AC Circuits PDF

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AC Circuits
Alternating Current (AC) Circuits
by
Prof. Dr. Osman SEVAOLU
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 1
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What is Direct Current (DC) ?

Definition
Switch is turned on at: t = 1 sec
Direct Current (DC) is a current, that

does not change in time
Current (Amp)
80
60
Switch
Current, I
R1= 5 Ohms
40
I = 60 A
DC (Constant) Current
20
+
Vs= 600 V
R2= 5 Ohms
0
1
7
6
Time (Sec)
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What is Alternating Current (AC) ?

Definition
Alternating Current (AC) is a current, that
changes in time
Non - Sinusoidal Alternating Current
Current (Amp)
Current (Amp)
Sinusoidal Alternating Current

10
Time (msec)
0
10
15
5.0
4.0
3.0
20
2.0
1.0
- 10
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Time (Sec)
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Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Sinusoidal Voltage
Definition
Sinusoidal voltage is a voltage
with waveform as shown on the
RHS
^
V(t) = V sin ( wt + )
where
V(t) is the voltage waveform,
^
V is the peak value (amplitude),

w is the angular frequency,
is the phase shift, i.e. angle of the
voltage at t = 0, (phase angle)
Voltage (Volt)
Please note that;

Angle = wt = 2 f t
312
300
200
Phase angle
V = Amplitude
100
Angle (Radians)
0
/2
3/2
f = 50 Hz
w = 2 f = 314 rad/sec
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Voltage Waveform
V (Volts)
312
^
V = Amplitude = 312 Volts
300
200
100
0
Time (msec)
10
15
20
-100
-200
-312
-300
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Period and Frequency
Full period = T = 20 msec 360 o
V (Volts)
300
200
Frequency = 1/ T = 1/(20 x 10 -3)

= 50 Hz
100
Time (msec)
10
15
20
25
30
35
-100
-200
-300
40
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AC (Alternating Current) Circuit

Positive half cycle
Negative half cycle
I (Amp)
I (Amp)
25
I(t)
25
25
20
20
20
15
15
15
10
10
10
V(t) +
5
0
10
0,015
Load
-5
-5
-10
-10
-10
-15
-15
-15
-20
-20
-25
-25
-20
-25
Time (msec)
0,005
V(t) +
0
10
-5
I(t)
Time (msec)
Load
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Elements of AC Circuits: Capacitor

Definition
Capacitor is a device that can store
electrical charge
Positive conductor
Insulating Layer
Negative conductor
The simplest configuration consists of

two parallel conducting plates
separated by an insulating layer
Insulating Layer provides dielectricity

(prevents current flow) between
positive and negative conductors
Symbolic
representation
_
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Capacitance
Definition
Small Capacitance
Large Capacitance
Capacitors store electrical charge
__
C 1 < C2
Capacitance = C2
+
Capacitance = C1
+
Storage capacity of a capacitor is

called capacitance
Water (hydroulic) example
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Capacitor-Practical Configuration
Geometry
Capacitor plates are packaged in a roll

form in order to have smaller size
_
_
Aluminum cover
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Geometry
Capacitor cylinders are then
connected in parallel in bank form
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Geometry
Capacitor banks
Control relay
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Geometry
Single Phase
Three Phase
Single and three-phase capacitor

banks
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MV (Medium Voltage) Shunt Capacitor Banks
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AC Circuits
LV (Low Voltage) Capacitor Banks
Protective Breakers
Contactors
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Electronic Capacitors in a Motherboard
Capacitors
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Basic Relation
Basic Principle
Voltage Source
Charge stored in a capacitor is

proportional to the voltage V
applied
or
Q=CV
where, Q is charge stored (Coulombs),
V is voltage (Volts),
C is capacitance (Farads)
Charge stored in a capacitor is

proportional to the capacitance C,
Capacitance
Symbolic Representation
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Definition of Farad
Definition
1 Farad is the capacitance that creates 1 Volt
voltage difference between the terminals of
the plates when charged by 1 Coulomb of
electrical charge
Capacitor
Q=CV
where, Q = 1 Coulomb,
V = 1 Volt,
C = 1 Farad
C = 1 Farad
Q = 1 Coulomb
1 Volt
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Current in a Capacitance
I(t)
Definition
The relation;
Q(t) = C V(t)
or differentiating both sides with respect to time
V(t)
_
may be written in time domain as;
Q=CV
dQ(t)/dt = C dV(t)/dt
remembering that;
dQ(t)/dt = I(t)
It can be written that;
I(t) = C dV(t) / dt
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I (Amp) Voltage Waveforms
Phase Shift between Current and
V (Volts), I (Amp)
I(t) = C d V(t) / dt
= C d/dt Vmax sin wt
= C Vmax w coswt
= Imax coswt
25
20
Vmax
15
Imax
10
where, Imax = C Vmax w
I(t)
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
-5
V(t) +
-10
-15
-20
-25
Time (Sec)
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The above equation may be integrated

with respect to time, yielding the
following voltage - current relation for a
Capacitor
where V(0) is the initial voltage across

the capacitor, representing the initial
voltage due to the initial charge stored in
the capacitor
I(t)
Switch
V(t) = (1/C) I(t)dt + V(0)
V(t)
C
Vc (0)
Definition
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Example - 1
I(t)
Problem
V(t)
V(t) = 5 (1 e -t) Volts
Determine the time waveform of the current

flowing in the circuit shown on the RHS by
assuming that the capacitor is charged by the
exponential voltage V(t) shown in the figure
C = 0.1 F
V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) (Volts)

5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Vmax = Maximum voltage that can be reached = 5 Volts

Qmax = C x Vmax = Maximum charge that can be stored
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
t (sec)
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Example - 1
Solution
V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) (Volts)
I(t)
5.0
4.0
I(t) = C dV(t)/dt
3.0
V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) Volts

Hence,
+
V(t)
2.0
1.0
I(t) = C d V(t) / dt
= C d/dt 5 (1 e -t)
= 0.1 x 5 e -t
= 0.5 x e -t Ampers
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
I(t) (Amp)
t (sec)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
t (sec)
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AC Circuits
Example - 1
Charge Stored in a
Capacitor
Qmax = C x Vmax = Maximum charge that can be stored

