Mock-test definitions

Empire: Slide. Empire is a world in which the advanced dominated the backward. This means that
the leading countries had control and rule over underdeveloped territories. This world came into existence
during the period 1875-1914. The period starts with the UK buying shares in the Suez Canal from Egypt
and ends with the beginning of WWI. The dominant countries were capitalists, and they set the pace of the
economy. They laid down the conditions for this economy to function and the others followed.
Hobsbawm. The Age of Empire was an era of peace, social stability and economic growth in the
western countries, which gave them the opportunity to rule over vast empires. The Age of Empire was a
period of economic, political and cultural phenomenon full of paradoxes and uncertainties. Informal empire
of independent states means satellite economies.
Said. Empire is a relationship [bond, connection, tie] formal [based on rules] in which one state
controls/regulates/governs the effective political sovereignty of another political society. It can be achieved
by force [violence, conquest] by political collaboration, by economic, social or cultural dependence.
Imperialism: Slide. Politically, imperialism is the expansion of a nation state beyond its own
borders for the purpose of acquiring overseas dependencies and if possible uniting them in a world-wide
empire. The objective is to enhance their prestige by ruling over underdeveloped territories. Nationalist
imperialism means enlarging the territory of a nation state as a means of preserving and strengthening the
national spirit. It has racial and biological variants connected to biological racism.
Lenin. He wrote in 1916 under Tsarist censorship and he used Hobsons work on Imperialism. Lenin
mentions 5 features of Imperialism: the concentration of production and capital produces monopolies, the
merging of bank and industrial capital (creation of finance capital), the export of capital, formation of
international monopolist capitalist combines with the share of the world, territorial division of the world is
completed.
Imperialism is capitalism in that stage of development in which the dominance of monopolies
[concentration of production by capitalist combines] and finance capital [industrial and bank capital] has
established itself; in which has acquired pronounced importance; in which the division of the world among
the international trusts [combinations] has begun; in which the division of all territories of the globe among
the biggest capitalist powers has been completed.
He defined Imperialism not as the last stage of capitalism but as the highest stage of
capitalism. For him, imperialism had economic roots in a new phase of capitalism. Lenin defines
Imperialism on an economic basis, thus, imperialism is monopoly capitalism. Monopoly is born out of free
competition, colonial policy and concentration of production. Monopolies have encouraged the seizure of
sources of raw material. For him, colonial policy relies on spheres of influence, spheres of profitable
deals, concessions, monopolist profits and economic territory. This led to territorial division of the world
among great capital powers into a set of colonies and spheres of influence. Overseas economic expansion
and the exploitation of the overseas world were crucial for capitalist countries.
Lenin refers to a final partition of the world in which repartition is possible and inevitable. Capitalist
countries follow a colonial policy through which they wish to conquer colonies; thus, divide the unoccupied
territories on the planet. For imperialist they need to acquire new lands to settle their surplus population
and to search for new markets. He is aware that this division is uneven. The struggle for the division of the
world and colonial conquest is connected with the capitalisms transition to the stage of monopoly
capitalism. Lenin states that colonial possessions give the monopolies assertion against all competitors.
The more capitalism is developed, stronger is the shortage of raw material and more intense is the
competition for the acquisition of colonies.
Lenin states that capitalism became capitalist imperialism at a specific stage. In this stage, free
capitalism becomes capitalist monopoly. Moreover, the division of the world is the transition from a colonial
policy to a policy of monopolistic possession of territories.
For non-Marxist analysts, imperialism does not have economic roots, does not benefit imperial
countries economically, it does not have negative effects on colonial economies. They focus on other
explanations, such as political, ideological, psychological and cultural. He believed imperialism is the eve
of socialist revolution.
Hobsbawm. A new type of imperialism emerged; the colonial. This means, there was no formal
conquest, annexation or administration. It was a period in which many territories were under formal rule or
informal political domination of a handful of states: Great Britain, France, Germany, Itlay, the Netherlands,
Belgium, the USA and Japan. They asserted political, economic and military hegemony [supremacy,
authority] in the vast areas of the world, without conquest. Imperialism was the child of an era of
competition between rival-capitalist-national economics. In this new type of imperialism, the economic
supremacy of capitalist countries had long been beyond challenge. However, no systematic/organized
attempt to translate their supremacy into formal conquest, annexation or administration had been made.
