2D Seismic Reflection Data

Interpretation of Meyal Area along

with 1D Forward Modeling,
Petrophysics and Seismic Attribute
Analysis

By
Muhammad Yasir
Msc Geophysics
2014-2016

Department of Earth Sciences

Quaid-i-Azam University
1

Islamabad

CERTIFICATE
This dissertation submitted by Muhammad Yasir son of Muhammad Ayoob is accepted in its
present form by the Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad as
satisfying the requirement for the award of M.Sc. degree in Geophysics.

Recommended By

Dr. Muhammad Toqeer _____________________

(Supervisor)

Dr. Mona Lisa ________________

Chairperson Department of Earth Sciences

External Examiner __________________

Department of Earth Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am especially thankful to my dissertation supervisor Dr. Muhammad Toqeer that he always
gave me his loving guidance whenever I asked and spared his precious time for me during my
work.
I am also thankful to my senior Zeeshan Ahmed for helping me in my project.
Also specially thanks to my class fellows (Aamir Mehboob, Umair Sajjad, Makhzan Khitran,
Sohail Mehboob, Asad Zaman, Fahim Shaikh, Munawar Pervaiz, Shahab Anwar, Noman Abdul
Majeed, Bilal Shehzad, Tahir Mustafa).

Special Thanks
I am especially thankful to my respected senior Junaid Abbasi who always helps us to solving
the problems faced during the project.

DEDICATION
I dedicate my thesis to my Father, Mother, Brothers and my Sisters who supported me always in
the difficult time also especially thankful to my elder brothers who encouraged
completing my degree.

me for

Abstract
The present study includes structural and stratigraphic interpretation attributes analysis, one
dimensional forward modeling and the petrophysical study. The data used for this study consists
of seismic data and well logs data of Meyal area provided by the Department of Earth Sciences
Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad. Meyal area lies in the eastern Potwar are known for its
hydrocarbon (oil and gas) structural traps.
The Seismic lines were acquired and processed by POL. For interpretation of these seismic lines
three reflectors and reverse faults were marked by using the interactive tools of Kingdom
software. In this way time section were obtained. After time to depth conversion the true
structural geometry was obtained in the form of depth sections. The marked horizons were
identified using formation tops from wells and their depths were confirmed through
correlation with synthetic seismogram. After generating fault polygons time grids and depth
grids of marked horizons were prepared. From time and depth grids time and depth contour
maps of the horizons of interest were generated to understand the spatial geometry of the
structures and the nature of geological structures. Reverse faulting as identified on seismic
sections confirmed compressional tectonic regime in the study area resulting due to Indian
Eurasian plates collision. The resulted seismic interpretation of these lines showed pop-up
structures and snaked head bounded by reverse faulting. These pop-up structures were favorable
places for hydrocarbons accumulation and extraction.
Seismic attributes analysis of seismic section helps in identifying the different lithological
boundaries and further confirmed the structural and stratigraphic interpretation and petroleum
play of the study area. One dimensional forward models of Meyal-08 and Meyal-08 confirmed
the position and depth of the marked horizons.
The Petrophysical analysis of Meyal-13 for the selected zones of the interest showed reservoir
quality of different formations.

Contents
1

Introduction............................................................................................................................11
1.1

Introduction to Study area...............................................................................................11

1.2

Location of Study Area...................................................................................................11

1.3

Seismic Reflection Data..................................................................................................13

1.4

Base Map.........................................................................................................................14

1.5

Data Formats...................................................................................................................15

1.5.1

SEG-Y......................................................................................................................15

1.5.2

LAS File...................................................................................................................16

1.5.3

Navigation Data.......................................................................................................16

1.6

Work Flow Analysis........................................................................................................16

1.7

Objectives........................................................................................................................17

Geology and Tectonics of Study Area....................................................................................18

2.1

Regional Settings and Tectonics.....................................................................................18

2.2

Northward Drift of India and the Opening of Indian Ocean...........................................19

2.3

Tectonic Zones of Pakistan.............................................................................................20

2.4

Sedimentary Basins.........................................................................................................20

2.4.1

Indus Basin..............................................................................................................20

2.4.2

Upper Indus Basin...................................................................................................22

2.5

Potwar Sub basin.............................................................................................................23

2.5.1

Norther Potwar Deformed Zone (NPDZ)................................................................24

2.5.2

Major Faults in Potwar Basin..................................................................................25

Stratigraphy and Petroleum Geology.....................................................................................26

3.1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................26

3.2

Introduction to the Petroleum Geology of Area..............................................................26

3.3

Petroleum Geology.........................................................................................................28

3.3.1
3.4

Structure...................................................................................................................28

Hydrocarbon Potential....................................................................................................28

3.4.1

Reservoir Rock........................................................................................................29

3.4.2

Source Rock.............................................................................................................30

3.4.3

Cap Rocks................................................................................................................30
8

Seismic Interpretation.............................................................................................................31
4.1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................31