I(t)
Now, determine the time waveform of

the charge stored in the capacitor
V(t)
C = 0.1 F
Q(t) = C x V(t)
= 0.1 x 5 (1 - e-t)
= 0.5 x (1 - e-t) Coulombs
Charge stored in the capacitor starts

from zero and gradually increases to its
final value
Q(t) (Coulombs)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0 t (sec)
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Example - 2
Current source shown in the circuit

shown on the RHS provides 10 A
constant current within the time
interval;
Switch is turned on at: t = 0 sec,

off at: t = 1.0 sec.
14.0
I(t)
12.0
10.0
t 0, 1 sec
Capacitor is initially charged to 2 Volts
voltage
I(t) (Amp)
Switch
I(t)
8.0
4.0
2.0
Determine the voltage across the

capacitor within the time interval;
t 0, 1 sec
6.0
Problem
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
t (sec)
C=1F
Vc(0) = 2 Volts
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Example - 2
Voltage across the capacitance can

be expressed as
14.0
I(t)
V(t) = (1/C) I(t)dt + V(0)
12.0
10.0
8.0
Solution
I(t) (Amp)
I(t)
6.0
4.0
where,
2.0
V(0) = 2 Volts
is the initial voltage across the
capacitor
t 0, 1
Hence;
V(t) = (1/C) I(t) dt + 2
= 1 x 10 dt + 2
= 10 t + 2 Volts
0.0
C=1F
Vc(0) = 2 Volts
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
V(t) (Volts)
t (sec)
14.0
12.0
10.0
V(t) = 10 t +2
Volts
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
t (sec)
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Solution of R-C Circuits

Problem
Solve the RC circuit shown on the RHS for
current waveform I(t) flowing in the circuit
when the switch is turned on at t = 0
Solution
Switch
I(t)
R
^
+ V(t) = V sin (wt + )
Writing down KVL for the circuit
Vc(0) = V0
C
V(t) = R I(t) + VC(t)

= R I(t) + (1/C) I(t)dt + Vc(0)
Differentiating both sides wrt time once;

d/dt V(t) = R d/dt I(t) + (1/C) I(t)
or dividing both sides by R
d/dt I(t) + (1/RC) I(t) = (1/R) d/dt V(t)
d/dt Vc(0) = 0
A first order ordinary differential equation
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Solution of the resulting First Order Ordinary Differential Equation

I(t)
Solution
d/dt I(t) + (1/RC) I(t) = (1/R) d/dt V(t)
d/dt I(t) + (1/RC) I(t) = (1/R) d/dt ( V sin ( wt + ) )

^
d/dt I(t) + (1/RC) I(t) = (V/R) w cos ( wt + )

Voltage (Volt)
R
+
Solve the resulting first order ordinary differential equation (ODE)
^
V(t) = V sin (wt +)
Vc(0)=V0
C
V( t ) = ^
V sin ( wt + )
d/dt V( t ) = V w cos( wt + )
312
300
200
Amplitude
100
0
/2
3/2
2
Angle (Radians)
Phase angle
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AC Circuits
Solution
^
Switch is turned on at:

t = 0 sec
I(t)
dI(t) / dt + (1/RC) I(t) = (V/R) w cos ( wt + )
R
^
V(t) = V sin(wt + )
_
^
(t) dI(t)/dt + I(t) (1/RC) (t) = (t) ( V/R ) w cos ( wt + )
^
(t) dI(t)/dt + I(t) d/dt (t) = ( V/R ) (t) w cos ( wt + )
^
d/dt [(t) I(t)]
= ( V/R ) (t) w cos ( wt + )
^
d/dt [(t) I(t)] dt
= ( V/R ) (t) w cos ( wt + ) dt + I(0)
^
(t) I(t)
= ( V/R ) w (t) cos ( wt + ) dt + I(0)
I(t)
= Î (t) -1 w (t) cos(wt + ) dt + (t)-1I(0)
Define an integration factor (t) = e t / RC

Multiply both sides of the above ODE by this factor;
Vc(0)=V0
C
d/dt (t) = (1/RC) (t)
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Solution (Continued)
Reference
Subsituting the integration factor (t) = e t/RC into the above

solution;
^
I(t) = I e - t/RC w e t/RC cos (wt + ) dt + e - t/RC I(0)

^
= I e - t/RC w e t/RC (coswt cos - sinwt sin ) dt + e - t/RC I(0)
cos (a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b
Taken from the Reference: Calculus and Analytic Geometry,

Thomas, Addison Wesley, Third Ed. 1965
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Now, proceeding;
^
I(t) = I e - t/RC w e t/RC (coswt cos - sinwt sin ) dt + e - t/RC I(0)

^
= I e - t/RC w [ cos e t/RC coswt dt - sin e t/RC sinwt dt ] + e - t/RC I(0)
ax
cos bx dx =
e ax
b sin bx + a cos bx
-----------------------------a 2 + b2
ax
sin bx dx =
e ax
a sin bx - b cos bx
-----------------------------a 2 + b2
Taken from the Reference:Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Thomas, Addison

Wesley, Third Ed. 1965, pp. 369
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Now, proceeding;
^
I(t) = I e - t/RC w [ cos e t/RC coswt dt - sin e t/RC sinwt dt ] + e - t/RC I(0)
t/RC
cos wt dt =
e t/RC
w sin wt + (1/RC) cos wt

---------------------------------(1/RC)2 + w2
t/RC
sin wt dt =
e t/RC
(1/RC) sin wt - w cos wt

---------------------------------(1/RC)2 + w2
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Now, proceeding;
^
I(t) = I e - t/RC w [ cos e t/RC coswt dt - sin e t/RC sinwt dt ] + e - t/RC I(0)
^
t/RC
t/RC
t/RC
I(t) = I e
w [ cos e
---------------------------------- - sin e
---------------------------------- ] + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
I(t) = I e
- t/RC
w [ cos
e t/RC
(1/RC)2 + w2

t/RC
---------------------------------- - sin e
---------------------------------- ] + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
(1/RC)2 + w2
Iw
I(t) = ----------------- [ cos [w sin wt + (1/RC) cos wt ] - sin [(1/RC) sin wt - w cos wt ] ] + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
Î w
I(t) = ----------------- [ (wcos - (1/RC) sin ) sin wt + ((1/RC) cos + w sin ) cos wt ] + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
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Î w
I(t) = ----------------- [ (wcos - (1/RC) sin ) sin wt + ((1/RC) cos + w sin ) cos wt ] + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
Iw
I(t) = ------------------(1/RC)2 + w2
wcos - (1/RC) sin

(1/RC) cos + w sin
------------------------------- sin wt + -------------------------------- cos wt
(1/RC)2 + w2
(1/RC)2 + w2
w / (1/RC)2 + w2 = cos
+ e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC) / (1/RC)2 + w2 = sin
w2 + (1/RC)2 = r 2
(1/RC)
r = (1/RC)2 + w2
w
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Î w
I(t) = ------------------(1/RC)2 + w2
wcos - (1/RC) sin

(1/RC) cos + w sin
------------------------------- sin wt + -------------------------------- cos wt
(1/RC)2 + w2
(1/RC)2 + w2
+ e - t/RC I(0)
Î w
I(t) = ------------------- (cos cos -sin sin ) sin wt + (sin cos +cos sin ) cos wt + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
cos cos - sin sin = cos( + )
sin cos + cos sin = sin ( + )
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AC Circuits
^
Iw
I(t) = -------------------- cos ( + ) sin wt + sin ( + ) cos wt + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
sin ( wt + + )
^
Iw
I(t) = ------------------- sin ( wt + + ) + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2

I(t)
R
C
Vc(0)=V0
^
^
+ V(t) = V sin(wt + )
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Subsituting the above term into the solution;