The author also states that in this new type of imperialism, many rulers officially called/considered

themselves emperors. Imperialism brought about westernization, eg Mahatma Ganhi who opposed
British rule was a western-educated lawyer. One of the major cultural effects of imperialism was the spread
of education to minorities. Another aspect of imperialism is the triumph of middle classes of metropolitan,
developed countries. They felt in a position of power/superior over the population of backward territories
Said. Imperialism is the process or policy of establishing or maintaining an empire.
Hobson. Imperialism has several direct economic outcomes: 1) expenditure of public money upon
ships, guns, military and naval equipment and stores, productive of profits when a war occurs 2) new
public loans and important fluctuations in the home and foreign Bourses 3) posts for soldiers and sailors
and in the diplomatic and consular services 4) improvement of foreign investments by the substitution of
the British flags for a foreign flag 5) acquisition for markets for exports, and protection and assistance for
trades representing British houses in these manufactures 6) employment for engineers, missionaries,
speculative miners, ranchers and other emigrants.
Drawback nations: Hobsbawm. He states that marking a difference between advanced and
backward, developed and non-developed parts of the world is a complex and frustrating exercise. It is also
simplistic in nature. The difference can be evident is certain aspects are considered: technology, coal and
steam resources, capacity for material production, massive communication and general belief in having
food, shelter, clothes and education. The division is therefore between a small part of the world in which
progress is homegrown/native and a large part of the world in which progress can only be supplied by
foreign nations. In this world divided, the advanced dominated the backward, the strong and the weak.
Non-European societies were treated as inferior, undesirable, feeble and backward. This is why, they were
feet subjects for conquest.
Hobson. Nations or people too ignorant who need to be converted. The inhabitants of drawback
nations are not progressive people. This means they did not develop their economies or their industries
and they do not have the voluntarily desire to do so. Therefore, they need foreign nations to encourage
them.
Colonial Empire: Hobsbawm. He mentions several reasons for colonial expansion: -strong and
weak civilizations depended on each other, for instance, technological development relied on raw material.
-The growth of mass consumption produced an expanding market for foodstuffs (grain and meat). The
function of colonies was to complement metropolitan economies not to compete with them. -Search for
markets. The overproduction of the Great Depression was exported to potential customers. So, capitalist
countries looked for unexploited areas of the world to sell their products. Many developed countries felt the
need to search for new markets. They wished to carve out the world to own new markets and to gain a
monopoly position. -Politically, developed countries wanted to colonized, access and control strategic
territories (military, economically). -Strategic explanation of imperialism implies the need to protect/defend
routes, maritime and terrestrial glacis. -Popular support. Britain supported Imperialism no as expansion but
defense against others trespassing her territories.
Colonialism: Said. It is almost always a consequence of imperialism and is the implanting [to set
firmly] of settlements on distant territory.
Social Efficiency: Hobson. The progress of humanity requires the selective struggle between
races. In this struggle, the superior races or the races of highest social efficiency should rule the world. It
is their right as superior races to govern/conquer/subjugate/extinguish races of lower social efficiency. This
term was used as a support for imperialism. The western nations with their colonies represent the socially
efficient nations.
US imperialism: Remini. After acquiring Mexico in 1848, Americans entered a new era in which
they took pride in the acquisition of a territorial empire. The acquisition of new lands eventually led to
disputes over whether servitude was to be allowed or not.
Hobsbawm. Imperialism was one solution for economic depression. There exists a pressure from
capitalism to search and find profitable investment/markets. This contributed to policies of expansion,
oftentimes including colonial conquest.
Industrial Revolution: HM-T It was a process that started in Britain which involved
industrialization. Manufactured goods began to replace agriculture as the dominant sector of the economy.
Large-scale factory production began to replace handcraft manufacture; machinery and inanimate power
sources began to replace human labour. Such large-scale industrialization did not happen suddenly or
universally factories, traditional production, and agriculture coexisted within a country, and usually within
a region.

