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3.0

EQUIPMENT & MACHINERY DEPARTMENT

Introduction
The department of APS that attends to engineering of equipment and
machines is divided in two sections: the first on deals with static
equipment, the second one deals with dynamic machines.

Static Equipment
3.1

Vessels
The design and fabrication of the vessels of different size, shape and
type, required in process plants, represent a complex task that needs,
in an engineering company, the participation of the process engineer,
the project engineer, the mechanical engineer and of course the
manufacturer.
A vessel is mainly constituted by a container holding a fluid (liquid or
gaseous) having pressure greater or lower than the ambient pressure,
with a temperature usually different from the ambient one.
More in detail, the container is constituted by a shell, usually of
cylindrical shape and by the heads which can be of different shapes.
Bending rolls are used to form the cylinder. The shell can be carried out
by bending rolls pieces of different diameter.
The bending rolls are usually fabricated starting from plates which are
calendared, in order to obtain the cylindrical shape, and then
longitudinally welded. Shielded arc welding is maybe the most common
method used in vessel fabrication.

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Acetylene gas welding is common, especially for welding thin plates and
small attachments.
Welding of vessels usually requires the application of several layers of
weld material. It is necessary that great care shall be exercised in
making such multipass welds and it shall be care of the engineering
companys inspectors to ascertain, among the other things, the proper
application of the welding procedures.
Plates for the fabrication of vessels are usually ordered by thickness.
Plates made by a sheared-plate mill are preferred because they are of
better quality ad are available in a greater number of size.

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The shell plates are carried out in a wide variety of thickness; lengths
up to 800 inches are produced in the thinner plates. If both the
circumference and length of a shell are greater than 195 inches, it
becomes necessary to employ two or more plates.
Ideally the spherical-shaped pressure vessel should be the more
suitable since it withstands higher pressures for a given metal
thickness, but this solution is very expensive and it is used only in
particular cases (spherical vessels are used in the storage of volatile
liquids and gases, but they are not suitable for the construction of the
usual process vessels). The cylindrical-shaped vessel is the next best
design and it is used most extensively.

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The heads generally have a rounded shape, obtained from plates by

means of forging. The heads for such vessel may be flat, ellipsoidal
(elliptical dished), dished, hemispherical or conical. Examples of such
design are given in the following figure.

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The most used curvilinear bottom is the elliptic one with the semi axes
with a 1/2 rate.
All kind of bottoms have a reinforced collar so that the welding to the
shell is displaced compared to the tangent line; the height of the
reinforced collar changes following the used norms. The presence of the
reinforced collar avoid that the welding could be located in a strongly
stressed area.
All pressure vessels require nozzles for the entering and leaving fluids,
for drains, vents and manholes. These nozzles can be fabricated by
means of pipe, pipe couplings, forged steel nozzles, cast steel, fabricated
plates, or other suitable material in accordance with the codes
requirements.
The use of threaded connections is generally avoided.
Cutting of holes into the shell of the vessel for the installation on
nozzles weakens the vessel; therefore reinforcement around the nozzle
has to be provided. Forged steel welding collar of lengths sufficient to
protrude beyond vessel insulation, if any, are mass-produced by the
manufacturers. The lengths of such nozzles have been standardized so
that the vessel designer has, at his availability, various lengths
according to the exigencies.
Welding type nozzles are also available on the market.

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Connections for small drains and vents of one inch size and under are
usually made with pipe couplings.

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3.1.1 Vessels Internals

Many process vessels require certain internal elements to effect
modification in the fluids passing through the vessel. They include:

Agitators, to homogenize the fluid

Baffles to deviate the fluids

Distributors to convey the fluids into a certain area of the vessel

Demisters to separate from gas the water little drops

Grids, fixed on support rings, to contain catalyst and inhibitors,

rashig rings and other packing

Bubble trays, used in the distillation towers, including, among

the other accessories, downcomer clamping bars, adjustable
weirs, removable cup and riser assembly

Bubble trays are a typical example of vessel internals which are

purchased by manufacturer specialised in the fabrication of these
items, while the vessel supplier provides the trays supports.
3.1.2 External accessories
External appurtenances are usually required. The main ones, are:

Angles for the support of insulation

Lugs and brackets to support platforms and ladders

Skirt to support vessels and towers

Nameplate in which the main data of the vessels are indicated

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These items are supplied by the vessel manufacturer and welded to the
vessels before shipping.

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3.1.3 Calculation Formulas

According to the various codes there are various theoretical formulas
used for the calculation of the thickness of shell and of the heads.
The API ASME formula for the shell is the following:
s =

P Ri / (100 S Z 0,60 P)

+c

Where:
P = design pressure in Kg/cm2
Ri = internal radius in mm
S = allowable working stress in Kg/mm2
Z = efficiency of longitudinal joints
c = corrosion allowance in mm
s = thickness in mm
for the elliptical heads, the formula is:
s =

P Di / (200 S Z 0,20 P) + c

3.1.4 Wind Action

The wind action is calculated as a distributed charge that produces a
flexion to the equipment. This force exercised by the wind is
proportional to the exposed section and to the velocity square.

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Obviously, the wind action changes depending on the vessels

characteristic; more the vessel is high and thin, more dangerous will be
the wind action.
The solicitations are calculated following the construction criteria
considering the equipment as a console table embedded to the base,
and taking into account the combination, and wind concomitance,
vessel weight, radial solicitations and vertical derived from pressures.