Switch
I(t)
R
+
Iw
I(t) = ------------------- sin ( wt + + ) + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
Vc(0)=V0
C
Itr(t) =Transient Term
Iss(t) = Steady-State Term
^
V(t) = V sin(wt + )
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Calculation of Initial Value of I(t)
Initially, the system is an AC circuit operating in

steady state, with a resistance R and capacitance C
drived by an AC source
I(t)
R
Hence the current I(t) depends on the source

voltage V(t) and Z = R + j X
I
= V
= V
= V /Z
Vc(0)=V0
C
^
V(t) = V sin(wt + )
V(t) = V sin (wt + )
/ ( R + jX )
/Z
+Tan-1 (X / R)
-Tan-1 (X / R)
Please note that capacitive
reactance has negative angle
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Calculation of Initial Value of I(t)
I(t)
r = (1/RC)2 + w2
(1/RC)
X = 1 / (wC)
X / R = 1 / (wRC)
Tan-1 (X / R) = Tan-1 (1 / (wRC) = Tan-1((1/RC) / w) =
R
Vc(0)=V0
C
^
V(t) = V sin(wt + )
w2 + (1/RC)2 = r 2
I (t) = V / Z sin (wt + +Tan-1 (X / R)))

^
I (0) = V / Z sin ( + Tan-1 (X / R))

^
I (0) = V / Z sin ( + )
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Subsituting the above term into the solution, the final form of the
solution waveform becomes;
^
Iw
^
I(t) = ------------------- sin ( wt + + ) + e - t/RC V / Z sin ( + )
(1/RC)2 + w2
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R-C Circuits: Example

Example
Now assume that the parameters of the circuit on

the RHS are as follows;
I(t)
^
V(t) = V sin wt = 312 sin wt Volts
R
+
Vc(0)=V0
C
Iw
I(t) = ------------------- sin ( wt + + ) + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
^
V(t) = V sin(wt + )
R = 10 Ohms
C = 10 Farads
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20
a sin wt
Steady-State Term
16
12
8
4
0
-4
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
-8
-12
a sin wt
+
b cos wt
= sin ( wt + + )
-16
-20
20
^
Iw
I(t) = -------------------- cos ( + ) sin wt +sin ( + ) cos wt
(1/RC)2 R-C
+ w2 Circuits: Example
a
b
b cos wt
16
12
8
4
0
-4 0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
-8
-12
-16
-20
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20
a sin wt
Steady-State Term
16
12
8
4
0
-4
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
Iw
I(t) = ------------------- sin ( wt + + )
(1/RC)2 + w2
-8
-12
-16
-20
20
b cos wt
16
25
12
20
15
10
0
-4 0,0
-8
-12
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
0
-5 0
0,5
1,5
2,5
-10
-15
-16
-20
-20
-25
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20
I tr (t)
Overall Solution
16
Iw
I(t) = ------------------- sin ( wt + + ) + e - t/RC I(0)
(1/RC)2 + w2
12
8
4
0
0,0
25
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
I ss (t)
I ss (t) + I tr (t)
30
15
10
20
10
0
-10
-15
-20
-25
40
20
-5 0
0,5
1,5
2,5
0
-10
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
-20
-30
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RC Circuits with DC Voltage Source - Two Simple Rules
Rule - 1
A filled capacitor acts initially as a DC
voltage source due to the stored charge
The initial voltage of this capacitor may

then be represented as a DC voltage source
in series with an uncharged capacitor
R=2
V(t) = (1 / C) I(t)dt = V(0) = V0

-
VDC
V0 +
I(0)
I(0)
R=2
C =1000 F
Vc(0)=V0
I(0) = (VDC-V0) / R
+
VDC V0 +
C =1000 F
Vc(0)=0
+
VDC
R=2
C =1000 F
Vc(0)=0
_
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Then the initial value of current
will be;
I(0) = ( VDC V0 ) / R
The current waveform will then be;

I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e -t/
is called the time constant of the circuit defined
Please note that an uncharged capacitor acts

effectively as short circuit, i.e. V0 = 0
= RC = The time required a for capacitor to reach

63 % of its full charge
= 2 x 1000 F = 2 x 1000 x 10-6 = 0.002 sec
I(0) = ( VDC V0 ) / R
I(t) (Amp)
V = VDC-V0 +
0.4
0.5
I(0)
0.3
SC
Where
as;
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
t (sec)
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Rule - 2
A fully charged capacitor acts finally as
open circuit to DC current
I(t) = C d/dt V(t) = C d/dt (constant) = 0 (OC)

I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e -t/
Where is called the time constant of the circuit

defined as;
= RC = The time required a for capacitor to
reach 63 % of its full charge

= 2 x 1000 F = 2 x 1000 x 10-6 = 2 msec
VDC +
I() = 0
0.5
OC
I(t) (Amp)
0.4
0.3
0.2
Then the final value of current will be;

I() = 0
0.1
I() = 0
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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R=2
Solution
VDC
C =1000 F
Vc(0)=V0
The initial value of current will be;

I(0) = ( VDC V0 ) / R
The final value of current will be;
I() = 0
Substituting the above expressions into

the current expression
I(t)
I(t) (Amp)
24
I(0) = 18 A
20
16

I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e -t/
I(t) = [( VDC V0 ) / R ] e -t/
12
% 63 of the initial value
8
4
I() = 0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
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Meaning of the Time Constant
Definition
Time constant of a electric circuit is
the duration for the current to get
reduced by 63 % of its initial value
Time constant of an RC circuit is
simply expressed as:
= RC
The Effect of on decay

5
% 63 of the initial value

3
% 63 of the inital value
2
1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
t (sec)
2
2 > 1
AC Circuits
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Example
R= 2 Ohm
Problem
V() = VS = 24 Volts
V(t) (Volts)
Capacitor will behave as a DC source at the

beginning and as OC at the end, hence;
V(0) = V0 = 6 Volts
Vc(0) = V0 = 6 V
C = 1 mF
24.0
20.0
16.0
12.0
% 63 of the final value
8.0
4.0
0
The voltage waveform will then be;
Find the voltage waveform across the 1 mF

capacitor shown on the RHS, when it has an
initial voltage of 6 Volts and charged by a 24
Volts DC voltage source through a wire with 2
Ohm resistance
+ VDC= 24 Volts
I(t)
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
t (sec)
V(t) = V() + [V(0) - V()] e -t/
= RC = Time Constant: The time required
V(t) = 24 + ( 6 24 ) e-t/0.002 = 24 -18 e-t/0.002 Volts
for a capacitor to reach 63 % of full charge

= 2 x 1000 F = 2 x 0.001 = 0.002 sec
AC Circuits
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Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Instantaneous Energy
Stored in a Capacitor
Assuming that the instantaneous
voltage across the capacitor is Vc(t)
P(t) = VC(t) I(t)
Example
Calculate the stored energy in a 10 F
capacitor fully charged with a 12 Volts DC
voltage
Wc= (1/2) 10 x 10-6 x 122 = 720 x 10-6 Joule
I(t)
WC(t) = P(t) dt
= VC(t) I(t) dt
or
V(t)
Vc(t)
= C VC(t) dVC(t)
= VC(t) C dVC(t) / dt dt
WC(t) = (1/2) C VC2(t)

