Acta Universitatis Sapientiae

European and Regional Studies, vol. 1, no. 1 (2010) 1932

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation

Plans and Autonomy Movements in Romania
BAKK Mikls

Political Science Department

Babe-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca
email: bakkmiklos@gmail.com

SZSZ Alpr Zoltn

Political Science Department

Babe-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca
email: szaszzo66@yahoo.co.uk

This paper examines the possibilities for regionalisation

in Romania, a project that requires a break with Romania's present
constitutional heritage. Regions can be constructed by creating their
territorial, symbolic and institutional forms combined with the nal establishment of the entire regional system. For more than one-hundred
years, Romania's historical regions have been subjected to a unifying
process of Jacobin state-building. Even if this process resulted in serious
hindrances to regionalisation, it could not do away neither with regional
identities, nor with certain symbolic and institutional aspects of the regions. In the last few years, several plans for regionalisation have been
devised. Arguably, the Hungarian community in Romania would benet most from asymmetrical regionalisation, but in order to be successful
the Szekler autonomy movement should formulate its goals using the
language and concepts of regionalisation without reference to minority
rights or cultural autonomy.
Abstract.

regionalism, regional identity, culturally `thin' and `thick'

regions, regionalisation (symmetrical and asymmetrical), internal selfdetermination, administrative structure, decentralisation, state-building,
(regional) autonomy, federalism, development regions, Romania
Keywords:

It is commonplace that the development of the Romanian state from the `Old
Kingdom' (i.e., Romania before the First World War) to interbellum Greater
Romania meant not only territorial completion and achievement of nation-state
unity, but entailed also a choice regarding the kind of political modernization to
be accomplished, specically, the choice to continue with the Jacobin tradition

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

20

adopted by the Romanian political elite in the 19

th century.

Moreover, in

spite  or perhaps because  of the Communist constitutionalism (that is, the

period between 1948 and 1989 inuenced by Stalin's constitution from 1936),
this tradition was resuscitated by the 1991 Constitution (Stanomir 2005: 228229). The present paper examines the possibilities and ways for regionalisation
on the basis of this constitutional heritage.

Regional identities and state-building:

introductory

considerations
The idea of regional identity has been present for a long while in traditional
geographical approaches to regionalism. Regional identity was often seen as the
primordial nature of regions, researchers belonging to this school of thought
stressing the internal `harmony' of regions, which meant for them unity between the regions and their inhabitants (see Paasi 2003: 475-479).

But the

manner how this nature, this unity is constructed, albeit an old question, still
elicits interest and is periodically revisited by geographers, anthropologists and
political scientists alike. Generally, we may consider that regions preceded the
rise of nation-states, but were later eectively omitted or exploited  depending
on context  by the emerging states while organising governance and control
over their territories. Many strong modern states assimilated former regions
and areas, transforming them in frames or parts of territorial governance 
linked, however, to a certain extent to historical and cultural contexts.

In

some states, regions became instruments of state power being dened more or
less `from above', and because of their administrative importance, remained
culturally `thin' (Paasi 2001: 15). In this case, regional identity did not emerge
as a separate and competing focus of political loyalties in contrast to the national identity constructed by the modern state. In other cases, regions were
deeply rooted historical and cultural (`thick') entities, their existence becoming manifest not only through and in their identity, but also through various
social and cultural institutions (Paasi 2001: 15). Consequently, such regions
became powerful competitors in the struggle for capturing the political loyalty
of a territorial community and challenged the loyalty pattern constructed and
prescribed by the state. Regions wield such power in Spain, Italy and Belgium,
and  more recently  in Great Britain, where the positions of Scotland and

Wales have been signicantly strengthened during the last ten years .

The question of political competition for the loyalty of territorial communities is related
to the recent debate on multicultural citizenship. (See KymlickaStraehle 1999, Fowler 2004.)

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation Plans and Autonomy ...

