobre el nal del relleno
endorreico de las fosas de Calatayud y Teruel y su paso al exorresmo. Implicaciones
morfoestratigrcas y estructurales. In: Grandal D'Anglade, A., Pags Valcarlos, J.
(Eds.), IV Reunin Nacional de Geomorfologa. Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolxico
de Laxe, 21, pp. 2343.
Gutirrez, F., Gutirrez, M., Gracia, F.J., Mc Calpin, J.P., Lucha, P., Guerrero, J., 2008. PlioQuaternary extensional seismotectonics and drainage network development in the
central sector of the Iberian Chain (NE Spain). Geomorphology 102, 2142.
Hack, J.T., 1957. Studies of longitudinal proles in Virginia and Maryland. U. S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Pap. 294 (B), 4597.
Hack, J.T., 1960. Interpretation of erosional topography in humid temperate regions. Am.
J. Sci. 258-A, 8097.
Hancock, G.S., Anderson, R.S., 2002. Numerical modeling of uvial strath-terrace formation in response to oscillating climate. GSA Bull. 114 (9), 11311142.
Harbor, D.J., 1997. Landscape evolution at the margin of the Basin and Range. Geology 25,
11111114.
Hare, P.W., Gardner, T.W., 1985. Geomorphic indicators of vertical neotectonism along
converging plate margins, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. In: Morisawa, M., Hack, J.T.
(Eds.), Tectonic Geomorphology. Proceedings of the 15th Annual Bighamton
Geomorphology Symposium. Allen and Unwin, Boston, pp. 75104.
Henning, G.J., Grnn, R., Brunacker, K., 1983. Speleothems, travertines and paleoclimates.
Quat. Res. 20, 129.
Horvatini, N., ali, R., Geyh, M., 2000. Interglacial growth of tufa in Croatia. Quat. Res.
53, 185195.
Huang, X., Niemann, J.D., 2006. Modelling the potential impacts of groundwater hydrology on long-term drainage basin evolution. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 31, 18021823.
Hurtrez, J.E., Sol, C., Lucazeau, F., 1999. Effect of drainage area on hypsometry from an
analysis of small-scale drainage basins in the Siwalik Hills (Central Nepal). Earth
Surf. Process. Landf. 24 (9), 799808.
IGME (eds), 1994. Mapa Geolgico de la Pennsula Ibrica, Baleares y Canarias,
1:1,000,000. Madrid: Instituto Tecnolgico y Geominero de Espaa.
Ivanovich, M., Harmon, R.S., 1992. Uranium-series Disequilibrium: Applications to Earth,
Marine, and Environmental Sciences. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Juez-Larr, J., Andriessen, P., 2006. Tectonothermal evolution of the northeastern margin
of Iberia since the break-up of Pangea to present, revealed by low-temperature
ssion-track and (UTh)/He thermochronology. A case history of the Catalan Coastal
Ranges. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 243, 159180.
Keller, E., Pinter, N., 2002. Active Tectonics. Earthquakes, Uplift, and Landscape. Prentice
Hall, New Jersey.
Kirby, E., Whipple, K.X., 2001. Quantifying differential rock-uplift rates via stream prole
analysis. Geology 29, 415418.
Kirby, E., Johnson, C., Furlong, K., Heimsath, A., 2007. Transient channel incision along
Bolinas Ridge, California: evidence for differential rock uplift adjacent to the San
Andreas fault. J. Geophys. Res. (ISSN: 0148-0227) 112 (F3), 2007. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1029/2006JF000559.
Lafuente, P., Arlegui, L.E., Casado, I., Ezquerro, L., Liesa, C.L., Pueyo, ., Simn, J.L., 2011.
Geometra y cinemtica de la zona de relevo entre las fallas Neogno-Cuaternarias
del Concud y Teruel (Cordillera Ibrica). Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 24 (12), 117133.
Lague, D., Davy, P., 2003. Constraints on the long-term colluvial erosion law by analyzing
slope-area relationships at various tectonic uplift rates in the Siwaliks Hills (Nepal).
J. Geophys. Res. 108 (B2), 2129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JB001893.
Li, C., van der Hilst, R.D., Engdahl, E.R., Burdick, S., 2008. A new global model for P-wave
speed variations in Earth's mantle. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 9. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1029/2007GC001806 Q05018.