AC Circuits
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Example
^
Problem
V(t) (Volts)
312
Angle (Radians)
^
V (t) = V sin wt
WC(t) = (1/2) C VC2(t)

^
Wc(t) = (1/2) 10 x 10-6 V 2 sin 2 wt
= 0.000005 x 3122 sin2 wt
= 0.4867 sin2 wt
= 0.4867 ( cos 2wt )
/2
3/2
V(t) = 312 sin wt

- 312
0.6
Wc(t)
C = 10 F
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
sin2
cos2
wt = 1
wt = 1 ( 1 + cos2wt ) / 2
= cos2wt
Mean of Wc(t) > 0
0.1
Angle (Radians)
0
/2
3/2
Find the instantaneous energy in the

capacitor for the voltage shown in the
figure
I(t)
V( t ) = V sin wt
AC Circuits
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Series Connected Capacitances

Series connected capacitances
V1(t) =
V2(t) =
+
----------=
V (t) =
=
(1/C1) I(t)dt
(1/C2) I(t)dt
+
------------------------------------[ (1/C1 ) + (1/C2) ] I(t)dt
(1/Ctot ) I(t)dt
I(t)
C1
V1 (t)
V(t)
Hence,
Ctot
Series connected capacitances

are combined in the same way as
for shunt connected resistances
1
= ---------------------(1/C1 ) + (1/C2 )
C2
V2 (t)
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Series and Shunt Connected Capacitances

Shunt connected capacitances
I1(t)
I2(t)
+
----------I (t)
=
=
=
=
=
C1 d V(t) / dt
C2 d V(t) / dt
+
---------------------------(C1 + C2) d V(t) / dt
Ctot
d V(t) / dt
Shunt connected capacitances are

simply added
I(t)
+
V(t)
Vc(t)
I1
I2
C1
C2
Where,
C tot = C1 + C2
is the total capacitance
AC Circuits
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Inductance
Definition
Coil
Core
Toroidal Coil
Toroidal Core
Inductance is a winding or
coil of wire around a core
Core may be either insulator
or a ferromagnetic material
Symbolic representation
_
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Ferrite Core Toroidal Inductor

Definition
Ferriet core inductor has a

toroidal ferrit core inside
Ferrite core
Toroidal coil
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AC Circuits
Air Core Inductor
Configuration
Air core inductor has no core inside
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Basic Relation
Voltage across an inductor is

proportional to the rate of change of
current
1 Henry is the value of inductance defined as

1 Henry = 1 Volt x 1 second / 1 Amp
I(t)
+ V(t)
V(t) = L d I(t) / dt
where, V(t) is the voltage across the
inductance,
I(t) is the current flowing
through,
L is the inductance (Henry)
Inductance L
Voltage Source V(t)
Definition
AC Circuits
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Current in an Inductance
Definition
Voltage Source V(t)
The equation;
Inductance L
I(t)
can be written in inverse form as

where I(0) is the current initially flowing
in the inductor
I(t) = (1/L) V(t)dt + I(0)
+
V(t)
_
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Current in an Inductance
I (Amp) Voltage Waveforms
Phase Shift between Current and
V (Volts), I (Amp)
I(t) = (1/L) V(t) dt

= (1/L) Vmax sin wt dt
= - (Vmax / wL) coswt
= - Imax coswt
25
20
15
10
I(t)
V(t)
Inductance
Vmax
Imax
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Time (Sec)
AC Circuits
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Series and Shunt Connected Inductors

Series connected inductors are added
V1(t) =
L1 d I(t) / dt
V2(t) =
L2 d I(t) / dt
+
----------- +-------------------------V(t) = (L1 + L2) d I(t) / dt
= L tot
d I(t) / dt
where
L tot = L1 + L2
is the total inductance
Series connected inductances

I(t)
+
+
V1 (t)
L1
V(t)
+
L2
V2 (t)
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Series and Shunt Connected Inductors

Shunt connected inductances are
combined in the same way as in shunt
connected resistances
I1(t) = (1/L1) V(t)dt
I2(t) = (1/L2) V(t)dt
+
-------- +-------------------I(t) = [ (1/L1 ) + (1/L2) ] V(t)dt
= (1/Ltot )
V(t)dt
Shunt connected inductances

I(t)
+
+
V(t)
Vc(t)
I1
I2
L1
L2
Hence,
Ltot
1
= ---------------------(1/L1 ) + (1/L2 )
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Example - 3
I(t)
Problem
Calculate the voltage across the 100 mH
inductor with the current shown in the figure
on the RHS
I(t) = 0
t<1s
I(t) = 1/((5-1)) (t 1) = (t - 1)
1t5s
I(t) = 1
5t9s
I(t) = -1/((5-1)) (t 13) = - (t - 13) 9 t 13 s
I(t) = 0
t 13 s
I(t)
L = 100 mH
I(t) (Amp)
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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Example - 3
I(t)
Solution
I(t)
L = 100 mH
Differentiating the expression for current

waveform
d/ I(t) dt = d ( (t - 1)) /dt =
V(t) (Volts)
and multiplying by the inductance L (L = 10-1 H);

0.025
V(t) = 0
V(t) = 10-1 x = 0.025 V
V(t) = 0
V(t) = -10-1 x = -0.025 V
V(t) = 0
t<1s
1t5s
5t9s
9 t 13 s
t 13 s
0.0
-0.025
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
t (sec)
14.0
AC Circuits
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Example - 4
I(t)
Problem
V(t) = 0
V(t) = -10 V
V(t) = 0
t < 0 sec
0 t 1 sec
t 1 sec
Assume that the inductor shown on the RHS

is connected to a voltage source with the
waveform shown in the figure
Determine the inductor current waveform by
assuming that the initial current in the
inductor is zero
V(t)
L = 100 mH
V(t) (Volts)
0.0
-10
0.0
0.5
1.0
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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Example - 4
I(t)
Solution
I(t) = (1/L) V(t) dt + I(0)
V(t)
Integrating the voltage expression;

I(t) = (1/L) V(t) dt + I(0)
= 1/(100 x 10-3) V(t) dt
I(t) = 0
I(t) = 1/(100 x 10-3) V(t) dt
= 10 V(t) dt
= 10 -10 dt
= -100 t
I(t) = -100 A
t < 0 sec
0 t 1 sec
t 1 sec
L = 100 mH
I(t) (A)
0.0
-100
0.0
0.5
1.0
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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Energy Stored in an Inductor