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3.1.5 Data Sheets

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An example of vessel data sheet is given here below.

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3.2

Heat Exchangers
All the industrial plants require the supply or the removal of heat.
Therefore careful design and application of heat exchanger has to be
given in the plant design.
The design of heat exchangers is seldom job of the process engineer of
the project engineer and of the mechanical specialist: these three people
have to work in strictly connection in order to supply to the exchanger
manufacturer all the technical data, all the specifications, all the
required exigencies to get final equipment in accordance with all
presented requirements.
Many different types of heat exchangers are manufactured.
Specials designs can always be devised, which may be advantageous for
a particular application. It is, however, preferable to use standard
design or so-called stocks items wherever possible. Exchange
manufacturers are able to produce certain exchanger types and sizes on
an assembly-line production basis. Any deviation, of consequence, from
these stock designs will require special operations and, therefore,
increases in cost.

3.2.1 Double - Pipe Heat Exchanger

As the name implies, the double-pipe heat exchanger consists of two
concentric pipes. One fluid flows in the internal pipe and the other in
the annulus between the inside and outside pipes.
Such exchangers are most conveniently arranged in the form of
hairpins.

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The usual practical length of these hairpins is about twenty ft. Such
exchangers are very easily made in practically any shop and continue to
prove useful where very small surface requirements exist (approximately
100 sq ft).

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3.2.2 Double Pipe Extended Surface Exchanger

One of the advantages of the double pipe exchanger is its low cost.
A desire to benefit from this low cost and at the same time to have the
advantages of larger surfaces prompted the development of the
extended surface tube.
Typical example of this exchanger is shown below.
Transverse fins are employed principally for cross-flow arrangements in
either extended surface tube-and-shell exchangers or in air-cooled
exchangers which are growing more popular in areas where water
scarcity is a problem.
Use of fin tubes is particularly desiderable for gases, viscous liquids, or
steams of small flow rate. Such fluids produce high resistances to heat
flow, which are partially overcome by the larger effective area
introduced by the fins.

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For surface requirements below 1.000 sq ft the use of extended surface

double-pipe exchangers often effects a considerable saving. Particular
consideration should be given to such units for surfaces below 500 sq
ft. The double-pipe sections can be arranged in the rows and connected
in series.

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3.2.3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

The most widely employed type of heat exchanger is the so called shell
and tube.
When the exchange surface has to be enlarged for process reasons, the
double-pipe exchangers could require excessive installation area; on the
contrary the shell and tube design, provides an extended heat
exchanger per unit volume of the occupied space.
Even if this type of heat exchanger differs in some details, there are
many standard shell and tube exchangers on the industrial market.
3.2.3.1 Counterflow 1-1 exchangers
A counterflow exchanger type, where one fluid flows in a apposite
direction from the other fluid, provides the most efficient exchanger of
heat.
The so called 1-1 exchanger consists of one shell pass and one tube
pass.

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The 1-1 counterflow exchanger is used when the friction leakages,

tubeside, must be kept to a minimum value and when the requests of
temperature are such that real countercurrent flows have to be
successfully used.

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3.2.3.2 Counterflow 1-2 and 2-4 exchangers

The 1-2 exchangers, presents an arrangement of one shell pass and two
or more tube passes.
This type is the most common of all shell and tube exchangers.

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The exchanger 2-4, two shell passes and four tube passes, is based on a
configuration as shown in the figure.

Instead of 2-4 exchangers, we can use 1-2 exchangers connected in

series, so avoiding the installation of the longitudinal baffle, necessary
to separate such two shell passes, the design of which is rather
complex; also the maintenance is facilitated using an exchanger in
series instead of 2-4 exchanger that has to be used in any case for clean
fluids.

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Classification and nomenclature of shell and tube exchangers

From the figures of various shell and tube exchangers previously
shown, we can note that the main components of this equipment are:

The shell

The tube bundle

The buffles

The rear read of the shell

The distributors

The exchangers of shell and tube type are of three types:

Floating head

Fixed tubesheet

Tubes, U type

Floating Head
This type of shell and tube heat exchanger is suitable for all the
services. The distributing box consists in a spherical cap bolted to the
tubesheet. The assembly of the cup and of the tubesheet can float since
they are free to move inside the exchanger.

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Floating Head Exchanger

Fixed Tubesheet Exchanger

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Fixed Tubesheet
Both tubesheets are welded to the shell.
In case of notable dilation, a dilation joint has to be provided to absorb
it.
U, tubes
This type of exchanger is used when the fluid, tube side, is not fouling,
it is more simple and economic.
U, Tubes

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The TEMA codes individualize the exchangers by means of three letters,

the first points out the distributor, the second one the shell type, the
third one indicates if we have U tubes or floating/fixed head.

AES

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A = removable channel and cover

E = one pass shell

S = floating head

BKU
B = bonnet integral cover
K = kettle reboiler
U = U, bundle

BEM
B = bonnet integral cover
E = one pass shell
M = fixed tubesheet head

BFT
B = bonnet integral cover
F = two pass shell

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T = full through float head

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3.2.4 Heat Exchanger Design

The thermal calculation to determine the exchange surface is based on
the following equation:
Q = S U Tm
S = Q / U Tm
Where
Q = heat transferred
S = required real surface based in the outside surface area of the tubes
t = indicates temperature difference between the hot fluid and the cold
one
U = global coefficient of heat transfer
Now we will see the calculation of the temperature medium difference
between two fluids with variable temperature.
We suppose that the two fluids are moving in counterflow.