Enclosure: HM-T It was a controversial political decision which entailed surrounding land with
fences. By ancient tradition, most villages in Britain reserved a position of local land called the commons
for the use of all residents. Enclosure of the commons within fences meant that the land could be plowed
to increase the national grain production, but the traditional rights of citizens ended, forcing many of them
off the land. Enclosure raised agricultural production as well as controversy. The benefits were larger than
simply that more land was put under the plow and therefore more food was produced. Enclosure of the
commons meant the segregation of herds of livestock, reducing disease transmission and permitting
selective breeding. Without strips of common farmland, many farmer families could not survive by
agriculture, so they moved to urban areas.
Factory system: T The domestic system became the factory system because of the mechanical
discoveries of the time. Four great inventions altered the character of the cotton manufacture; the
spinning-jenny, patented by Hargreaves in 1770; the waterframe, invented by Arkwright the year before;
Crompton's mule introduced in 1779, and the self-acting mule, first invented by Kelly in 1792, but not
brought into use till Roberts improved it in 1825. In 1785 Boulton and Watt made an engine for a cottonmill at Papplewick in Notts, and in the same year Arkwright's patent expired. These two facts taken
together mark the introduction of the factory system. But the most famous invention of all, and the most
fatal to domestic industry, the power-loom, though also patented by Cartwright in 1785, did not come into
use for several years, and till the power-loom was introduced the workman was hardly injured. A further
growth of the factory system took place independent of machinery, and owed its origin to the expansion of
trade, an expansion which was itself due to the great advance made at this time in the means of
communication. The canal system was being rapidly developed throughout the country. The improvement
of roads caused an extraordinary increase in commerce
Dual Revolution: H It was the combination of the rather more political French and the industrial
(British) revolution. This event shouldnt be regarded as belonging to the history of the two countries which
were its chief carriers and symbols, but as the twin crater of a rather larger regional volcano. That the
simultaneous eruptions should occur in France and Britain, and have slightly differing characters is neither
accidental nor uninteresting.
Capitalism: L In capitalism, free competition was predominant, reaching its limit in the 1860s and
1870s. It is an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by
investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production, and the distribution of
goods that are determined mainly by competition in a free market.
Finance capital: L It is the bank capital of a few very big monopolist banks, merged with the
capital of the monopolist combines of industrialists. Finance capital is such a great and decisive force in all
economic and international relations, that it is capable of subjecting, and actually does subject to itself
even states enjoying the fullest political independence.
Superstructure: Manifesto. The ideologies that dominate a particular era, all that "men say,
imagine, conceive," including such things as "politics, laws, morality, religion, metaphysics, etc." (Marx and
Engels, German Ideology 47). For Marx, the superstructure is generally dependent on the modes of
production that dominate in a given period.
Liberalism: H-VLE Britannica: It is a political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the
freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics. Liberals typically believe that government is
necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others; but they also recognize that government
itself can pose a threat to liberty.
Proletariat: Manifesto. It is the modern working class, a class of laborers, who live only so long as
they find work, and who find work only so long as their labor increases capital. These laborers, who must
sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently
exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market. Owing to the extensive
use of machinery, and to the division of labor, the work of the proletatians has lost all individual character,
and, consequently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is onlt
the most sumple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him. Hence, the
cost of production of the qoekman is restricted almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he
requires for maintenance, and for the propagation of his race.
Petty bourgeoisie: Manifesto. It was the remnants of absolute monarchy, the landowners, the
non-industrial bourgeois.

Lebensraum: German word meaning "living space," used by the Nazis to refer to the need of the
German people for more land in which to live. First introduced in the 1870s, the term and the principle
behind it were used to justify Germany's aggressive expansion prior to and during World War II,
especially in eastern Europe (Butt).
Lebensraum was one of the major political ideas of Adolf Hitler, and an important component
of Nazi ideology. It served as the motivation for the expansionist policies of Nazi Germany, aiming to
provide extra space for the growth of the German population, for a Greater Germany. In Hitler's book Mein
Kampf, he detailed his belief that the German people needed Lebensraum ("living space", i.e. land and raw
materials), and that it should be found in the East. It was the stated policy of the Nazis to kill, deport, or
enslave the Polish, Russian and other Slavic populations, whom they considered inferior, and to repopulate
the land with Germanic peoples. The entire urban population was to be exterminated by starvation, thus
creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and allowing their replacement by a German upper class.