21

These two ways of assimilating regions into the structures of governmental power distribution can be interpreted as two types of state construction.
Hechter (2000) made a clear distinction between primary states and secondary
states.

th

Primary states are all the large states which existed before the 19

century and adopted indirect rule because of technical limits to central control.
Their political structure was based on indirect rule relying on the existence
of groups mediating between individuals and the state (Hechter 2000: 40).
This type of rule allowed primary states to arise and function as growing and
culturally diverse political units. Furthermore, Hechter called secondary states
all the states that introduced direct rule with modern state-bureaucracy. However, the functioning of such states required legitimation by nationalism and,
hence, forced these states to strive for cultural homogeneity.
It is clear that a state administration based on institutionalised regions exhibiting strong identities (i.e., `thick' cultural entities) inherited many of its
features from a primary state. However, if regionalisation occurs as a political
programme, every part of a centralist state may be regionalised (even if some
parts were not considered `regions' previously). Yet, a sense of regional identity and cohesion as well as regionalist movements will emerge only if these can
rely on a long-standing regional tradition, a common history and experience,

or a distinct language .
A region's construction  may it be strong and `thick' or weak and `thin'
 is part of the perpetual transformation of the spatial system in which regions emerge, exist for some time and may then disappear. This process may
be labelled the institutionalisation of regions  and, analytically, presents four
simultaneous aspects, which in practice are always dierent sides of the same
process: 1) the creation of the territorial, 2) symbolic and 3) institutional forms
of a region, as well as 4) its establishment as an entity in the regional system
and the social consciousness of the society concerned. It is a process through
which a territorial unit becomes an established entity in the spatial structure
and is afterwards identied in institutionalised political, economic, cultural and
administrative practices and social consciousness alike, while being continually
reproduced in all these practices (Paasi 2001: 16).
In conclusion, Romania's regional perspectives should be analysed according to the above two ways of (creating and) embedding regions and the four
simultaneous aspects of their institutionalisation.

See Hans-Jrgen Puhle Regions, Regionalism and Regionalization in 20th-Century Eu. [http://www.oslo2000.uio.no/program/papers/s9/s9-puhle.pdf], downloaded on 2 August 2009.
rope

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

22

Romanian parties: symmetrical regionalisation `from

above'
In what regards the rst aspect mentioned by Paasi  that is, territorial
shaping  Romania can be divided into so-called historical provinces: Transylvania, Banat, Partium (referred to in Romanian as ara Criurilor or Criana),
Maramure, Moldavia, Oltenia and Muntenia (composing together Wallachia
or ara Romneasc, in Romanian) as well as Dobruja.

The said provinces

reect diverging historical-political evolutions, which left their mark on perceptions of spatial dierences as this can be gleaned both from local mentality
and everyday discourse. Moreover, many daily practices contribute to the reproducing of the cultural dierences between these regions. Notwithstanding

th century

these dierences, the modernization of the Romanian state in the 19

th century as well as under Communist

and later, in the third decade of the 20
rule, was based on a rather articial administrative-territorial division. This
division generated new social practices (mainly during the Communist period),
which altered the mentioned spatial dierences, however, only moderately and
without being able to cancel them out. According to Sandu (2002), the dierences between various cultural areas interpreted as subdivisions of historical
regions in Romania should be interpreted as sociability variables combined in
specic patterns.

(More precisely, the main regional types of sociability in

Romania are combinations of closeness or openness, context-conformity in relations with institutions and poverty or richness in network capital.) Bearing
in mind that Paasi dened the regions' boundaries not as xed, but saw them
as resulting from processes in which territories and their contested meanings
are socially and culturally constructed (Paasi 2001: 16), these cultural areas
could be used for the formation of territorial units in a wider sense.
Turning to the second aspect, it should be noted that numerous symbolic
elements of the cultural areas and historical regions making up Romania are

present in the public sphere , but the centralist ethos of the dominant Romanian parties constitutes a serious hindrance to their political usage. However,
the political usage of regional symbols is an open question. Until now, only
the Szeklerland's symbols gained political signicance, thanks to an ethnoregional(ist) movement which emerged apparently in the last ve years.

One

may rightly hypothesise that if a regional(ist) party had obtained seats in the

The coat of arms of Romania contains the blazons of the most important historical regions; but the new coats of arms of counties and municipalities were created in a rather haphazard and arbitrary manner after 1990 (Cf. Heraldica_Romniei,
[http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraldica_Romniei], downloaded on 20 August 2009).

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation Plans and Autonomy ...

23

parliament or in important county councils, it would have used regional symbols and watchwords, and would have pushed for the enactment of regional
policies.