T1

t2
T2

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t1

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If we put in the formula Q = S U T

Ta = T1 t2 the resulting surface
S = Q / U T a
should be smaller than the one obtained using Tb = T2 t1; it is clear
that in the first case the exchanger should be under sized, due to the
fact that in each section of the equipment, the temperature difference is
lower than the one used in the surface calculation and therefore the
required performances could not be reached; in the second case, on the
contrary, the exchanger should result oversized, with the increasing of
costs.
So we have to assume a medium value; man can demonstrate that this
medium value is supplied from the logarithmic average of the
temperature difference.
LMTD = T a - T b / ln (Ta : T b)
Example:

T a = 60 C,

T b = 25 C

LMTD = 60 -25 /ln (60 : 25) = 39,98 C

This formula is valid only for the cases that the fluids are moving in
equi flow and counter flow, in a double pipe exchanger; in a shell and
tube exchanger the conditions are different in fact while a fluid passes
in the shell only one time, the second fluid passes in the tubes at least
two times. The problem is solved making use of a corrective coefficient
Ft that depends from two factors:
R = T1- T2 / t2 t1

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P = t2 t1/T2 - t1

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Where
t1 = temperature at the tubes inlet
t2 = temperature at the tubes outlet
T1 = temperature at shell inlet
T2 = temperature at shell outlet

The LMTD correction factors given by specific diagrams:

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The design global coefficient of heat transfer based on outside surface

area, U, is given by the formula:
U = 1/S:hiSi + rfi S:Si + St:SmK + rfo + 1:ho

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Where
S = outside surface area of tube
hi = inside coefficient
Si = inside surface area of tube
rfi = inside fouling factor
t = thickness of tube
Sm = surfaces average between S and Si
K = conductivity of tube
rfo = outside fouling factor
ho = outside film coefficient
Apart the calculation programs, the global coefficient of heat transfer
can be given, in the first approximation from the following figures:

Hydrocarbon liq. Hydrocarbon liq.

150-500 Kcal/hm2 C

Hydrocarbon liq. Water.

250-500 Kcal/hm2 C

Water Water

500-1000 Kcal/hm2 C

Hydrocarbon vap. Hydrocarbon vap.

100-200 Kcal/hm2 C

Hydrocarbon vap. Water

200-350 Kcal/hm2 C

Gas Gas

200 300 Kcal/hm2 C

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Without change of state

Condenser

NH3 Vap. water

500 -600 Kcal/hm2 C

Hydrocarbon vap. Hydrocarbon liq.

250 -350 Kcal/hm2 C

Hydrocarbon vap. Water

350 -600 Kcal/hm2 C

Gas Water

400 -500 Kcal/hm2 C

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Dynamic Machines
3.3

Pumps
All the industrial plants, would be inoperative were it not for the pumps
which maintain the steady fluids flow trough the plant operation and
activities.
Very different types and sizes of pumps are installed in an industrial
plant, depending by the requirements (head and flowrate) of the process
fluids they will treat.
An unfit, or quite wrong, selection of the pumps could cause serious
problems during the plant operation.
Therefore the process engineer, the project engineer and the mechanical
engineer, the specialist of the rotating machine, have to strictly
cooperate in order to supply to the pump manufacturer all the data, all
the information, all the specifications, which allow them the selection of
the size and type, among the ones of their standard production, which
most nearly fits the service in question. It is also very important that,
before placing the order, the manufacturers recommendations are
properly considered.

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Basing a first classification of the pumps on the physical principles

their working is based on, we can consider:

Centrifugal pumps;

Volumetric pumps, that includes reciprocating and screw pumps.

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3.3.1 Centrifugal Pumps

The centrifugal pumps are the most employed because of their
adaptability to operative conditions as well as for their relative
constructive simplicity and for the lack of pulsations in the flux.
Deferring from the others, the centrifugal pumps can be employed both
for big and very big flow rates.
From a service point of view, centrifugal pumps can be divided in:
Process Pumps
These pumps handle process liquids of Refinery: as hydrocarbons,
chemical compounds, solutions of compounds. The process pumps have
to be usually designed in accordance with API 610 codes; these are
particularly strict codes that impose hard construction with relevant
increasing of the costs.

General Service Pumps

These pumps are employed and designed for services which do not
require the special alloys and mechanical design features needed by
high temperature or corrosive conditions.
They treat mainly water of different type as drinking waters, river
waters, dirty waters and demineralised waters.

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Chemical Pumps
These pumps treat the process fluids of chemical end petrochemical
plants; pumps in this category are constructed of corrosion resistant
materials, such as alloy steels, rubber-lined steel, but even plastic and
glass.

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3.3.2 Characteristics of a Centrifugal Pump

A centrifugal pump working is based on increased static fluid pressure.
This action is based on the Bernoulli's principle.
The rotation of the pump impeller (produced by an electric motor or
turbine) provides kinetic energy to the fluid as it is drawn in, from the
impeller eye (centre) to the periphery, being forced outward the impeller
vanes.
As the fluid exits the impeller with increased speed, it passes through a
volute or a diffuser: these are two possible arrangements in the design
of the centrifugal pumps.
In both arrangements, the flow passes through an increasing area that
slows it causing the conversion of kinetic energy in potential pressure
energy.
This conversion results in an increased pressure of the fluid
downstream the pump.
It is important to fix that the centrifugal pump supplies a head to the
fluid, and not a pressure. This head, measured in meters of water
column, does not depend by the fluid; the final pressure depends by the
specific gravity of the treated fluid and they are connected by the
following:

p =

Where:

p is the differential pressure between suction and

discharge;
is the specific gravity;
H

is the Head.