The idea of a Germanic people without sufficient space dates back to long before Adolf Hitler
brought it to prominence. Through theMiddle Ages, German population pressures led to settlement in
Eastern Europe, a practice termed Ostsiedlung. The term Lebensraum in this sense was coined by Friedrich
Ratzel in 1901, and was used as a slogan in Germany referring to the unification of the country and the
acquisition of colonies, based on the English and French models, and the westward expansion of the United
States. Ratzel believed that the development of a people was primarily influenced by their geographical
situation and that a people that successfully adapted to one location would proceed naturally to another.
These thoughts can be seen in his studies of zoology and the study of adaptation]. This expansion to fill
available space, he claimed, was a natural and necessary feature of any healthy species (Princeton.edu).
Bearers of culture: Hitler claims in Mein Kampf that all human culture is the creation of the Aryan
race. Thus, he calls members of this culture founders of culture. In addition, he considers bearers of
culture to those races that receive the basis of their cultures from foreign races, in this case, the Aryan
race provides the Asian races, for example, with a high-level culture. Thus, the Asiatic races could be
termed, according to Hitler, as culture-bearing. Similarly, Hitler deems the Jews as the destroyers of
culture (Hitler).
Eugenics:The science of improving a population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence
of desirable heritable characteristics (Oxford Dictionary).
In 1933 the Nazi party seized control of Germany and forever altered public opinion of eugenics.
Initially, the Nazis enacted only sterilization laws. However, these laws went far beyond the actions of the
United States. In Mein Kampf Hitler wrote that "anyone who wants to cure this era, which is inwardly sick
and rotten, must first of all summon up the courage to make clear the causes of the disease." (David, 89)
The Nazi party took several steps to rid the Third Reich of the "causes of the disease." On July 14, 1933 the
Cabinet passed the Law for the Prevention of Heridtary Diseases in Future Generations. This law, which
was to be implemented on January 1, 1934 called for the sterilization of "lives unworthy of life". These
"unworthy lives" included those persons suffering from congenital mental retardation, schizophrenia,
manic-dpressive insanity, epilepsy, Huntington's chorea, hereditary blindness, hereditary deafness, grave
bodily malformation, and severe alcoholism. To enforce the sterilization laws, Nazi leadership created
special "Hereditary Health Courts." All physicians were legally required to report to the courts anyone they
encountered who fell into any of the categories for sterilization. As a result, by 1937 some 225,000
individuals had been sterilized by German authorities, a figure that was roughly ten times the number in
the United States. (David, 91) Surprisingly, many eugenic supporters saw the rash tactics of Germany as a
threat to the United States eugenic movement. Many began to argue that the United States was in fact
sterilizing too few people. In 1934, Joseph S. DeJarnette, a key figure in Virginia eugenics said, The
Germans are beating us at our own game. (Kevles, 116)(Udayton.edu).
Totalitarianism: Form of government that theoretically permits no individual freedom and that
seeks to subordinate all aspects of the individuals life to the authority of the government.
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini coined the term totalitario in the early 1920s to describe the new
fascist state of Italy, which he further described as: All within the state, none outside the state, none
against the state. By the beginning ofWorld War II, totalitarian had become synonymous with absolute
and oppressive single-party government. In the broadest sense, totalitarianism is characterized by strong
central rule that attempts to control and direct all aspects of life (Britannica).
From 1919 to 1939, Europe characterized itself for having totalitarian governments, that is,
dictatorships as the typical form of government, which is demonstrated by Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and
Communist Russia (Hause and Maltby).

Fascism: La Dottrina del Fascismo was put forward by Mussolini with the help of thinker Giovanni
Gentile. Fascism is according to Mussolini not only a system of government, but a system of thought; a
general attitude toward life. Life for the Fascist should be serious, austere, and religious. Fascism opposes
individualism of any kind, and thus it opposes capitalism. The Fascist conception of the state is allembracing. Thus, Mussolini himself states that Fascism is totalitarian; nothing can exist outside the state.
