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Evolution
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(this information is current as of April 30, 2010 ):
REVIEW
way within the grass lineage. However, these independent strands of research are not well integrated.
Here, we outline a framework that explicitly links
the evolutionary biology of grasses with the
ecology and history of grasslands. We review the
current state of knowledge in the field and argue
that a shift in emphasis from photosynthetic pathway to broader assemblages of plant traits may be
essential for understanding the rise of C4 grasslands. This boils down to one question: Just how
responsible is C4 photosynthesis for the distribution of C4 grasslands?
700
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B
C3 grasses
favored
500
400
C4 grasses
favored
300
200
10
20
30
40
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30 APRIL 2010
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35-45N
Grassland*
Forest
records of tooth enamel and soil carbonate record grasses in modern grasslands is maintained by point to the development of seasonal climates
different aspects of C4 expansion. Evaluating both two primary mechanisms. First, C3 and C4 grasses with warm-season precipitation in South Asia
proxies concurrently allows us to distinguish over- may tolerate soil factors or climatic extremes (20, 32). The onset of a dry season causing inall vegetation change, recorded by soil d13C, from that limit the establishment or survival of woody tensified fire cycles in this region is therefore
changes in herbivore food source, mirrored in plants. Second, grasslands are sustained by fires favored as a driver of the forest-to-grassland
tooth enamel d13C. Specifically, data from North and herbivory, which limit the recruitment and transition and is supported by charcoal records
America, Siwaliks (Himalayan foreland in Pakistan), growth of woody species (31). Improved under- indicating increased occurrence of fire on sevArgentina, and Kenya show that particular mam- standing of these different drivers and their eral continents (29, 33). Based on d18O and leafmals started feeding largely on C4 grasses 1 My interactions has inspired novel hypotheses about wax hydrogen isotope ratios (dD), an overall
before these grasses became abundant (>50%) in the origins of C4 grasslands and has revived some increase in aridity (as opposed to seasonality) has
the ecosystem (Fig. 3) (29). The rapid adoption of old ones. All invoke regional or local factors been proposed for both South Asia and East Africa
C4 grazing in these herbivores may mark the emer- and focus on increased aridity and/or shifts in (28, 34, 35), with no explicit role for disturbance.
gence of C4 dietary specialists in faunal communi- disturbance regime. Stable oxygen isotope ra- In a third scenario using fossil-soil data from
ties or else expansion of C4 grasses at the expense tios (d18O), sedimentology, and floral records South Asia, East Africa, and North America, dryadapted C4 grasses evolved herbiof C3 grasses, but not necessarily at
the expense of C3 woody vegetation.
vore resistance and/or traits leading
Ecosystem change
In contrast, the overall C3-C4 tranto fuel accumulation, allowing them
Vegetation structure
% C4 vegetation
to expand their ecological niche into
sition in vegetation (inferred from soil
% C4 diet
(faunas, phytoliths,
(paleosol
13
(tooth enamel 13C)
fossil soils, isotopes,
more mesic habitats, at the expense
carbonate d13C) seems to have typicalcarbonate C)
tooth wear)
of trees (36, 37).
ly been much slower, with little eviMax
C
veg./diet
3
* woodland, savanna,
(conservative estimate of 0% C4)
A major problem with these
dence of the latitudinal gradient in C4
mosaic, grassland
Late Miocene and Pliocene scegrassland appearance expected from
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 Ma
100
narios is that they rely on mechthe crossover threshold model. It ocEastern
80
anisms that today maintain the
curred ~3 My earlier in the Siwaliks
Mediterranean
60
grass-to-tree/shrub balance in C4and China, compared with temperate
%C4
North America and tropical Kenya
dominated ecosystems, whereas the
40
(Fig. 3). The Eastern Mediterranean,
fossil record shows that the (much
20
North America, and China were loearlier) forest-to-grassland transition
100
cated at roughly equivalent paleolatiinvolved mainly C3 grass species
China
80
tudes, yet only the latter two became
(Fig. 3). Whether similar processes
C4-dominated in the Late Miocene,
drove the spread of C3 grasslands is
60
%C4
and at slightly different times and
an
important question that remains
40
rates. The Eastern Mediterranean reto
be tackled (22). Nevertheless,
20
mained dominated by C3 plants
modern ecology illustrates that the
100
throughout the Neogene, although
abundance of grass versus woody
Great Plains
80
the summer droughts that are now
vegetation is controlled by comNorth America
thought to exclude C4 grasses from
plex sets of factors playing out over
60
%C4
different spatial scales. At the rethis region originated only 3 Ma (30).