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The effective energy the pump gives to the fluid depends by the flowrate,
the head and the specific gravity of the fluid:

Ph = Q g
This is the Hydraulic Power.

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The power needed by the pump to supply the hydraulic power to the
fluid is the Pump Shaft Power: it takes into account all the losses due to
friction, leakages an warming up of the fluid, resumed in the efficiency
[] of the pump. It can be obtained dividing the hydraulic power by the
efficiency:

Psp = (Q g) /

This power term is used to choose the nominal power of the driver; it
shall be higher than the Psp.
A safety increase is adopted, according to API requirements (+10%,
+15% or +25%, depending by the value of required power).
E.g.: if

[Q]=mc/h; head expressed as p (= H) in kPa, and to

obtain the power in kW, the formula is:

Psp =

Q p 1,0197
27 1,36 100

Differently, if [Q]=mc/s and [H]=m, with []=kg/mc the power in kW

shall be:
Psp =

Q H
101,97

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The head a centrifugal pump can supply to the fluid is higher as the
impeller diameter increases. On the same pump, the impeller can have
a diameter variable between a minimum and a maximum value.
Due to high head requirements, that would lead to increase too much
the diameter of the impeller (and consequently the exit speed of the
fluid, with less efficiency), it is preferred to use two or more impellers
(and volutes/diffusers): these are the so-called multistages centrifugal
pumps. The head enhancement is equally divided between the stages
that treat the same flowrate, in series.

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For high flowrates requirements, or when the flowrate vary greatly, 2 or

more pumps can be arranged for parallel operation. The flowrate is
equally divided between the pumps, each of them gives the same head
to the treated part of fluid.
NPHS of a pump
The acronym NPSH means net positive suction head, but apart from
the definition that let always engineering students perplexed, we try
now to catch the essence.
The NPHS of a pump practically is the resistance that pump offer to the
fluid flux; it is an intrinsic pump characteristic that only the
manufacturer can knows. This is the requested NPSH.
A more rigorous definition can be given only once we have described the
cavitation phenomena.
At the impeller inlet, the fluid is accelerated, consequently it undergoes
through a local pressure decrease: if the pressure goes under the
vapour pressure value (proper of the fluid and varying with temperature
only) the fluid starts flashing. Passing trough the impeller vanes, the
pressure rises up and the bubbles previously generated in the fluid
suddenly collapse, causing a mechanical pit on the impeller surface. If
this working condition for the pump goes on, in not too much time the
impeller of the pump will definitively break down. This phenomenon is
well known as Cavitation.
NPSH Required can be defined as the minimum fluid pressure required
at the pump suction so to avoid any risk of cavitation.
This is an intrinsic characteristic, proper of considered pump: it cannot
be calculated, but only obtained as information from the pump
manufacturer.
Different is the NPSH available.

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The NPSH available is a characteristic depending by the hydraulic plant

and completely independent by the pump itself. It can be calculated as
the difference between the liquid pressure at inlet flange of the pump
(Hs) and the vapour pressure of the liquid at operative temperature (Pv).

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e.g.:

Hs = Hb + H1 Hd

Hb is the hydrostatic pressure at

the top of liquid level;
H1 is the static head, measured
from the centerline of the pump
suction to the top of the liquid level:
if the level is below the centerline of
the pump it will be a negative
number.
Hd is the pressure drop in the
piping,
fittings
and
valves,
measured from the pipe inlet, to the
pump inlet flange.

NPSHa = [Hb - (H1 + Hd)] Pv = Hs

- Pv

To assure a correct operating for the centrifugal pump it is necessary

that:

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NPSHa > NPSHr

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Example for calculation.

Normally, an available NPSH 0, 5 m bigger than the one requested is
accepted.
The ESSO accepts also 0,3 m if the NPSH test, performed at
manufacturer workshop, has been attended by the client.
Example: water pumping from an atmospheric tank located at a lower
level than the pump one.
Example:
atmospheric pressure in loco = 9, 78 m
suction ground water level = 4 m
load loss between suction and foot valve = 0, 75 m
vapour pressure, at reference temperature = 0, 0143 m
The pump manufacturer requests NPSH equal to 3 ,5 m.
We shall therefore have:
NPHS available = 9,78 (4 + 0,75 + 0,0143) 5 m

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Being NPHS requested equal to 3, 5 we should not be afraid of

cavitation phenomena.

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3.3.3 Specific Speed and Suction Specific Speed

Pump Specific Speed (ns) is a dimensionless numeric value which
roughly defines the pump geometry and the shape of the pump
characteristics. It is calculated basing on the flowrate, head and
rotating speed values measured at the best efficiency point with the
maximum possible diameter impeller for given pump:

nS = n (Q)1/2 / ()3/4

As the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter
to the inlet of the eye diameter decreases. This ration becomes 1.0 for
an axial flow pump. Radial flow impellers develop head through
centrifugal force, and are characterized by low flow and high head
designs. Pump of higher specific speeds develop head partly by
centrifugal force and partly by axial force. A higher specific speed
indicates a pump design with head generation more by axial forces and
less by centrifugal forces. An axial flow or propeller pump with a specific
speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head exclusively through axial
forces. Axial flow impellers are high flow and low head designs.