I(t)
Problem
I(t)
VL(t)
L
_
P(t) = VL(t) I(t)
Calculate the instantaneous energy

stored in an inductor with an inductance
L and an instantaneous voltage VL(t)
WL(t) = P(t) dt
= VL(t) I(t) dt
= I(t) L dI(t) / dt dt
= L I(t) dI(t)
or
WL(t) = L I2(t)
AC Circuits
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Example 5
I(t)
Problem
Find the instantaneous energy in the
inductor for the current shown in the figure
t<1s
1t5s
5t9s
9 t 13 s
t 13 s
I (t) = 0
I (t) = (t - 1) Amp
I (t) = 1 Amp
I (t) = - (t 13) Amp
I (t) = 0
V(t)
L = 10 mH
I(t) (Amp)
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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Example 5
I(t)
Solution
+
WL(t) = L I2(t)
V(t)
By using the above formula

W(t) = 0 Joule
W(t) = 10-2 x ( (t - 1))2
= 0.3125 x 10-3 x (t-1)2 Joules
W(t) = 0.01 / 2 x 12 = 0.005 Joules
W(t) = 10-2 x ( (t - 13))2
= 0.3125 x 10-3 x (t - 13)2 Joules
W(t) = 0
L = 10 mH
t<1s
1t5s
5t9s
9 t 13 s
t 13 s
Please note that 1 Joule = 1 Watt x 1 sec
W(t) (Joule)
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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R-L Circuits
Solve the R-L circuit shown on the RHS

which consists of a resistance in series
with an inductance for current waveform
when the switch is turned on at time:
t = 0 sec
Writing down KVL for the circuit
V(t) = R I(t) + L dI(t) / dt
or
dI(t) / dt + (R/L) I(t) = (1/L) V(t)
Switch
I(t)
+
Solution
V(t)
I(0)=I0
L
Problem
A first order ordinary differential equation
AC Circuits
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^ sin ( wt + )
V( t ) = V
Solution

I(t)
dI(t) / dt + (R/L) I(t) = (1/L) V(t)
dI(t) / dt + (R/L) I(t) = (1/L) V sin ( wt + )
V(t)
I(0)=I0
L
Voltage (Volt)
312
300
200
Amplitude
100
Angle
0
/2
3/2
(Radians)
2
Phase angle
METU
AC Circuits

^
V( t ) = V sin ( wt + )
Solution
^
dI(t) / dt + (R/L) I(t) = (V/L) sin ( wt + )
V(t)
I(0)=I0
L
^
(t) dI(t)/dt + I(t) (R/L) (t) = (t) ( V / L ) sin ( wt + )
^
(t) dI(t)/dt + I(t) d/dt (t) = ( V / L ) (t) sin ( wt + )
^
d/dt [(t) I(t)]
= ( V / L ) (t) sin ( wt + )
^
d/dt [(t) I(t)] dt
= ( V / L ) (t) sin ( wt + ) dt + I(0)
^
(t) I(t)
= ( V / L ) (t) sin ( wt + ) dt + I(0)
^
I(t)
= I (t) -1 (t) sin (wt + ) dt + (t)-1I(0)
Define an integration factor (t) = e t R/L

Multiply both sides of the above ODE by this factor;
I(t)
d/dt (t) = (R/L) (t)
AC Circuits
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Subsituting the integration factor (t) = e t R/L into
the above solution;

Switch
I(t)
I(t) = I e t R/L e t R/L sin (wt + ) dt + e t R/L I(0)
V(t)
t R/L
sin wt dt =
e t R/L
(R/L) sinwt - w coswt

---------------------------------(R/L)2 + w 2
Taken from the Reference: Calculus and Analytic Geometry,

Thomas,Addison Wesley, Third Ed. 1965, pp. 369
Let = 0 (for simplicity)
I(0)=I0
V( t ) = V sin ( wt + )
AC Circuits
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Subsituting the above term into the solution;

Switch
^ t R/L t R/L (R/L) sinwt - w coswt

I(t) = I e
e
---------------------------------- + e t R/L I(0)
(R/L)2 + w 2
^ (R/L) sinwt - w coswt

I(t) = I ----------------------------------- + e t R/L I(0)
(R/L)2 + w 2
I(0)=I0
V(t)
^
I
I(t) = ------------------- ( sinwt - (wL/R) coswt ) + e t R/L I(0)
(wL/R)2 + 1
Steady-State Term
I(t)
V( t ) = V sin ( wt + )
Transient Term
AC Circuits
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Numerical Example
Steady-State Term
R
I(t)
+
I(0)=I0
V(t)
^
I
(wL/R)2 + 1
Switch
Now assume that the parameters of the circuit on

the RHS are as follows;
V(t) = 312 sin wt Volts
R = 1 Ohms
L = 10 mHenry
^ sin ( wt + )
V( t ) = V
Transient Term
AC Circuits
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Numerical Example
I tr (t)
25
20
^^
I
(wL/R)2 + 1
15
10
Transient Term
Steady-State Term
I ss (t)
250
200
400
150
100
300
50
200
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
I ss (t) + I tr (t)
100
-50
-100
-150
-100
-200
-200
-250
-300
0.5
AC Circuits
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Solution for DC Voltage - Two Simple Rules

I(0) = 0
Rule - 1
I(0) = (1 / L) V(t) dt = I0 = 0
-
L=0.002 H
VDC
I(t)
An inductor with no initial current acts as

an open circuit to a DC voltage source
initially
R=1
(OC)
R
Then, the initial value of current will be;

I(0) = 0
I(0) = 0
+
VDC
OC
I(0) = 0
I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e -t/
= L / R = Time Constant: The time required for

the inductor to reach 63 % of full current
= 2 mH / 1 = 0.002 / 1 = 0.002 Sec
AC Circuits
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I() = V / R
Rule - 2
R=1
(SC)
I(t)
L=0.002 H
VDC
V(t) = L d/dt I(t) = L d/dt (ct) = 0
An inductor acts as a short circuit to a

DC current (or voltage) finally
Then, the final value of current will be;

R
I() = V / R
VDC
I(0) = 0

I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e -t/
I()
SC
I() = V / R

= 2 mH / 1 = 0.002 / 1 = 0.002 Sec
AC Circuits
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R = 1 Ohms

I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e -t/
I(t)
L = 2mH
V= 24 Volts
I(0) = 0
I(t) = V/R - V/R e -t/

= V/R (1- e -t/ )
I(t) (Amps)
or
I() = V / R
24.0
20.0
16.0
12.0
8.0

= 2 mH / 1 = 0.002 / 1 = 0.002 Sec
4.0
0
% 63 of peak value (24 V)
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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Example - 6
R = 1 Ohms
Problem
I(t) (Amps)
Inductor will be SC at the end, hence;

I() = V / R = 24 / 1 = 24 Amps
24.0
20.0
16.0
I() = 24 A
12.0
8.0
I(t) = I() + [ I(0) - I() ] e t /
4.0
I(t) = 24 + (6 - 24) e-t / 0.002 = 24 - 18 e-t / 0.002 Amps
L = 2mH
V= 24 Volts
Inductor has 6 Amp initial current;

I(0) = I0 = 6 Amp
I(t)
Find the current waveform in the 2 mH

inductor with 6 Amps initial current connected
to a 24 Volt DC voltage source through a wire
with 1 Ohm resistance as shown on the RHS
I(0) = 6 A
0
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
t (sec)
AC Circuits
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Example - 7
+
V= 24 V
Solve the circuit shown on the RHS for

current waveform flowing in the inductor
R2 = 5 Ohms
_
R1 = 10 Ohms
A
A
+
L = 0.4 H
V= 24 V R2 = 5 Ohms
B
Kill the voltage source, and find Req.