40
gional scale, grasslands are sustained
The wealth of high-resolution
20
by climate/soil/disturbance interacdata now available point to a com100
tions, mediated by the traits of the
plex Late MiocenetoPliocene ecoSiwaliks, Pakistan
grass flora and herbivore fauna. Lological transition, where the roughly
80
cally, topographic effects generate
correlated C3-C4 shifts across con60
%C4
microhabitat variation that supports a
tinents differ in many details. The
40
mosaic of distinct grass communities
decoupling in time of the transition
20
with very different trait combinafrom forest to C3 grassland and the
100
tions (38, 39). The general message
later expansion of C4 grasses indicate
Kenya
is clear: Traits that are, at best, only
that different drivers were probably
80
indirectly related to C4 photosyninvolved. Similarly, the lag between
60
%C4
thesis currently play important roles
the origins of C4 grasses and their
40
in allowing grasses to dominate vast
subsequent rise to dominance suggest
20
areas of natural grassland.
separate triggers. These observations
necessitate a reassessment of the
100
Why Did Grasslands
Argentina
factors driving C4 grassland origins
80
Become C4-Dominated?
and suggest that the problem is best
60
%C4
framed as two related questions: (i)
Questions of this scale have his40
What drove the forest-to-grassland
torically fallen into the realm of
20
transition? (ii) Why did these grassecosystem ecologists and plant phys0
lands later become C4-dominated in
iologists and have rarely received
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 Ma
warm-climate regions?
attention from the field of evolutionEarly
Middle
Late
Pliocene Plt.
Ol.
Miocene
ary biology (40). Our understanding
What Drove the
Fig. 3. Neogene record of changes in vegetation structure (from forest of grass phylogenetics and patterns of
Forest-to-Grassland Transition?
vegetation to an environment with substantial amount of grass cover), and of C4 evolution in grasses has improved
The abundance of woody vegeta- photosynthetic pathway (C3 versus C4), in vegetation and in diet of ungulates considerably over the past decade
(16, 17, 41). Though obviously imtion (i.e., trees and shrubs) versus from various regions (49). Ol., Oligocene.
25-35N
5S-5N
50-20S
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30 APRIL 2010
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BEP
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Research Priorities
The current acceleration of computing power
and molecular-sequence accumulation makes a
completely sampled grass phylogeny a realistic
near-term goal, which will greatly facilitate a
lineage-centered focus on the C4 grassland problem. Linking the grass phylogeny to databases
detailing climatic, ecological, morphological, and
physiological information for individual grass taxa
is already possible, permitting the application of
tools developed for ecological bioinformatics and
spatial ecology. Similarly, reconstructions of turnover in paleocommunities are becoming much
more refined, using phytolith data to track major
grass lineages through time. This growing body
of paleobotanical evidence also promises the
ongoing improvement in dating of key events
in grass evolutionary history. To keep pace with
these developments, comparative biological investigations of grass species are urgently required to
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 328
C4 Grasses Consortium
Erika J. Edwards,1 Colin P. Osborne,2 Caroline A. E. Strmberg,3
Stephen A. Smith,4 William J. Bond,5 Pascal-Antoine Christin,6
Asaph B. Cousins,7 Melvin R. Duvall,8 David L. Fox,9
Robert P. Freckleton,2 Oula Ghannoum,10 James Hartwell,11
Yongsong Huang,12 Christine M. Janis,1 Jon E. Keeley,13,14
Elizabeth A. Kellogg,15 Alan K. Knapp,16 Andrew D. B. Leakey,17
David M. Nelson,18 Jeffery M. Saarela,19 Rowan F. Sage,20
Osvaldo E. Sala,1 Nicolas Salamin,6,21 Christopher J. Still,22 Brett
Tipple23
1
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA. 2Department of Animal and
Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.
3
Department of Biology and Burke Museum, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA 981951800, USA. 4National Evolutionary Synthesis Center, Durham, NC 277054667, USA. 5Department of Botany, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
6
Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne,
CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. 7School of Biological Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA. 8Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL
60115, USA. 9Department of Geology and Geophysics, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA. 10Department of
Plants, Soil and Environment, University of Western Sydney, South
Penrith Distribution Centre, New South Wales 1797, Australia.
11
School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool
L69 7ZB, UK. 12Department of Geological Sciences, Brown
University, Providence, RI 02912, USA. 13U.S. Geological Survey,
Western Ecological Research Center, Sequoia-Kings Canyon Field
Station, Three Rivers, CA 93271, USA. 14Department of Ecology
and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA
90095, USA. 15Department of Biology, University of Missouri, St.
Louis, MO 63121, USA. 16Department of Biology, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA. 17Institute for Genomic
Biology, Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. 18University of
Maryland, Center for Environmental Science Appalachian Laboratory, Frostburg, MD 21532, USA. 19Canadian Museum of Nature,
Research Division, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 6P4, Canada. 20Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada. 21The Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Quartier Sorge, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. 22Department of Geography and Institute for Computational Earth
System Science, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106,
USA. 23Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City,
UT 84112, USA.
30 APRIL 2010
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