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Specific speed (ns) identifies the approximate acceptable ratio of the

impeller eye diameter (D1) to the impeller maximum diameter (D2) in
designing an impeller:

ns = 500 to 5000

D1/D2 > 1.5

radial flow pump

ns = 5000 to 10000

D1/D2 < 1.5

mixed flow pump

ns = 10000 to 15000

D1/D2 = 1

axial flow pump

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These are the reference values when ns is calculated using US system of

measure:
n = rpm; H = ft; Q = gpm.
If SI (n = rpm; H = m; Q = m3/s) is used, result ns can be converted in
US system multiplying by 51.64.
Remark:
For double-suction pumps the Q value used in ns calculation shall be
the total flowrate divided by 2. In analogy, for multistage pumps the H
value shall be the total Head supplied divided by the number of the
pump stages.
Suction Specific Speed (nss) may be used to determine what pump
geometry - radial, mixed flow or axial - to use for maximum efficiency
and prevent cavitation.
Suction Specific Speed is commonly used as a basis for estimating the
safe operating range of a pump.
Suction Specific Speed is dimensionless and are expressed as:

nss = n (Q)1/2 / (NPSHa)3/4

where:
nss = Suction Specific Speed;
n = rpm;

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Q = flowrate capacity (m3/h, l/s, m3/min, US gpm, British gpm) at

Best Efficiency Point BEP;
NPSHa = available Net Positive Suction Head (m, ft).
As a rule of thumb the Specific Suction Speed should be below 8500 if
calculated with US measure system (165 if calculated with SI) to avoid
cavitation.

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As for Specific Speed, the conversion factor for the suction specific
speed is 51,64.

3.3.4 Selection of Centrifugal Pump

Task of process engineer, or project engineer or mechanical specialist,
belonging to an Engineering Company, is the one to select, and
subsequently to verify, a proper pump which satisfies the requirements
of the process and of the mechanical data sheet; the design and the
construction of the pump is task of one of the many manufacturer
Firms, operating on the market.
A centrifugal pump which operates, at a certain speed, provides for a
certain flow rate with a certain head.

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These parameters are linked each to other: their functional relationship

is graphically represented by the characteristic curve given by the pump
manufacturer, drawn on a coordinate axis system, where you can find
the flowrate on the X axis (abscissa) and the head on the Y axis
(ordinate). On the same coordinate system we can draw the curve
representing the resistant characteristic of the hydraulic circuit,
typically a parabolic shaped curve (remember that the hydraulic
resistance of the circuit has a quadratic relationship with the flowrate).

The pump regulates itself so to work at the equilibrium condition, that

is the intersection point between these two curves (the working point [P]
of the centrifugal pump).

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If a decrease of the hydraulic resistance downstream the pump

happens, related curve tends to be less slanting and the working point
(intersection) moves along the curve towards the growing flowrates
direction (point P1), viceversa, in case of hydraulic resistance increasing
happens, the working point moves towards decreasing flowrates
direction (point P2).
The indicated point P3, is the operating point at shut-off condition: zero
flow for closed discharge valve.
Its important to fix that on a same pumps several impellers with
different diameters can be mounted: the manufacturer shall choose the
diameter so that the working point shall be as near as possible to the
maximum reachable efficiency (BEP: Best Efficiency Point).

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The graph can be completed with the indication of efficiency and

absorbed power curves:

You can see that for centrifugal pumps the absorbed power curve is
continuously rising with growing flowrates: this means that we have the
minimum absorbed power at shut-off and the maximum at the end of
the curve.
Due to process requirements, there are two possible scenarios:

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pump starting with the discharge valve closed: in this case at the
start up the pump absorbs the power measured at shut-off: less
than power absorbed at the working point;

pump starting with the discharge valve open: in this case at the
start up the pump absorbs the maximum power, since the
starting point is at the end of the characteristic curve.

This means that the electric motor chosen as driver shall have a
nominal power not only major than absorbed power at working point,
but major than absorbed power at the end of the curve: otherwise driver
shall not be enough powerful to assure the start up of the pump.

3.3.5 Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curve.

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Typical characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump: the design impeller

has 407,5 mm diameter, intermediate between the minimum (369,6
mm) and the maximum (425,5 mm) diameter available for the
considered pump.

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Mixed flow centrifugal pumps and axial flow or propeller pumps have
considerably different characteristics as shown in figures below.

The head curve for a mixed flow pump is steeper than for a radial flow
pump. The shut-off head is usually 150% to 200% of the design head,
the brake horsepower remains fairly constant over the flow range.