R eq = 10 // 5
= 10 x 5 /(10 + 5)
= 10 / 3 Ohms
L = 0.4 H
I(t)
Solution
First take out the branch containing inductor,
and find the Thevenin Equivalent circuit of the
part shown on the LHS seen from the
terminals A and B
A
+
Problem
R1 = 10 Ohms
B
A
R1 = 10 Ohms
R2 = 5 Ohms
L = 0.4 H
AC Circuits
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Example 7 (Continued)
R1 = 10 Ohms
Open circuit terminals A B and find VAB
+
VA-B (t)
V= 24 V R2 = 5 Ohms
V = 24 V x R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
= 24 x 5 / 15 = 24 / 3
=8V
Form the resulting Thevenin equivalent

Circuit,
Connect the inductance to the resulting
Thevenin equivalent circuit,
Solve the resulting circuit by using the
straightforward method described in
Example 6
R eq= 10 // 5 = 10 x 5 /(10+5)
= 10/3 Ohms
B
A
L = 0.4 H
V= 24 / 3 = 8 V
R eq= 10 // 5 = 10 x 5 /(10+5)
= 10/3 Ohms
A
L = 0.4 H
V= 24 / 3 = 8 V
AC Circuits
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R-L-C Circuits
Problem
_
R
Writing down KVL for the circuit;

+
V(0)=VC0
C
V(t)
dV(t)/dt = R dI(t)/dt + Ld2I(t)/dt2 +(1/C)I(t)

or
d2I(t)/dt2 + (R/L)dI(t)/dt + (1/LC) I(t) = (1/L) dV(t)/dt
V(t)
Solution
V(t) = R I(t) + VL(t) + VC(t)
= R I(t) + L dI(t)/dt + (1/C) I(t)dt + VC(0)
Differentiating both sides wrt time once;
I(t)
Solve the following circuit for current waveform,

which consists of a resistance, an inductance
and a capacitance connected in series
L I(0)=IL0
A second order ordinary differential equation
AC Circuits
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Initial Conditions
Differential Equation

+
Initial Conditions
_
IL(0) = IL0
VC(0) = VC0
L IL(0) = IL0
R
I(t)
Please note that a differential equation needs initial

conditions in number equal to its order, i.e. two here
V(t)
Vc(0)=VC0
C
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Initial Conditions

+
Initial Conditions
The voltage initial condition VC(0) may also be

written as,
VC(0) = V(0) VL(0) VR(0)
= V(0) L d/dt IL(0) R IL(0)
I(t)
or
V(t)
2
d/dt IL(0) = IL(0) = (1/L) [ V(0) VC(0) R IL(0) ]
L IL(0) = IL0
Vc(0)=VC0
C
METU
AC Circuits
Initial Conditions

+
Initial Conditions
Thus the initial conditions in terms of the

solution variable I(t) may now be written as,
2
+
I(t)
Please note that a differential equation needs initial

conditions in number equal to its order, i.e. two here
L IL(0) = IL0
V(t)
_
IL(0) = IL0
IL(0) = (1/L) [ V(0) VC(0) R IL(0) ]
Vc(0)=VC0
C
AC Circuits
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Example
R-L-C Circuit
Initial Conditions
Solve the R-L-C circuit with the given parameters

shown on the RHS for current I(t)
VC(0) = VC0 = 87 Volts

IL(0) = IL0 = 0
R=2
I(t)
+
1 / (LC) = 1/(1x 2.494 x 10-3) = 401
C = 2.494 mF
2/1=2
L=1H
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
d2I(t)/dt2 + (2/1) dI(t)/dt + 401 I(t) = (1/1) dV(t)/dt

d2I(t)/dt2 + 2 dI(t)/dt + 401 I(t) = d/dt (100 e-4t ) = - 400 e-4t
Writing down KVL for the circuit shown on the

RHS the following ODE is obtained
AC Circuits
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Solution
R=2
R-L-C Circuit
I(t)
C = 2.494 mF
First, obtain the homogeneous equation by

setting the RHS source function to zero
L=1H
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
d2I(t)/dt2 + 2 dI(t)/dt + 401 I(t) = 0
Then, solve the characteristic equation

s2 + 2 s + 401 = 0
c = 401
s1, s2 = ( - b
= -1
b=2
a =1
j 20
b2 - 4 x a x c ) / (2 a)
Eigenvalues of the differential equation
AC Circuits
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Solution
R=2
L=1H
R-L-C Circuit
k1(cos - j sin )
C = 2.494 mF
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
I(t) = k1 e s1 t + k2 e s2 t
= k1 e (-1 j20 ) t + k2 e (-1 + j20 ) t
= k1 e - t x e j20 t + k2 e - t x e
= e - t (k1 e j20 t + k2 e j20 t )
Then, the homogeneous solution becomes
I(t)
j20 t
k1(cos + j sin )
= e - t [ k1 (cos 20 t j sin 20 t )
+ k2 (cos 20 t + j sin 20 t ) ]
Taken from the Reference: Calculus and

Analytic Geometry, Thomas,Addison
Wesley, Third Ed. 1965, pp. 867
Eulers Identity
e j = cos + j sin
= 20 t
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Eulers Identity
Definition
Graphical Representaion
e j = cos + j sin
e j = cos + j sin
= cos2 + sin2
=1
^
sin
x
cos
x2 + y 2 = z 2
z = x2 + y2
EE
EE 209
209 Fundamentals
Fundamentals of
of Electrical
Electrical and
and Electronics
Electronics Engineering,
Engineering, Prof.
Prof. Dr.
Dr. O.
O. SEVAOLU,
SEVAOLU, Page
Page 92
92
AC Circuits
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Solution
R=2
R-L-C Circuit
I(t)
+
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
I(t) = e [ k1 (cos 20t j sin 20t )

+
k2 (cos 20t + j sin 20t ) ]
= e - t [ (k1 + k2 ) cos 20t + (k2 k1 ) sin 20t ]
-t
C = 2.494 mF
Rearranging the terms
L=1H
Unknown coefficients to determined
Hence, the homogeneous solution (decaying

sinusoidal term) becomes;
I(t) = e - t ( A cos 20t + B sin 20t )
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Solution
R=2
Nonhomogeneous Solution
(Transient Term)
I(t)
+
C = 2.494 mF
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
Definition of the Nonhomogeneous Solution
General form of the nonhomogeneous solution