Fascism does not accept the creation of political parties, cultural associations, economic unions, social
classes outside the state. Thus, it opposes Socialism also, and trade unionism as a class weapon. The state
is in charge of creating the nation and not the other way around in Fascist doctrine. The Fascist state does
not only keep order and peace, but as previously stated it is the law-giver and founder of institutions. To
permeate mans life in all its spheres, it enforces discipline and uses authority (Baltzly and Salomone).
Nazism: The body of political and economic doctrines held and put into effect by the Nazis in
Germany from 1933 to 1945 including the totalitarian principle of government, predominance of especially
Germanic groups assumed to be racially superior, and supremacy of the fhrer (Merriam Webster).The Nazi
Party was formed in Munich after World War I. It advocated right-wing authoritarian nationalist government
and developed a racist ideology based on anti-Semitism and a belief in the superiority of Aryan Germans.
Its charismatic leader, Adolf Hitler, who was elected Chancellor in 1933, established a totalitarian
dictatorship, rearmed Germany in support of expansionist foreign policies in central Europe, and thus
precipitated World War II. The Nazi Party collapsed at the end of the war and was outlawed in Germany
(Oxford Dctionary).
Nazism was the totalitarian form of government in Germany under Hitler, leader of the National
Socialist German Workers Party, from 1933 to 1945. Hiltlers one-party state was based on racialist beliefs
and a link with imperial Germany was established mainly through authoritarianism and nationalism, which
appealed to a large portion of the German people. In 1923 Hitler tried take over the city of Munich, but he
ended in prison. There, he wrote Mein Kampf where spelled out his political ideas. Politics to him was the
struggle among races, but the Aryan race was superior to all others. Thus, Germans had, in his view, the
right and duty to rule. Hitler also thought that war was part of the law of life and that the task of a leader
was to make his state militarily strong so that it could win battles and expand. In order to get lebensraum
Hiler wanted to expand to the East. Anti-semitism was key to Hitlers political thought because the Jews
could be blamed for the incomprehensible economic crisis of postwar Germany. During Hitlers escalation
to power, he gradually suppressed all disident parties together with extintion of such basic rights as
personal freedom, the free expression of opinion, the freedom of assembly, the privacy of communications
and the inviolability of property (Gilber and Large).
Nationalism: Sense of identity among a group of people who consider themselves as belonging to
a nation. A nation is a community that shares a common heritage and whose members believe they
share a common destiny. This community may be based on any or all of the following: a shared
experience of membership in a state, the use of a common written and/or spoken language, shared
customs, a common religion, and a belief in a common ancestry. Historians regard nationalism as a modern
phenomenon emerging in the eighteenth century in Europe and the Americas, forged by the French
Revolution and the American Revolution, and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Asia and
Africa. Probably no other type of identity has been more powerful in generating conflicts and struggles, and
in shaping international politics in the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries. One characteristic
of nationalism is the importance placed on the state. Nationalists generally feel that each nation should
have a state as its political embodiment and that each state should be a nation (Butt).
Socialism: Theory of society that advocates social, political, and economic equality and the state
direction of economic activity in order to achieve that equality. Many ofthe original socialists believed that
these ends required the abolition of all private property. Socialism first emerged as a major school of
thought in the early nineteenth century, and by the end of that century most Western nations had political
parties committed to achieving a socialist society. Among the most influential of the many schools of
socialism was that founded by Karl Marx. In the twentieth century socialism largely split into Marxists,
who advocated revolution and sought to establish one-party communist states, and social democrats, who
sought to achieve gradual reform that would lead to a democratic social welfare state (Butt).
A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of
production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.
policy or practice based on the political and economic theory of socialism.
(in Marxist theory) a transitional social state between the overthrow of capitalism and the
realization of Communism.
The term socialism has been used to describe positions as far apart as anarchism, Soviet state
Communism, and social democracy; however, it necessarily implies an opposition to the untrammelled

workings of the economic market. The socialist parties that have arisen in most European countries from
the late 19th century have generally tended towards social democracy. (Oxford dictionary)
Communism: Political and economic system in which property is owned by the state and wealth is
equally shared by all members ofthe state, creating a classless society. The idea of communism was
introduced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto. According to Marx and Engels,
history is composed of constant struggles between the workers and the corrupt people who own the means
of production. Eventually the workers will revolt and overthrow the corrupt owners, establishing a
"dictatorship by the proletariat." This step, called socialism, will eventually lead to authentic communism,
in which a society is completely without private property or class distinction. Marx and Engels's idea was
adopted by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, who thought that the working class needed encouragement from a
powerful party; this led to the creation of the Bolshevik Party in Russia in the early twentieth century.