But the Party of Moldavians (Partidul Moldovenilor ), founded in

late 1997, was rather short-lived since its leadership accepted the merger of
this organisation into the Social Democratic Party (Partidul Social Democrat,

hereinafter PSD) in 2002 .

Another initiative aimed at the creation of the

Transylvanians' Party (Partidul Ardelenilor ) ended in failure because of the

very restrictive registration criteria stipulated by the Romanian law on political parties and the arbitrary judicial practice which characterised the 2001-2004
parliamentary cycle.
The third aspect, institutional forms of regions, exists only in the cultural
realm: important museums, universities and publishers bear names referring
to historical regions or serve a manifestly regional function. The most obvious
examples are Muzeul Banatului (Banat Museum), Muzeul Naional de Istorie a Transilvaniei (National Museum of Transylvanian History) and Szkely
Nemzeti Mzeum (Szkely National Museum). However, these institutional el-

ements may represent a good starting point for the development of the regions'
social capital once the required political bodies and administrative structures
have been established for these regions  the fourth aspect mentioned by Paasi.

5 and be-

For various reasons to be found in Romanian political traditions

cause of the specicity of the Romanian party system and political rgime 
described as administrative consensualism and patronage (Preda-Soare 2008:
50-57) , the larger parliamentary parties have no interest in launching a radical
regional reform targeting the Romanian administrative system. Their ultimate

goal in this respect is a controlled symmetrical regionalisation .

Between 2000 and 2004, two conceptions regarding regionalisation have been
formulated.

According to the views of the National Liberal Party (Partidul

Naional Liberal ), the Romanian parliament should have passed an organic

law introducing symmetrical regionalisation with regions enjoying equal status.

The Liberals' proposal took into account the existing cultural and tra-

ditional boundaries of the regions, but remained very cautious in what concerns

See `Partidul Moldovenilor s-a nscris la Tribunal.' Ziarul de Iai (25 August 1998).
[http://www.ziaruldeiasi.ro/national-extern/partidul-moldovenilor-s-a-inscris-la-tribunalnig8s] (downloaded on 20 August 2009) and Bakk 2003: 426.
5
On the traditions of Romanian political thinking see Barbu 2005: 11-24.
6
However, in recent years, several civic organisations raised the question of federalism or
asymmetrical regionalism (e.g., the Pro Europa League/Liga Pro Europa / and the Provincia
group ).

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

24

the degree of the decentralization. However, the Liberals organised no public

debate on their proposal (Szokoly 2005b: 10).
Another conception was put forward by the PSD, even though the politicians
belonging to this party could not agree on the precise form of regionalisation.
On the one hand Ioan Rus, the Transylvanian ideologist of the party, suggested
a regional reform based on local autonomy and traditional-cultural delimitations, (Szokoly 2005b: 9-10) while on the other hand, Octav Cozmnc, the
Minister of Administration, envisaged symmetrical regions created through
merging two or three counties.
After 2004, only the idea of transforming the extant statistical and development regions into administrative regions (governed by elected political bodies)
was present in political discourse. Needless to say, this is another method of
achieving symmetrical decentralization.

The Hungarian minority's autonomy: pushing for an

asymmetrical regional reform?
After the fall of Communism in December 1989, the Democratic Alliance of
Hungarians in Romania (Romniai Magyar Demokrata Szvetsg, hereinafter
RMDSZ) was established as an ethnic party representing Hungarians in Romania. The RMDSZ, a party which for the last two decades has obtained the
large majority of votes cast by ethnic Hungarians, raised the question of (regional) autonomy. However, no concrete guidelines for attaining this goal have
been formulated initially. The clarication of the party's conception occurred
only later, after lengthy debate and controversy. In search for a workable and
defensible conception, four types of proposals have been taken into account:
a) the autonomy proposals put forward between the two World Wars; b) the
Romanian Statute of Nationalities adopted in 1945; c) various international
instruments and documents on human and minority rights, which attracted
much attention recently because  in the process of European integration 
the stipulations contained in these documents were regarded as requirements
of European accession; d) examples of functioning autonomies in several member states of the European Union that have been regarded as good practices.
The rst proposals made by Hungarians, such as the concept of `internal
self-determination' or the trsnemzet

7 idea, mirrored an expectation regarding

This term, which translates approximately as `partner nation', suggests that a certain
state, in our case Romania, is formed and inhabited by two (or more) national communities  here the Romanian and the Hungarian national communities  which are and behave

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation Plans and Autonomy ...