(transient term) may be expressed as
In(t) = c e 4 t
where, In(t) is the nonhomogeneous solution,
c is an unknown coefficient to be determined
Now the nonhomogeneous solution (transient

term) is to be determined
L=1H
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Solution
R=2
(Transient Term)
I(t)
+
C = 2.494 mF
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
In(t) = c e 4 t
to the given differential equation;

d2I(t)/dt2 + 2 dI(t)/dt + 401 I(t) = - 400 e-4t
and solve it for the unknown coefficient c
d2(ce 4 t)/dt2 + 2 d(ce 4 t)/dt + 401 ce 4 t = -400 e-4t
16c e 4 t + 2c(-4 e 4 t ) + 401 c e 4 t = - 400 e-4 t
Substitute the nonhomogeneous solution;
L=1H
These terms cancel
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Solution
(Transient Term)
These terms cancel
d2(ce 4 t)/dt2 + 2 d(ce 4 t)/dt + 401 ce 4 t = -400 e-4t

16c e 4 t + 2c(-4 e 4 t ) + 401 c e 4 t = - 400 e-4 t
R=2
16 c - 8 c + 401 c = - 400
L=1H
I(t)
C = 2.494 mF
+
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
Thus, the nonhomogeneous solution becomes;

In(t) = - 0.97799 e 4 t
409 c = - 400 or c = - 400 / 409 = - 0.97799
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Solution
R=2
Complete Solution
I(t)
+
C = 2.494 mF
Complete solution is the summation of the

homogeneous (decaying sinusoidal) and
nonhomogeneous solutions (transient term)
L=1H
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
Transient Term
Decaying Sinosoidal Term
I(t) = -0.97799 e 4 t + e - t ( A cos 20t + B sin 20t )

Unknown coefficients to determined
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AC Circuits
Solution
R=2
Determination of the Unknown

Coefficients
I(t)
C = 2.494 mF
I(t) = - 0.97799 e 4 t + e - t ( A cos 2t + B sin 2t )
L=1H
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
Transient Term
The above solution must satisfy the given

initial conditions;
IL (0) = IL0 = 0
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Solution
Coefficients
IL (0) = IL0 = 0
Substitute the given initial conditions into the

complete solution equation and solve for the
unknown coefficients A and B;
I(t) = - 0.97799 e 4 t + e - t ( A cos 2t + B sin 2t )
Transient Term
L=1H
I(t)
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
C = 2.494 mF
R=2
_
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Solution
Coefficients
IL (0) = IL0 = 0
Substitute the given initial conditions into the

complete solution equation and solve for the
unknown coefficients A and B;
IL(t) = - 0.97799 e 4 t + e - t ( A cos 20t + B sin 20t )
1
R=2
L=1H
I L(t)
+
V(t) = 100
e- 4 t
C = 2.494 mF
IL(0) = - 0.97799 e 0 + e 0 ( A cos 0 + B sin 0 )

= - 0.97799 + A = 0
A = 0.97799
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Solution
Coefficients
IL (0) = IL0 = 0
IL(t) = - 0.97799 e 4 t + e - t ( A cos 20t + B sin 20t )
L=1H
I L(t)
87 V
0V
+
V(t) = 100
e- 4 t
C = 2.494 mF
V(0) = 100 e- 4 t
= 100 e- 4 x 0
= 100 V
R=2
d/dt IL(0) = IL(0) = (1/L) [ V(0) VC(0) R IL(0) ]

= (1/1) (100 87 2 x 0 )
= 13 Amp/sec
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Solution
R=2

Coefficients
e-t
d/dt IL(t) = 0.97799 x 4

(A cos 20t +B sin 20t )
+ e - t ( -20 A sin 20 t + 20 B cos 20t )
I L(t)
+
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
C = 2.494 mF
e4t
L=1H
d/dt IL(0) = 0.97799 x 4

+
e0
e0
e0
(A cos 0 + B sin 0 )
1
(-20 A sin 0 + 20 B cos 0 ) =13 Amp/sec
= 0.97799 x 4 A + 20 B = 13 Amp/sec
= 0.97799 x 4 0.97799 + 20 B = 13 Amp/sec
B = (13 - 3 x 0.9799) / 20 = 0.5033

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Solution Terms
General form of the Solution
IL(t) = - 0.9799 e 4 t + e - t ( 0.97799 cos 20t + 0.5033 sin 20t )
Transient Term
Decaying sinosoidal Term
R=2
L=1H
I(t)
C = 2.494 mF
+
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
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Solution Terms
Transient Term
Transient Term
0.00
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
R=2
-0.20
-0.60
I(t)
+
C = 2.494 mF
-0.40
L=1H
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
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Solution Terms
Sinusoidal Terms
R=2
L=1H
Sinosoidal Terms
1.20
I(t)
C = 2.494 mF
0.80
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
0.40
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
-0.40
0.9779 cos 20t
-0.80
0.5033 sin 20t
-1.20
0.9779 cos 20t + 0.5033 sin 20t
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Solution Terms
Exponentially Decaying Sinusoidal Term
1.20
0.80
R=2
-t
L=1H
I(t)
+
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
C = 2.494 mF
0.40
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
-0.40
-0.80
-1.20
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Solution Terms
Exponentially Decaying Sinusoidal Term
1.20
R=2
e - t x ( 0.97799 cos 20t + 0.5033 sin 20t )
L=1H
0.80
I(t)
+
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
C = 2.494 mF
0.40
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
_
-0.40
-0.80
-1.20
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Solution Terms
Overall Solution
R=2
0.80
0.40
I(t)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
C = 2.494 mF
0.5
0.0
L=1H
V(t) = 100 e- 4 t
-0.40
-0.80
-1.20
-1.60
Homework:
Solve the same problem for the
case that the voltage source has
a sinusoidal waveform
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RMS Value
Definition: RMS (Root Mean Square)
IDC
The above definition is based on the principle of

equating the heating effects of the AC and DC
currents calculated in both cases
First, calculate the power dissipated (heating
effect) in the resistance R in the DC circuit shown
on the RHS
VR
PDC
+
VDC
VR
R
_
RMS value of an AC current is the value of DC

current that would dissipate the same amount of
power on a resistance R
= R x IDC
= VR x IDC
= R x IDC2
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RMS Value
RMS (Root Mean Square)
I(t) = Imax sin wt

2.5
Now, calculate the power dissipated (the

heating effect) in the resistance R in the
AC circuit shown on the RHS
2.0
VR (t) = I(t) x R
1.5
PAC (t) = V(t) x I(t)

= R I(t)2 = R ((Vmax / R) sin wt )2
= R (I max sin wt )2
1.0
-0.5
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
VR(t)
R
_
V(t) = Vmax sin wt
0
0
V(t) +
Imax
0.5
I(t)
I(t) = (Vmax / R) sin wt
I 2(t) = (Imax sin wt )2
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
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RMS Value
Definition
Now let us equate the power dissipations

in the above cases
IDC
VR = R x IDC
PDC = VR x IDC
= R x IDC2
VR (t) = R x I(t)
VR
VDC
I(t) = (Vmax / R) sin wt