Lifton, N., Chase, C.G., 1992. Tectonic, climatic and lithologic inuences on landscape
fractal dimension and hypsometry: implications for landscape evolution in the San
Gabriel Mountains, California. Geomorphology 5, 77114.
Lock, J., Kelsey, H., Furlong, K., Woolace, A., 2006. Late Neogene and Quaternary landscape
evolution of the Northern California Coast Ranges; evidence for Mendocino triple
junction tectonics. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 118, 12321246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/
B25885.1.
Loget, N., Van Den Driessche, J., 2009. Wave train model for knickpoint migration.
Geomorphology 106, 376382.
Lpez Vera, F., Martnez Goytre, J., 1989. Edad radiognica y estratigrafa isotpica de los
edicios travertnicos del Puente de San Pedro (Guadalajara). Bol. Geol. Min. 100 (2),
248258.
Lpez-Martnez, N., Agust, J., Cabrera, L., Calvo, J., Civis, J., Corrochano, A., Daams, R., Daz,
M., Elizaga, E., Hoyos, M., Martnez, J., Morales, J., Portero, J.M., Robles, F., Santisteban,
C., Torres, T., 1987. Approach to the Spanish continental Neogene synthesis and
paleoclimatic interpretation. Ann. Inst. Geol. Public. Hung. 70, 383391.
Ludwig, K., 2003. Using Isoplot/Ex, Version 3. A Geochronological Toolkit for Microsoft
Excel. Berkeley Geochronology Center Special Publication 4.
Martnez Tudela, A., Cuenca, F., Santisteban, C., Grun, R., Hentzsch, B., 1986. Los travertinos
del rio Matarraa, Beceite (Teruel) como indicadores paleoclimaticos del Cuaternario.
In: Lpez-Vera, F. (Ed.), Quaternary Climate in Western Mediterranean. Universidad
Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, pp. 307324.
Martn-Serrano, A., 1991. La denicin y el encajamiento de la red uvial actual sobre el
Macizo Hesprico en el marco de su geodinmica alpina. Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 4, 337351.
Martinson, D.G., Pisias, N.G., Hays, J.D., Imbrie, J., Moore, T.C., Shackleton, N.J., 1987. Age
dating and the orbital theory of the ice ages: development of a high-resolution 0 to
300,000-year chronostratigraphy. Quat. Res. 27 (1), 129.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017
21
Simn, J.L., Liesa, C.L., 2011. Incremental slip history of a thrust: diverse transport
directions and internal folding of the Utrillas thrust sheet (NE Iberian Chain,
Spain). In: Poblet, J., Lisle, R.J. (Eds.), Kinematic Evolution and Structural Styles
of Fold-and-Thrust Belts. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 349,
pp. 7797.
Simn, J., Arlegui, L., Lafuente, P., Liesa, C., 2012. Active extensional faults in the centraleastern Iberian Chain, Spain. J. Iber. Geol. 38 (1), 127144.
Snyder, N., Whipple, K.X., Tucker, G.E., Merritts, D.J., 2000. Landscape response to tectonic
forcing: digital elevation model analysis of stream proles in the Mendocino triple
junction region, northern California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 112 (8), 12501263.
Sol Sabars, L., 1979. La Meseta. In: Tern, D. (Ed.), Geografa de Espaa. Ariel, Madrid
(Spain), pp. 4262.
Strahler, A., 1952. Hypsometric (areaaltitude) analysis of erosional topography. Geol.
Soc. Am. Bull. 63, 11171142.
Tarboton, D.G., Bras, R.L., Rodrguez-Iturbe, I., 1989. Scaling and elevation in river
networks. Water Resour. Res. 25, 20372051.
Ter Voorde, M., De Bruijne, C., Cloetingh, S., Andriessen, P., 2004. Thermal consequences of
thrust faulting: simultaneous versus successive fault activation and exhumation.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 223, 397415.
Torres, T., Ortiz, J., Garca de la Morena, M.A., Llamas, F.J., Goodfriend, G., 2005. Ostracodebased aminostratigraphy and aminochronology of a tufa system in central Spain.