Lenin's ideas were brought to fruition in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and adopted by
Joseph Stalin, who added the role of an absolute dictator and rule through fear and violence to the idea
of communism. Communism quickly spread from Russia and throughout eastern Europe to Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Albania. In Asia, a communist
regime was established in China in 1949 by revolutionary leader Mao Zedong. Communism spread
through Asia to North and South Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, and Cambodia throughout the 1960s and
1970s. On the other side of the world, communism became Cuba's form of government in 1958. Several
wars were fought over communism, including the Korean War and the Vietnam War. Communism began
to crumble in the late 1980s largely because of Mikhail Gorbachev, then president of the Soviet Union.
Communism, after the fall ofthe Berlin Wall in 1989, is considered moribund (Butt).
According to Marx in the Manifesto the Communists represent the interests of the working-class as a
whole, independently of nationality. The aim of Communists is the formation of proletariat into a class,
overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy and conquest of political power by the proletariat. Marx states that
the theory of Communism could be summed up in the sentence: abolition of private property, not all
property but bourgeois property. Marx also states that Communism does not deprive man of the power to
appropriate the products of society , but only of the power to subjugate the labor of others by means of
such appropriations. To reach the final goal of a Communist society the following steps are proposed by
Marx: abolition of property in land, a heavy graduated income tax, abolition of rights of inheritance,
consfiscation of the property of emigrants and rebels, centralization of credit in the banks of the state,
centralization of the means of communication and transport, extension of factories and instruments of
production owned by the state, equal obligation of all to work, combination of agriculture with
manufacturing industries, free education for all children and abolition of child labor. When all these
measures have been put into practice by the dictatorship of the proletariat all class distinctions disappear
and all production is concentrated by an association of the whole nation, so the public power loses its
political character. Thus, as the old conditions of production are aswept away, the conditions for the
existance of classes are also eliminated. So after the proletariat has been forced to organize itself into a
class to produce the fall of the bourgeoisie (socialism), all classes and the consequent exploitation of one
class over the other disappear with the arrival of a classless society (communism) (Manifesto).
Eurocentrism: A term that means viewing the world from a point where Europe is the center. It
generally implies giving greater importance and value to European or Western culture. Eurocentrism
reached a peak at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century as
nineteenth-century imperialism expanded Europe's control and influence to its greatest heights, with vast
empires around the world controlled from the European countries. The pseudoscientific racism of Nazi
Germany and other movements also demonstrate Eurocentrism.
Critics of Eurocentrism argue that it has resulted in a false dichotomy between East and West that
characterizes much thought about the world and exaggerates the importance of Europe and the West in
world history while failing to recognize the achievements and influence of non-Western societies (Butt).
Enlightenment: Age that cherished universities, learned academies, scientific laboratorios and
observatories, libraries, philosophic journals and books. Circulation of the ideas of the philophes among a
small literate population and changing the Old Regime. Few concepts were universal: 1- skepticism
(questioning the validity of assumptions about society and the physical world without regard for traditional
authority. 2- belief in the existence of natural laws that govern both the social and physical worlds. 3confidence that human reason, rigorously applied, can discover these natural laws and establish them as
the basis of human activity. 4- optimism that the application of reason and obedience to natural laws will
produce progress, leading to the perfection of human institutions. (Hause and Maltby). Enlightenment is
mans leaving his self cause immaturity (Kant).

Tutelage: liberation of individuals from direction by others. (Hause and Maltby). Tutelage is mans
inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another. Self-incurred is this tutelage
when its cause lies not in lack of reason but in lack of resolution and courage to use it without direction
from another (Kant). The reason for such state is laziness and cowardice. For any single individual to work
himself out of the life under tutelage which has become almost his nature is very difficult. He has come to
be fond of his state, he is incapable of making use of his reason. If only freedom is granted enlightenment
is almost sure to follow. The public use of ones reason must always be free, and it alone can bring about
enlightenment among men. The private use of reason may often be very narrowly restricted without
particularly hindering the progress of enlightenment. By the public use of ones reason I understand the
use which a person makes of it as a scholar before a reading public. Private use I call that which one may
make of it in a particular civil port or office which is entrusted to him (Kant).