25

a possible rapid and fundamental change of the Romanian state structure in

a manner which would have allowed the attainment of a collective legal status
by Hungarians. But in the early nineties, post-Communist Romanian parties
and elites followed a nationalistic political course to legitimate their leading
role. This state of facts put to the fore the Jacobin way of state organisation
stipulated in Article 1 of the Constitution, dening Romania as a unitary and
indivisible national state. The consolidation of the Romanian moderate right
 including the RMDSZ  in the second half of the nineties did not result in
another denition of the state and of the political community.
After the adoption of this new Constitution (in 1991) the RMDSZ, enjoying strong support from ethnic Hungarian voters, submitted to the Romanian
parliament a bill on national minorities and autonomous communities in 1993.
It was the draft of a framework law dening three possible forms of autonomy:
personal autonomy, regional autonomy and special status for local governments.

As interpreted by the RMDSZ, the law did not contradict the Con-

stitution, and was meant to be only a regulatory frame on a conceptual level,

while stipulating no concrete institutional solutions.

The bill was based on

the idea that autonomy represented a sustainable project both in the domestic
and the international political arena. The reasons why Hungarian politicians
in Romania reasoned in this manner were the following: rst, in those years,
the Council of Europe apparently preferred policies aiming to augment special

minority rights through autonomy-based institutional solutions ; second, the

RMDSZ was not `trapped' yet by the cooperation with center-right Romanian
parties, a situation in which the ethnic Hungarian party was oered coalition
membership in 1996 provided it shelved its plans for achieving some form of
autonomy.
After the rejection of the bill on autonomous communities, the topic became
a marginal one within the RMDSZ, too; although the idea of autonomy has
not been deleted from the political programme of the party. In fact, autonomy
is still viewed in symbolic terms as a central identity trait of Hungarians in
Romania, but ceased to be a source of political initiatives. Nonetheless, in 1995,
a group elaborated a draft statute on Szeklerland's autonomy, but this has
not been submitted to Parliament and remained a solitary initiative for many

like partners while enjoying equal constitutional status. (Put dierently, the trsnemzet conception is aimed at avoiding the political situation in which members of a national minority are treated as second-rate citizens.)
8
Recommendation 1201 (1993) of the Parliamentary Assembly on an additional protocol
on the rights of national minorities to the European Convention on Human Rights can rightly
be interpreted in this way.

26

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

years. All in all, shelving the idea of autonomy meant that the politicians who
between 1990 and 1995 argued for drafting and submitting various autonomy
conceptions were gradually marginalised inside the RMDSZ.
From 1996 onwards, the course of action taken by the RMDSZ was strongly
inuenced by its (perceived) chances to participate in coalition governments.
This attitude towards government participation seems to be shared by most
ethnic parties in Central and Eastern Europe, and appears to be a direct consequence of the European integration process and the basic treaties signed by the
countries in question. A kind of `consociational strategy' replaced the barren
autonomy strategy, and this orientation was supported by the process of European integration. The reason is that the European Union, in the absence of
an acquis stipulating minority rights, was guided by a security-based approach
which preferred the consensual settlement of disputes over the enforcement of
universalistic norms (see Brusis 2003).
In the meantime, the short time-span before EU-accession oered possibilities for nding a way towards an internal autonomy arrangement or, at least,
of creating a framework for a later arrangement of this kind. (In this respect,
reference was made to the Copenhagen criteria.)

In the case of Hungarians

in Transylvania, these opportunities presented themselves roughly at the same

moment when new political organisations claiming to represent political alternatives to the RMDSZ have been founded.
In 2003, a splinter group that left the RMDSZ established the Hungarian
National Council of Transylvania (Erdlyi Magyar Nemzeti Tancs, hereinafter
EMNT). The goal of this (legally unregistered) organisation was to revive
the autonomy conceptions, which were shelved and neglected by the RMDSZ.
Somewhat later the Szekler National Council (Szkely Nemzeti Tancs, hereinafter SZNT) was also created, born out of the desire to push for the territorial
autonomy of the Szeklerland.