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For a typical axial flow pump, the head and brake horsepower both
increase drastically near shutoff as shown below

Page 122 of 462

The distinction between the above three classes is not absolute, and
there are many pumps with characteristics falling somewhere between
the three.
3.3.6 Centrifugal Pumps: Classification

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In following table are indicated the most important types of centrifugal

pumps, usually installed in a refinery plant and described in the
International reference most used standard (API Std. 610):

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Page 124 of 462

Hereafter, you will find the schematic representation of the various

types of pumps described in the table.
OVERHUNG:

OH1 type
Foot-mounted single stage overhung

OH3 type

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Vertical in/line single Stage overhung (Flexible

coupling)

OH2 type
Centerline-mounted single stage overhung

OH4 type
Vertical in/line single stage overhung
(Rigid coupling)

OH5 type

OH6 type

Vertical in/line single stage overhung

High speed integral gear-driven

single stage overhung

Page 125 of 462

BETWEEN BEARINGS:

BB1 type

BB2 type

Axially split one/two-stage between bearings

Radially split one/two-stage between bearings

BB3 type

BB4 type

Axially split multistage

Single casing radially split multistage Between

bearings

Between bearings

BB5 type

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Double casing radially split multistage Between bearings (Barrel Pumps)

Page 126 of 462

VERTICAL:

VS1 type

VS2 type

Wet pit, vertically suspended, single-casing

diffuser with discharge through the column

Wet pit, vertically suspended, single-casing volute

with discharge through the column

VS3 type

VS4 type

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Wet pit, vertically suspended, single-casing axial Vertically suspended, single-casing volute line-shaft
flow with discharge through the column
driven with separate discharge

VS5 type

VS6 type

Page 127 of 462

Vertically suspended cantilever sump pumps

Double casing diffuser vertically suspended

VS7 type
Double casing volute vertically suspended

3.3.7 Example of a Mechanical Data Sheet of a Centrifugal Pump

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Here below is given an example of a centrifugal pump data sheet.

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3.3.8 Positive Displacement Pumps (Volumetric Pumps)

Positive displacement pumps working principle is based on the transfer
of finite volumes of fluid from the suction side to the discharge side of
the pump.
The flowrate is proportional to the pump speed (as for dynamic pumps),
while the head does not depend by the flowrate and by the pump speed,
but is highly variable, depending by the pressure in the hydraulic
circuit downstream the pump.
A Positive Displacement Pump, unlike a Centrifugal Pump, will produce
the same flow at a given rotation speed, no matter what the discharge
pressure is: as consequence it cannot be operated against a closed
discharge valve and, unlike centrifugal pumps, it does not have a shutoff referred head.
If a Positive Displacement Pump is allowed to operate against a closed
valve, placed somewhere in the circuit downstream the pump, it will
continue to produce flow which will increase the pressure in the
discharge line as long as the power of the pump driver is enough to
guarantee the pump working. This leads to the real risk of damage for
the part of circuit downstream the pump and there installed equipment,
or for the pump itself, or both.
As consequence, a relief valve shall always be installed on the discharge
side of a positive displacement pump, so to prevent such dangers.

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Following is a representation of typical characteristic curves for positive

displacement

Page 133 of 462

pumps.
Slippage
H
[m]
Real

Ideal

resistant characteristic
curve

rated working point

characteristic curve

Q rated

Q [mc/h]

You can see that over a certain head, the characteristic curve has a
deviation form the ideal vertical curve. This is due to the fact that, as
the discharge pressure increases for the higher resistance of external
circuit, some amount of liquid will leak from the discharge of the pump
back to the pump suction, reducing the effective flow rate of the
pump.
The rate at which liquid leaks from the pump discharge to its suction is
called slippage, and of course it implies a dramatic decrease of pump
efficiency.

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The positive displacement pumps can be divided in two main classes

reciprocating

rotary

Page 134 of 462

Typical application of positive displacement design are in the following

types of pump:

rotary lobe pump;

progressing cavity pump (spiral pump);

gear pump;

piston pump;

diaphragm pump;

screw pump;

vane pump;

peristaltic.

Internal gear pump

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Gear pump

Diaphragm pump sectional drawing

Lobe pump

Page 135 of 462

3.4

Compressors
The compressors are another very important category of machinery,
always present in an oil refinery; they are operating machines directed
to increase the pressure of gases and they are very similar to pumps:
the main and evident difference is that pumps treat liquids, while
compressors treat gases.
As for the pumps, different types of compressors are produced,
depending by the physical principles their working is based on. A first
basic classification is between:

Dynamic compressors (centrifugal and axial);

Volumetric or positive displacement compressors (reciprocating

and rotary).

Since the specific volume of a gas varies greatly with its pressure and
temperature, always the flow rate is indicated by 3 terms:

Volumetric flow rate at operating temperature;

Weight flow rate, not depending by pressure and temperature

variations;

Volumetric flow rate @ normal conditions (atmospheric pressure

and 0 C temperature).

The specific volume is linked to gas conditions (pressure and

temperature) by the following:

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Vsp =

Z R T
105 P

Page 136 of 462

Where: Z is the compressibility index of the gas; R is the gas constant

(=8314/gas molecular weight).
When compressed, a gas naturally increases its temperature, the final
temperature (T2) can be calculated by the formula:
n 1

2
T2 = T1
P1

Where:

temperatures are expressed in Kelvin degrees;

P2/P1 = is the compression ratio (P1 and P2 are respectively the

suction and discharge pressures);

n 1 k 1
=
p ; k is the specific heats ratio
n
k

p is the polytropic efficiency of the compression.

c
X p ;
cv

The polytrophic efficiency is unitary when the compression can be

considered as adiabatic (e.g. reciprocating compressors), otherwise, for
polytropic compression the efficiency is less than 1 (e.g. in dynamic
compressors).
Since we have a superior limit for the discharge temperature, due to
commercial design requirements, the gas temperature at the end of
compression is a very important reference value the manufacturer has
to consider during the design phase of the equipment, so to fix the
number of compression stages.
The single stage compression ratio can be calculated as nth root (for n
stages) of the total.