Quat. Int. 135, 2133.
van Dam, J., Sanz Rubio, E., 2003. Late Miocene and Pliocene small mammals from the
Calatayud Basin (Central Spain). Coloquios de Paleontologa 1, 115126.
Vzquez-Urbez, M., Arenas, C., Sancho, C., Oscar, C., Auqu, L., Pardo, G., 2010. Factors
controlling present-day tufa dynamics in the Monasterio de Piedra Natural Park
(Iberian Range, Spain): depositional environmental settings, sedimentation rates
and hydrochemistry. Int. J. Earth Sci. 99, 10271049.
Vegas, R., 1992. The Valencia trough and the origin of the western Mediterranean basins.
Tectonophysics 203, 249261.
Villena, J., Pardo, G., Prez, A., Muoz-Jimnez, A., Gonzlez, A., 1996. Tertiary of the
Iberian margin of the Ebro Basin: 1) stratigraphic synthesis. In: Friend, P., Dabrio, C.
(Eds.), Tertiary Basins of Spain, World and Regional Geology Series. Cambridge
University Press, pp. 7782.
Walcott, R., Summereld, M.A., 2008. Scale dependence of hypsometric integrals: an
analysis of southeast African basins. Geomorphology 96, 174186.
Wedepohl, K., 1995. The composition of the continental crust. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
59, 12171239.
Wegmann, K.W., Zurek, B.D., Regalla, C.A., Bilardello, D., Wollenberg, J.L., Kopczynski, S.E.,
Ziemann, J.M., Haight, S.L., Apgar, J.D., Zhao, C., Pazzaglia, F.J., 2007. Position of the
Snake River watershed divide as an indicator of geodynamic processes in the greater
Yellowstone region, western North America. Geosphere 3, 272281. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1130/GES00083.1.
Weissel, J., Pratson, L.F., Malinverno, A., 1994. The length-scaling properties of topography.
J. Geophys. Res. 99 (B7), 1399714012.
Whipple, K.X., 2001. Fluvial landscape response time: how plausible is steady state
denudation? Am. J. Sci. 301, 313325. http://dx.doi.org/10.2475/ajs.301.4-5.313.
Whipple, K.X., 2004. Bedrock rivers and the geomorphology of active orogens. Annu. Rev.
Earth Planet. Sci. 32, 151185.
Whipple, K.X., Tucker, G.E., 1999. Dynamics of the stream-power river incision model:
implications for height limits of mountain ranges, landscape response timescales,
and research needs. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 17,66117,674.
Whipple, K.X., Wobus, C., Crosby, B., Kirby, E., Sheehan, D., 2007. New tools for quantitative
geomorphology: extraction and interpretation of stream proles from digital
topographic data. Geological Society of America Annual Meeting (Short Course
Guide: http://www.geomorphtools.org, Denver).
Wilcox, R.E., Harding, T.P., Seely, D.R., 1973. Basic wrench tectonics. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull.
57 (1), 7496.
Willett, S.D., 1999. Orogeny and orography: the effects of erosion on the structure of
mountain belts. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 104 (B12), 2895728981.
Willett, S.D., Slingerland, R., Hovius, N., 2001. Uplift, shortening and steady state topography
in active mountain belts. Am. J. Sci. 301, 455485.
Willgoose, G., Hancock, G., 1998. Revisiting the hypsometric curve as an indicator of
form and process in transport-limited catchment. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 23,
611623.
Wobus, C., Whipple, K.X., Kirby, E., Snyder, N., Johnson, J., Spyropolou, K., Crosby, B.,
Sheehan, D., 2006. Tectonics from topography: procedures, promise, and pitfalls.
In: Willett, S., Hovius, N., Brandon, M.T., Fisher, D.M. (Eds.), Tectonics, Climate,
and Landscape Evolution. Geological Society of America, Spec. Pap., 398,
pp. 5574.
Wortel, M.J.R., Spakman, W., 2000. Subduction and slab detachment in the Mediterranean
Carpathian region. Science 290, 19101917. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.290.
5498.1910.
Please cite this article as: Scotti, V.N., et al., The inuence of surface and tectonic processes on landscape evolution of the Iberian Chain (Spain):
Quantitative geomorphological..., Geomorphology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.017