At the beginning of 2008, a new Hungarian

party  reuniting rst and foremost mayors and local councillors from the
Szeklerland  has been registered. This organisation, called Hungarian Civic
Party (Magyar Polgri Prt, hereinafter MPP), focuses on Szekler territorial
autonomy, too.
In the context of EU-accession and under the circumstances of erce competition between the four political organisations representing Hungarians in
Transylvania, three strategic conceptions regarding the territorial autonomy
of the Szeklerland have been formulated:

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation Plans and Autonomy ...

27

1) Considering the history of the proposals, one must mention rst the autonomy statute adopted by the SZNT since its original version has been
elaborated in 1995, prior to the establishment of the organisation that
eventually embraced it.

This proposal is based on the concept of

in-

ternal self-determination. The leading body of the SZNT brought

some amendments to the initial draft stemming from 1995 and adopted
it as an ocial document.

Finally, the bill was submitted to the Ro-

manian Parliament in February 2004. In fact, the SZNT, which initially

was another unregistered civic organisation, could not introduce the bill.
Hence, the draft law was submitted to Parliament by a group of MPs belonging to the RMDSZ but maintaining informal political ties with the
SZNT. Needless to say, their action attracted criticism from the RMDSZ
leadership, but no severe crisis developed within the ranks of the party
since, in March 2004, the Parliament rejected the bill.
2) During the Party Congress held by the RMDSZ in 2003, another strategic conception was outlined.

rial precedent.

This was based on the idea of

territo-

The advocates of this idea set out from the possi-

bility of transforming the extant regions of development into politicaladministrative regions or units. The present development regions  created in 1998 without taking into account historical-cultural traditions
within Romania  do not have administrative competencies and correspond to NUTS II level divisions in EU member states. Consequently,
the RMDSZ aims, as a rst step, to create the Szeklerland Development Region by reuniting three counties (Harghita, Covasna and Mure).
However, the SZNT criticises this idea because the three counties do not
coincide with the historical territory of Szeklerland.
3) The third conception has been elaborated as part of the package deal
oered by the EMNT to the RMDSZ. This package contains three proposals: the draft of a framework law on regions (without specifying their
geographical boundaries), a bill on the creation of the Szeklerland development region, which would enjoy special status and the draft statute
of the Szeklerland region.

This whole package is rooted in a vision of

asymmetrical regionalism being in the meantime based on the assumption that the prospective Romanian regionalisation will be similar
to the Spanish or the Italian one. Hence, the idea of Szeklerland's territorial autonomy should be included in a larger scheme regarding Romania's
regionalisation, and should be put forward using the language and terminology of regionalism (not the language and terminology of `internal

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

28

self-determination'). This conception includes another presupposition as

well, namely, the idea that such a conception will attract more support
from ethnic Romanian political actors as opposed to other plans, which
focus exclusively on the Szeklerland.
These proposals have not been submitted as bills to the Romanian parliament yet, but it should be noted that the expert commission on constitutional
reform nominated by the head of state, President Traian Bsescu, in the autumn of 2008 (the so called Stanomir Commission) drafted a lengthy and detailed report delineating a possible way for administrative reform and towards
asymmetrical regionalism.
Apart from these proposals on territorial autonomy, two conceptions tackling
the idea of cultural autonomy for Hungarians living outside the Szeklerland
have been elaborated. First, in June 2004, the EMNT submitted to Parliament
a draft framework law on personal cultural autonomy. If enacted, this bill could
have served as the basis for the establishment and operation of autonomous
cultural institutions in case of 15 autochthonous national minorities living in
Romania. In what concerns Hungarians, the draft law did not specify clearly
how Szeklerland's territorial autonomy shall be correlated with the cultural
autonomy enjoyed by ethnic Hungarians who live outside the Szekler region.
The bill, lacking even the support of the RMDSZ, was eventually rejected by
Parliament.
Nevertheless, the RMDSZ introduced later, as member of the coalition government formed in December 2004, another, similar bill. This bill did not pass
either, because the coalition partners of the RMDSZ did not support it.