Exchange and use value: the word value has two different meanings, and sometimes expresses
the utility of some particular object, and sometimes the power of purchasing other goods which the
possession of that object conveys. Value in use and value in exchange respectively. The things which have
the greatest value in use have frequently little or no value in exchange; those which have the greatest
value in exchange have frequently little or no value in use. Example: water and diamonds (Smith)
Division of power: in every government there are three sorts of power: the legislative, the
executive, in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the judicial, in regard to things that
depend on the civil law.
By virtue of the first, the magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates
those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives
embassies, establishes the public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes
criminals, or determines the disputes that arise between individuals (Montesquieu). The executive power
ought to be in the hands of a monarch; because this branch of government is better administered by one.
Whereas whatever depends on the legislative power, is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a
single person.
Checks and balances: when the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person,
there can be no liberty. Again, there is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the
legislative and executive powers. The legislative power should not assemble itself. If they assemble and do
not prorogue themselves, it would be dangerous in case they attempt to encroach the executive. It is fit
that the executive regulate the time of convening, as well as the duration of those assemblies, according
to the circumstances and exigencies of state known to itself.
If the executive has no power to put a stop to legislatives encroachments, the legislative would
become despotic; as it might arrogate itself what authority it pleased, it would soon destroy the other
powers.
It is not proper that the legislative can stop the executive because the executive had temporal
power. The legislative has the right to examine in what manner its laws have been executed. However, the
legislative cannot judge the executive.
To prevent the executive power from being able to oppress, it is requisite, that the armies should
consist of the people, and have the same spirit of the people. Either the persons employed in the army
should have sufficient property to answer for their conduct to their fellow subjects, and be enlisted only for
a year. Or if there is a standing army, composed mainly by the most despicable part of the nation, the
legislative power should have a right to disband them as soon as it pleased.
When the army is created, it should depend on the executive first. (Montesquieu)
Basically, army controls executive, executive controls legislative, legislative controls army.
Surplus: Owing to the extensive use of machinery, and to the division of labor, the work of the
proletarians has lost all individual character, and all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage of
the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is
required of him. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted, almost entirely, to the means of
subsistence that he requires for maintenance, and for the propagation of his race. But the price of a
commodity, and therefore also of labor, is equal to its cost of production. in proportion as the work
increases, the wage decreases. In proportion as the use of machinery and division of labor increases, in the
same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by the
increase of the work exacted in a given time, or by increased speed of machinery, etc. (Manifesto)
(no estoy segura de q sea esta la parte q explica el termino..pero fue lo mas aproximado..
Basically, the term refers to the monetary difference between a workers wage and what he actually
produces. That is to say, laborers produce a lot but their wages are much lower. That difference is called

surplus, it would partly represent the entrepreneurs earnings. For example, a worker produces $1200 a
month, but his wage is $800 a month.
Social Contract: Rousseau claimed that every men is born free. For him, the family is the first
model of political societies. He believed that children can become independent from their parents when
they think it wise or remain voluntarily with them. such decision is their right of will. To have a form of
association which will defend and protect the common force and still have some independence, Rousseau
proposed that each person should put himself and his power in common under the supreme direction of
the general will, and we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
Mercantilism: State was still conceived of as a religious institution with ends that embraced the
whole of human life. In an age when it was deemed the duty of the State to watch over the individual
citizen in all his relations, and provide not only for his protection from force and fraud, but for his eternal
welfare, it was but natural that it should attempt to insure a legal rate of interest, fair wages, honest
wares. Things of vital importance to man's life were not to be left to chance or self-interest to settle.
The prosperity of one country was thought to be incompatible with that of another. If one profited
by trade, it seemed to do so at the expense of its neighbours. This theory was the foundation of the
mercantile system. It had its origin in the spirit of Nationalism - the idea of self-sustained and complete
national life - which came in with the Renaissance and the Reformation.
The object of that system was national greatness, but national greatness depends on national
riches generally, not on one particular kind of riches only, such as coin. The explanation must be sought in
the fact that, owing to the simultaneous development of trade and the money system, gold and silver
became peculiarly essential to the machinery of commerce.