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[e.g. if = 6, and we have n = 3 stages, then 1 = 2 = 3 =

6 1,817 ].

Between two consecutive stages, the gas shall be cooled down by an

inter-stage cooler. In case the cooling would cause the production of
some condensate, it shall be necessary to separate it by a separator,
installed downstream the cooler.

Page 137 of 462

3.4.1 Dynamic Compressor: Centrifugal and Axial

As for the centrifugal pumps, the working of centrifugal compressors is
based on the Bernoulli principle: the rotation of an impeller provides
kinetic energy to the gas, and this energy is then converted into
pressure static energy in the volute.
Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas,
and have the benefits of high efficiencies and large mass flow capacity,
particularly in relation to their cross-section.
However they require several rows of aerofoils to achieve large pressure
rises, making them complex and expensive. The motion of the blades
relatively to the fluid adds velocity or pressure or both to the fluid as it
passes through the rotor.
The fluid velocity is increased through the rotor, and the stator converts
kinetic energy to pressure energy.
Some diffusion also occurs in the rotor in most practical designs.
The increase in velocity of the fluid is primarily in the tangential
direction (swirl): the stator removes this angular momentum.
Axial compressor can manage larger flowrate than centrifugal
compressors, but in comparison they develop very lower head.
Typical working range in terms of flowrate (volumetric, inlet) is between
40.000 mc/h and 1 million mc/h; in terms of head, between 10 and
800 bar (as discharge pressure).
High compression ratio is available for axial compressors working as
part of a gas turbine gas generator, for other aims, typically for refinery
services; this requirement is preferable to be obtained by centrifugal
compressors that reach same performances with smaller machine.
Both centrifugal and axial compressors are subject to a physical limit
regarding the working, well known as surge phenomena: it imposes an
inferior limit to the flowrate the equipment can manage safely.

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As consequence, 0-100% regulation is available only by an intercooled

partial recirculation of gas flowrate that of course involves a drastic
downfall for the global efficiency of the machinery.

Page 138 of 462

Typical characteristic curves for centrifugal compressor:

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES FOR VARIOUS SPEEDS

WORKING POINT

SURGE
LIMIT

RISING
SPEED

The characteristic operating curve is fixed for a given

compressor at constant speed. Variation of the suction
pressure or system conditions will change the
differential pressure developed by the machine.
The differential pressure will increase for any condition
which causes increase suction inlet gas density.
The characteristic curve moves up due to any of
following gas characteristic variations:
1.increased suction pressure;
2.increased molecular weight;
3.lower inlet temperature;

RISING
SPEED

4.lower compressibility factor;

5.lower k [cp/cv] value.
Some process cannot fix gas composition and system
conditions exactly and it is important to recognized the
possible implications of changes in the suction
conditions on the compressor performance, so to verify
the compressor is well sized for the different possible
working conditions.
mc/h

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EFFICIENCY CURVES FOR VARIOUS SPEEDS

Page 139 of 462

Before examining it, we want to consider more deeply the surge

phenomena: it is primed from a lessening of flowrate, due to compressor
incorrect operating, or unstable process conditions (typical example is
the restriction at the compressor inlet or discharge).
The lower inlet volume flow rate makes the pressure head decrease as
consequence of turbulent dissipation of the velocity head of the gas
leaving the impeller.
As flow is further reduced, the pressure developed, by the compressor
tends to be lower than the pressure in the outer discharge line: this
leads to a momentary flow reversal which reduces the discharge line
pressure, and as it becomes less then the developed the flow takes
again the proper direction, with rising discharge pressure, up to a
certain point that cause a new start of the phenomena, that becomes a
repeating cycle, unless proper correction action is taken.

SURGE REGION

OPERATING
REGION
DELTA P

A
D

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VOLUME FLOW RATE

Pressuring, surging is an unstable working condition, with rapid flow

and discharge pressure pulsation, which produces high frequency
reversal in axial thrust of the compressor shaft, varying its intensity
from an audible rattle to a violent shock.
To avoid any risk of surging, it is important the rated working point of
the compressor is enough remote form the surge line.

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Several things can be done to prevent surge in centrifugal or axial

compressors during working:

Reducing the resistance of the outlet stream (reducing the

compression ratio);

Increasing the flow through the compressor.

Both solutions have as consequence that the working point goes away
from the surge limit, reaching a safety operating point.

Compressor Regulation
The operation of the compressor to meet or establish the desired point
on the head-capacity system curve requires a control which can be
variable speed or constant speed type.

Variable speed control

It is the most efficient method of controlling the capacity of a

compressor.

Constant speed control

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This system includes:

a. Inlet throttling: This is very common and simple way to vary the
capacity when using constant speed driver. The gas density at
the inlet of compressor is reduced by throttling action but this
does not alter the system after the discharge. There is an energy
loss during this operation but much less than the loss with the
throttling on discharge side of the machine. The pumping
capacity in terms of weight of flow is reduced in proportion to the
density decrease whereas the volume pumped capacity remains
the same (generally a butterfly valve is used for this service).

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b. For large machines the control is made by adjusting the

orientation of the inlet distributor.
Inlet throttling with variable inlet guide vane.
This device is the most efficiency control for constant speed
compressor.
The vanes provide inlet gas throttling and the pre-rotation of inlet
gas with the consequence of a lower surge limit.
c. Discharge throttling
The absorbed power remains constant for this type of operation.