Conclusions and perspectives

The society made up by ethnic Hungarians in Romania, due to its diverse
ethno-demographic situation, regional-territorial fragmentation and intricate
social structure, needs a combined autonomy arrangement based on the political consent of its members. Such a conception can be constructed only in
time.
The relatively large number of autonomy conceptions elaborated by ethnic
Hungarian political organisations mentioned in the present paper shows that
no agreement  necessary for putting forward and eventually enacting a certain
arrangement  has been reached, neither in what regards the required institutional framework nor in what regards the subsequent strategies. Although all
political actors representing ethnic Hungarians accept this diagnosis, little ef-

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation Plans and Autonomy ...

29

fort has been spent in the last twenty years in order to reach at least a minimal
consensus.
Romania's accession to the EU represented an important turning point because this period oered some possibilities for political arm-twisting and for
launching a negotiation process on autonomy arrangements. However, the political actors involved in the process seemed to be unable to practice consensusoriented politics and imagine creative policies. This statement holds true both
for political parties in Hungary, the kin-state, and for the political groups which
assumed the task of representing the Hungarian minority in Romania.
Now that Romania became a full member of the European Union, Szeklerland's regional autonomy can emerge as a successful political project only if
treated as a completely separate matter, without connecting it to the topic of
minority rights construed as individual rights or to the idea of cultural autonomy seen as a legal solution for the entire Hungarian national community living

in Romania . More precisely, success may be achieved only if the movement

for Szekler autonomy will follow the models and the path taken by Western
ethnoregional(ist) movements, which interpreted territorial autonomy as part
of a larger regionalising process consonant with various national and EU-level
policies. In this respect, the achievement of territorial autonomy by a specic
linguistic or cultural group is the result of mutual accommodation between two
processes: one that is directed `from above' (like a reform of the state structure or of the administrative system) and another one which is coming `from
below' (like a grassroots level communitarian movement).

This mutual ac-

commodation means that regional movements and parties must accommodate

and redene their goals while the processes themselves are underway (Schrijver 2006). The manner how these processes evolve depends on the measure of
decentralisation, on the available instruments of direct democracy (local initiatives and referenda etc.), on the community's identity as well as its internal
solidarity.

All in all, it is a lengthy process involving various conicts, but

seeking convergence.
However, another set of questions also arises. Can the failure of autonomy
conceptions be attributed to an inherent structural trait of our region? Is it
somehow encoded in a specic part of Central and Eastern Europe or, put differently, does it require a certain level or degree of democratic consolidation?
It is rather dicult to explain why in countries that until the early 1990s were
parts of the former Soviet Union previously established territorial autonomies
still operate and new ones were also created (Kolst 2001), and in Western Eu-

It should be mentioned that the strategy of the RMDSZ combines these two ideas.

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

30

rope various autonomies contribute signicantly to democratic consolidation,

while in our region

10 , which is more developed and shares more features with

Western European countries as compared to non-Baltic republics of the former

Soviet Union, plans for territorial autonomy usually fail.
An unfavourable ratio between the two powers of the state, the despotic and

11 , seems to oer a possible explanation. In the `more

the infrastructural one

Oriental' region of Central and Eastern Europe, where the despotic power
of the state is greater, the state itself seems to be based on an agreement
between territorial-oligarchical elite groups.

Here autonomy does not need

democratic legitimacy since it is well established and entrenched by this elite

consensus. However, in Western Europe, autonomist movements targeted the
territorial reorganisation of the state (structure), which in fact allowed them
democratic access to a (proportional) share of infrastructural power.

More

importantly, as Western examples show, such arrangements eventually serve(d)

the public weal.
Finally, in the `more Occidental' area of Central and Eastern Europe, democracy and democratic legitimacy weakened the despotic power of the state to
such an extent that territorial-oligarchic elite groups cannot entirely control
the state and restrain public (democratic) will. Nonetheless, this democratic
consolidation occurring within the civil societal arena of democracy (cf. Linz
Stepan 1996: 7-15) does not mean that the state is able to construct some
kind of inter-group democratic legitimacy, embodied perhaps by a contractual
power-sharing arrangement among several communities. Regionalisation based
on territorial communities characterised by strong regional identities could be,
however, a possible path towards instituting such a contractual power-sharing
arrangement.