It was sought to insure a continuous influx of the precious metals through the ordinary channels of
trade. If we bought less than we sold, it was argued, the balance of trade must be paid in coin. To
accomplish this end every encouragement was given to the importation of raw materials and the
necessaries of life, but the purchase of foreign manufactures was, for the most part, prohibited, and
individuals were entreated not to buy imported luxuries. (Toynbee)
(de todo esto, yo entiendo q: when Adam Smith proposed his system of economy, a nations wealth
was measured by gold and silver (coins and money). As the object of mercantilism is the nations
greatness, they would be richer when they export more than import.)
Classical Economics: cosmopolitanism: He was the precursor of Cobden in his belief that
commerce is not of one nation, but that all the nations of the world should be considered as one great
community. Prove that gold and silver were not more important than other forms of wealth; and that if we
wanted to buy them, we could always do so, if we had other consumable goods to offer in exchange.
Individualism, his complete and unhesitating trust in individual self-interest. He was the first to appeal to
self-interest as a great bond of society. As a keen observer, he could point to certain facts, which seemed
to bear out his creed. If we once grant the principle of the division of labour, then it follows that one man
can live only by finding out what other men want.
This is the basis of the doctrine of laisser faire. It implies competition, which would result, so Adam
Smith believed, in men's wants being supplied at a minimum of cost. Again it implies the best possible
distribution of industry; for under a system of free competition, every man will carry on his trade in the
locality most suitable for it.
But the principle of laisser faire breaks down in certain points not recognised by Adam Smith. It
fails, for instance, in assuming that it is the interest of the producer to supply the wants of the consumer in
the best possible manner, that it is the interest of the producer to manufacture honest wares. It is quite
true that this is his interest, where the trade is an old-established one and has a reputation to maintain, or
where the consumer is intelligent enough to discover whether a commodity is genuine or not. But these
conditions exist only to a small extent in modern commerce. [] (Toynbee)
(Adam Smith believed that Nations economies were connected, as a result, nations belong to a
world economy. He proposed the division of labor to make the system of production more efficient. Working
men can live and support themselves when they find out what the factory owners want. Men would
compete among themselves to get the jobs, such is the basis of laisser faire. This principle is also present
in nations economy. Each factory owner will compete with others to have the best product and sell it to
more people. For Smith, men would always seek to do their best (working and producing), such effort
would consequently improve national economy and wellbeing. He made a mistake by assuming this, he did
not consider that factory owners do not usually want to give costumers their best.)
Traingular Trade: Act of Parliament in 1660 enumerated commodities which American colonies
had to send direct to England (tobacco, cotton, wool, masts, iron, furs, pearls, tobacco, rice). England
would manufacture raw materials and then sell it again to colonies and rest of Europe.

Triangular trade of colonies: they would export from the colonies to Africa (or Europe, no estoy
segura) rum, wood, food. From Africa colonies would import slaves and take them to the West Indies.
Finally, from the West Indies, colonies would import molasses (what remains after sugar is refined). (Slides
Cristina)
Monarchs hoped to acquire wealth for England, and that meant gold and silver. To achieve such
wealth necessitated a favorable balance of trade, wherein the money owed to a nation would be paid in
specie. Colonies were therefore necessary to provide the goods the mother country could sell abroad
selling more to foreigners than it bought and thus producing a favorable balance. The American colonies
could supply raw materials such as tobacco, naval stores, cotton, rice, indigo, furs and sugar, which
England could sell to other nations. At the same time the colonies would provide a market for the mother
countrys manufactured goods. This program was called mercantilism, and through a series of Navigation
Acts, Parliament acted to monopolize the trade of its colonies and exclude foreign nations from that trade.
(Remini)
In Boston a mercantile class developed, transporting furs, naval stores, and fish to other colonial
and Caribbean ports. The Bostonian merchants traded lumber and furs for West Indian molasses, which
could be distilled into rum. New England shippers took their wares to England and the European continent
and then sailed to Africa, where they acquired slaves to transport to the southern colonies. This triangular
trade (Africa, West Indies, North America) was carried on in violation of the Navigation Acts. (Remini)