Imax
I(t)
+
V(t) +
V(t)
R
_
V(t) = Vmax sin wt

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RMS Value
Definition
VR
PDC
= R x IDC
= VR x IDC
= R x IDC2
60
45
40
R x IDC2
20
VR (t) = R x I(t)
PDC
100
PAC(t)
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
80
60
40
20
0
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
R (I max sin wt )2
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RMS Value
Definition
60
In principle, the DC power waveform is NOT

equal to the AC power waveform
They may however, be equal in terms of their
averages, i.e. the mean of DC power transferred
to the load over a period may be equated to that
of AC power transferred to the load within a
period
Average(PAC )
PDC
45
40
R x IDC2
20
0
100
PAC(t)
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
80
60
45
40
20
0
/2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
R (I max sin wt )2
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RMS Value
Definition
60
Hence, equating the averages of the two terms;

Average( PDC ) = Average(PAC )
T
45
40
R x IDC2
20
T
PDC avg = (1/T) R IDC2 dt = (1/T) R IDC2 t | = R IDC 2

0
PDC
0
100
PAC(t)
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
80
Average(PAC )
60
45
40
20
0
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
R (I max sin wt )2
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RMS Value
Definition
Please note that average value of an AC

waveform is calculated as
Area under the Curve

Average = -------------------------------Period
T
= (1/T) PAC(t) dt
0
P(t) avg = (1/T) PAC(t) dt

0
= (1/T) R
I(t)2
dt
100
PAC(t)
80
60
0
45
40
20
0
0
/2
2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
T
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RMS Value
PDC
Definition
60
Hence, equating the average of the two terms;
45
40
R IDC 2 = (1/T) R I(t)2 dt

0
IDC 2 = (1/T) I(t)2 dt
PAC(t)
/2
3/2
100
2
Angle (Radians)
80
Irms = ( 1/T ) I(t)2 dt
R x IDC2
20
Irms
60
45
40
20
0
/2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
R (I max sin wt )2
AC Circuits
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Example
PAC(t)
Problem
100
Find the RMS value of the sinusoidal current

waveform;
I(t) = Imax sinwt
Irms
80
60
45
40
20
0
shown on the RHS
/2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
Solution
R (I max sin wt )2
Irms = ( 1/T ) I(t)2 dt

= ( 1/T ) [ Imax sin wt ] 2 dt
= Imax ( 1/T ) sin2 wt dt
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RMS Value
PAC(t)
Solution
I RMS = Imax ( 1/T )
sin2
100
80
wt dt
60
45
40
Now use;
sin2
20
cos2
wt = 1
wt
= 1 (1 + cos 2wt) / 2
= 1 cos 2wt
= cos 2wt
/2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
R (I max sin wt )2
I RMS = Imax ( 1/T ) ( 2 cos 2wt ) dt

I RMS = Imax ( 1/T ) [ dt cos 2wt dt ]
Taken from the Reference: Calculus and

Analytic Geometry, Thomas, Addison Wesley,
Third Ed. 1965, pp. 348
=0
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RMS Value
PAC(t)
Solution
100
80
I RMS = Imax ( 1/T ) [ dt cos 2wt dt ]

=0
I RMS = Imax ( 1/T ) dt = Imax ( 1 / T ) T

IDC = I max
= I max / 2 = I rms = Imax x 0.7071
60
45
40
20
0
/2
3/2
Angle (Radians)
R (I max sin wt )2
Rule: RMS value of a sinusoidal waveform is 1/ 2 of its peak value
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RMS Value of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Voltage (Volts)
Problem
Calculate the RMS value of the
sinusoidal voltage waveform shown on
the RHS
Vrms = Vmax / 2
= V max x 0.7071
= 312 x 0.7071 = 220 Volts
312
220
Vrms = 220 Volts

Angle (Radians)
/2
3/2
- 312
RMS value of the domestic voltage in Turkey
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Example - 8
Problem
Calculate the RMS value of the rectangular
voltage waveform shown on the RHS
I(t)
V(t)
Voltage (Volts)
Vrms = ( 1/T ) V(t)2 dt
0.4
0.5
0.6
32
24
16
0.3
dt + ( -
0.3
-4
Voltage2 (Volts)
(1/0.3) [
42
0.2
Time (msec)
_
Vrms = ( 1/T ) V(t)2 dt
0.1
0.1
-2
VR(t)
= 4 Volts
4)2
dt ]
V2(t) = 16
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Time (msec)
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AC Circuits
Any Questions Please ?

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What is Direct Current (DC) ?

Switch is turned on at: t = 1 sec

Direct Current (DC) is a current, that

What is Alternating Current (AC) ?

Sinusoidal Alternating Current

Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

V is the peak value (amplitude),

Please note that;

Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Parameters of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Frequency = 1/ T = 1/(20 x 10 -3)

AC (Alternating Current) Circuit

Negative half cycle

Elements of AC Circuits: Capacitor

The simplest configuration consists of

Insulating Layer provides dielectricity

Capacitors store electrical charge

Storage capacity of a capacitor is

Water (hydroulic) example

Capacitor plates are packaged in a roll

Single and three-phase capacitor

Charge stored in a capacitor is

Charge stored in a capacitor is

may be written in time domain as;

where, Imax = C Vmax w

The above equation may be integrated

where V(0) is the initial voltage across

V(t) = (1/C) I(t)dt + V(0)

Switch is turned on at: t = 0 sec

V(t) = 5 (1 e -t) Volts

Determine the time waveform of the current

V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) (Volts)

Vmax = Maximum voltage that can be reached = 5 Volts

V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) (Volts)

V(t) = 5 (1 - e-t) Volts

Qmax = C x Vmax = Maximum charge that can be stored

Now, determine the time waveform of

Charge stored in the capacitor starts

Current source shown in the circuit

Switch is turned on at: t = 0 sec,

Determine the voltage across the

Voltage across the capacitance can

V(t) = (1/C) I(t)dt + V(0)

Solution of R-C Circuits

Writing down KVL for the circuit

Switch is turned on at: t = 0 sec

V(t) = R I(t) + VC(t)

Differentiating both sides wrt time once;

A first order ordinary differential equation

Solution of the resulting First Order Ordinary Differential Equation

d/dt I(t) + (1/RC) I(t) = (1/R) d/dt ( V sin ( wt + ) )

d/dt I(t) + (1/RC) I(t) = (V/R) w cos ( wt + )

Solve the resulting first order ordinary differential equation (ODE)

Solution of the resulting First Order Ordinary Differential Equation

Switch is turned on at:

dI(t) / dt + (1/RC) I(t) = (V/R) w cos ( wt + )

Define an integration factor (t) = e t / RC

d/dt (t) = (1/RC) (t)

Solution of the resulting First Order Ordinary Differential Equation

Subsituting the integration factor (t) = e t/RC into the above

I(t) = I e - t/RC w e t/RC cos (wt + ) dt + e - t/RC I(0)

= I e - t/RC w e t/RC (coswt cos - sinwt sin ) dt + e - t/RC I(0)