10

Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia (the Russian community in Narva and Sillame), Subcarpathia or Subcarpathian Ukraine (the Ruthenian and the Hungarian minorities), Slovakia
(the Hungarian minority) and Romania (Hungarians in Transylvania) can be ranged in this
category.
11
The despotic power of the state elite refers to the range of non-routinised actions that
the elite is authorised to undertake, while the infrastructural power to the state's capacity
to penetrate civil society and logistically implement political decisions on the whole territory
of the country. (See Mann 1984: 185-201.)

Conict and Convergence: Regionalisation Plans and Autonomy ...

31

References
Bakk Mikls 2003. `A regionalizmus kronolgija Romniban.' [The Chronology of Romanian Regionalism.] In Bod Barna (ed.) Romniai Magyar
vknyv 2003. [Yearbook of the Hungarian Community in Romania: 2003.]

Temesvr: Szrvny Alaptvny - Marineasa Knyvkiad. pp. 415-428.

Barbu, Daniel 2005. Politica pentru barbari. [Politics for Barbarians.] Bucureti:
Editura Nemira.
Brusis, Martin 2003. The European Union and Interethnic Power-sharing Arrangements in Accession Countries. Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority
Issues in Europe, vol 3, no. 1. [www.ecmi.de/jemie], downloaded on 31 July

2006.
Fowler, Brigid 2004. Fuzzing Citizenship, Nationalising Political Space:

Framework for Interpreting the Hungarian `Status Law' as a New Form

of Kin-state Policy in Central and Eastern Europe. In Kntor Zoltn et al.
(eds.) The Hungarian Status Law: Nation Building and/or Minority Protection. Sapporo: Hokkaido University, Slavic Research Center.

Hechter, Michael 2000. Containing Nationalism. Oxford  New York, Oxford

University Press.
Kolst, Pl 2001. Territorial Autonomy as a Minority Rights Regime in PostCommunist Societies. In Will Kymlicka (ed.) Can Cultural Pluralism be Exported ? Oxford  New York, Oxford University Press.

Kymlicka, Will  Straehle, Christine 2001. Kozmopolitanizmus, nemzetllamok, kisebbsgi nacionalizmus: a legjabb irodalom kritikai ttekintse.
[Cosmopolitanism, Nation-States and Minority Nationalism: A Critical Review of Recent Literature.] Kellk. [Accessories.] no. 21, pp. 27-56.
Linz, Juan J[os]  Stepan, Alfred 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition
and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist
Europe. Baltimore - London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Mann, Michael 1984. The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results. Archives Europennes de sociologie, vol. 25, pp. 185-213.
Paasi, Anssi 2001. Europe as a Social Process and Discourse: Considerations
of Place, Boundaries and Identity. European Urban and Regional Studies,
vol. 8, no. 1, pp 7-28.

32

Bakk Mikls, Szsz Alpr Zoltn

Paasi, Anssi 2003. Region and Place: Regional Identity in Question. Progress
in Human Geography, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 475-485.

Preda, Cristian  Soare, Sorina 2008. Regimul, partidele i sistemul politic din
Romnia. [The Romanian Political Regime, Parties and Political System.]

Bucureti: Editura Nemira.

Sandu, Dumitru 2002. Ariile culturale ca matrice de sociabilitate. [Cultural Areas as Sociability Matrices.] Sociologie Romneasc. [Romanian Sociology.]
no. 3-4, pp. 77-92.
Schrijver, Frans 2006. Regionalism after Regionalisation: Spain, France and
the United Kingdom. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Stanomir, Ioan 2005. Libertate, lege i drept. O istorie a constituionalismului

romnesc. [Liberty, Legislation and Law. A History of Romanian Constitu-

tionalism.] Iai: Editura Polirom.

Szokoly Elek 2005a. Regionalizmus s regionalizci Romniban I. [Regionalism and Regionalisation in Romania. Part One.] Comitatus. nkormnyzati
Szemle. [Comitatus: Local Government Review.] vol. XV., no. 6, pp.7-19.

Szokoly Elek 2005b. Regionalizmus s regionalizci Romniban II. [Regionalism and Regionalisation in Romania. Part Two.] Comitatus. nkormnyzati
Szemle. [Comitatus: Local Government Review.] vol. XV., no. 7, pp. 7-20.

Yash Ghai (2002): Autonomy and Ethnicity. Negotiating Competing Claims in

Multi-ethnic States, Cambridge.