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For dynamic compressors, we can define the following operating limits:

Minimum Operating Speed - the minimum speed for acceptable

operation, below this value the compressor may be controlled to
stop or go into an "Idle" condition.

Maximum Allowable Speed - the maximum operating speed for

the compressor. Beyond this value stresses may rise above
prescribed limits and rotor vibrations may increase rapidly. At
speeds above this level the equipment will likely become very
dangerous and shall be controlled to slower speeds.

Stonewall or Choke - occurs under one of following events.

Typically for high speed equipment, as flow increases, the velocity
of the gas/fluid can approach the gas/fluid's sonic speed
somewhere within the compressor stage. This location may occur
at the impeller inlet "throat" or at the vaned diffuser inlet "throat".
In most cases, it is generally not detrimental to the compressor,
but has impact on equipment efficiency. For low speed
equipment, as flows increase, losses increase too, such that the
pressure ratio drops to 1:1.

Different construction arrangements are available and used in

compressors manufacture, varying with the required characteristics (in
terms of flowrate and compression ratio) and with the gas handled.
Growing up the compression ratio, the number of stages becomes
higher, with the obvious need of interstage cooling features, and
involves different arrangements for the compressor casing (axial split for
low discharge pressure, radial split with higher values, and barrel
configuration for the highest required discharge pressures).

Page 142 of 462

The applicable operative range for centrifugal compressor is very wide:

the rated power can reach extremely high values (up to around 100
MW), and the type of driver changes, as well.
For power up to around 20 MW an electric motor still can be used (with
inverter for speed regulation and start-up), for higher values, using of
steam turbine or gas turbine as driver is preferable.
In case of electric motor drivers, it is important to consider not only the
absorbed power at rated working point, but the starting torque needed
at compressor start-up.

3.4.2 Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating Compressors
In the reciprocating compressors, the gas compression is consequent to
the volume decrease due to the motion of the piston inside the cylinder.

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The reciprocating compressor is mainly constituted of following

components:

The crankshaft inside a frame: it receives rotating motion by an

external driver;

The flywheel, placed between the driver and the crankshaft end,
that regularizes the rotating motion;

The connecting rod, that converts the shaft rotating motion in

alternative motion;

The crosshead that connects the connecting rod to the piston rod;

Distant piece, that houses the crosshead and the sliding piston
rod;

The piston, that moves inside the Cylinder of the compressor and
together with it realizes the variable volume for the gas;

The inlet and outlet valves;

Unloaders and clearance pockets (with fixed or variable volume),

are special valves that control the percent of full load carried by
the compressor at a given rotational speed of the driver.

Pulsation dampers (on suction and discharge), that mitigate the

gas pressure pulsation consequent to the fact that the
reciprocating compressor operates discrete volumes of gas.

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In a reciprocating compressor the number of cylinders is variable,

depending on the flowrates and compression ratio requirements.
The position of the cylinders can be variously arranged: vertically, in V
angle and horizontally.
Main characteristics of the reciprocating compressor is that it is a slow
speed equipment: an important data to be considered with attention is
the average piston linear speed.
Theoretically there is no superior limit to the pressure these type of
compressor can assure, and for this reason they are typically used for
extremely high pressure requirements, obtained with multistage (and
multi-cylinder), intercooled, design.

Valves

Clearance pocket

Cylinder
Distant piece

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Piston Rod

Piston

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Page 145 of 462

3.5

Heater and Furnaces

3.5.1 General
The primary function of a fired heater is to supply all heat required by
the process stream to raise its temperature as need for the distillation,
operation, catalytic reaction, etc.
A fired heater utilizes gaseous or liquid fuels often produced as a byproduct.
Size and type of heaters vary considerably, depending upon the duty
and required service.

3.5.2 Types
There are different types of heaters: cylindrical, single or double box
with horizontal or vertical coils.
The most simple and common type is the vertical cylindrical (see fig. 1
here below), commonly used up to 40 MMkcal/h of duty.
The main parts of the furnace are:
Radiation section
This section is a vertical cylinder made by a steel plate shell, internally
lined by castable refractory. Inside this cylinder the coils are vertical,
located close to the refractory wall all around the internal perimeter.
The floor is made by steel plates, refractory lined, and supports for the
burners.

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The heat generated in the radiant tubes is mainly produced by direct

radiation from the heating flame.

Page 146 of 462

Convection section
This section is located on the top of the radiant and the heat is
exchanged by convection between the flue gas flowing to the stack and
the horizontal tube bundle.
The first two or three rows face directly the radiant top and the burner
flames, so may be considered as an extension of the radiant coil. This
part is called the shock zone and it is always made by bare tubes.
All the other rows of convective usually finned or studded, to increase
the heat flow.
Stack
The stack collects and discharges flue gases. It is made by steel plates
internally lined by castable refractory.

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A damper is installed to control the draft through the stack.

Page 147 of 462

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Figure 1. vertical heater with radiant section

Page 148 of 462

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Data and information to be supplied to the Manufacturer, to get

relevant offer, are:

Physical and the chemical properties of charge and product as:

density or API gravity, viscosity (at several temperatures), inlet
and outlet molecular weight of vapours, coking characteristics of
charge.

Operating conditions as: charge flow rate, inlet and outlet

pressure and temperature, maximum allowable pressure drop,
furnace duty (Kcal/h adsorbed).

Fuel: analysis of gas, heat content, viscosity (oil) density,

temperature.

Desired efficiency.