4.2

Seismic Data Interpretation Techniques..........................................................................31

4.2.1

Stratigraphic Analysis..............................................................................................32

4.2.2

Structural Analysis...................................................................................................32

4.3

4.3.1

Synthetic Seimogram of Meyal-08..........................................................................35

4.3.2

One Dimensional Forward Model of Well Meyal-08..............................................36

4.4

Time section of Line 97-MYL-02...................................................................................38

4.5

Time Section of Line 97-MYL-07..................................................................................38

4.6

Time section of Line 97- MYL-09..................................................................................39

4.7

Time Section of 97-MYL-12..........................................................................................39

4.8

Time Section of 97-MYL-13..........................................................................................40

4.9

Fault Polygon Generation...............................................................................................40

4.9.1

Fault Polygons Constructed at The Level of Chorgali Formation...........................41

4.9.2

Fault Polygons Constructed at the Level of Sakesar Formation..............................41

4.10

Contour Maps..................................................................................................................42

4.10.1

Time Contour Map of Chorgali Formation..............................................................42

4.10.2

Time Contour Map of Sakesar Formation...............................................................43

4.10.3

Time Contour Maps of Nammal Formation............................................................44

4.11

1-D Forward Seismic Modeling......................................................................................33

Depth Contours...............................................................................................................45

4.11.1

Depth Contour Map of Chorgali Formation............................................................45

4.11.2

Depth Contour Map of Sakear Formation...............................................................46

Seismic Attributes...................................................................................................................47
5.1

Seismic Attributes...........................................................................................................47

5.2

Applications of Seismic Attributes.................................................................................47

5.3

Types of Attributes..........................................................................................................47

5.3.1

Geometrical attributes..............................................................................................48

5.3.2

Physical Attributes...................................................................................................48

Petrophysics............................................................................................................................52
6.1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................52
9

6.2

Types of Logs..................................................................................................................52

6.2.1

Gamma Ray Log......................................................................................................52

6.2.2

Spontaneous Potential Log......................................................................................53

6.2.3

Caliper Log..............................................................................................................53

6.2.4

Resistivity Log.........................................................................................................53

6.2.5

Sonic Log.................................................................................................................53

6.2.6

Density Log.............................................................................................................54

6.2.7

Neutron Log.............................................................................................................54

6.3

Petrophysical Properties of Meyal Well-13....................................................................54

6.4

Interpretation...................................................................................................................56

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................57
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................58

10

List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Regional map showing location of the Meyal Field and tectonic features associated
with Northern Pakistan (Hasany, et al., 2012)..............................................................................13
Figure 1-2 Geological Location of Study Area with Meyal Block Highlighted (A.H.Kazmi, et al.,
1992)..............................................................................................................................................14
Figure 1-3 Base Map of Study Area..............................................................................................16
Figure 1-4 Work Flow Analysis.....................................................................................................17
Figure 2-1 Northward Drift of Indian Plate (Naqvi, 2005)...........................................................20
Figure 2-2 Tectonic Map of Pakistan (A.H.Kazmi, et al., 1992)...................................................22
Figure 2-3 Tectonic Division of Potwar Basin (Hasany, et al., 2012)...........................................24
Figure 2-4 Generalized Stratigraphy of Potwar Sub-Basin Schematic (Mughal, et al., 2007)......25
Figure 3-1 Stratigraphic Column of Potwar Region (Hasany, et al., 2012)...................................29
Figure 3-2 Shows the oil and gas fields of Potwar Plateau (Shah, 1977)......................................31
Figure 5-5 Synthetic Seismogram of Meyal-08.............................................................................38
Figure 5-6 One- Dimensional Forward Model of Meyal 08..........................................................39
Figure 4-1 Time Section of 97-MYL-02.......................................................................................40
Figure 4-2 Time Section of Line 97-MYL-07...............................................................................41
Figure 4-3 Time Section of Line 97-MYL-09...............................................................................42
Figure 4-4 Time Section of 97-MYL-12.......................................................................................43
Figure 4-5 Time Section of 97-MYL-13.......................................................................................44
Figure 4-6 Fault Polygons Constructed at the Level of Chorgali Formation................................45
Figure 4-7 Fault Polygons Generated at the Level of Sakesar Formation.....................................45
Figure 4-8 Time Contour Map of Chorgali Formation..................................................................47
Figure 4-9 Time Contour Map of Sakesar Formation...................................................................48
Figure 4-10 Time Contour Map of Nammal Formation................................................................49
Figure 4-11 Depth Contour Map of Chorgali Formation...............................................................50
Figure 4-12 Depth Contour Map of Sakesar Formation................................................................50
Figure 5-1 Envelope of Line 97-MYL-02.....................................................................................53
Figure 5-2 Average Energy of Line 97-MYL-02...........................................................................54
Figure 5-3 Phase Attributes of Line 97-MYL-02..........................................................................55
Figure 5-4 Instantaneous Phase Frequency of Line 97-MYL-02..................................................56
Figure 6-1 Log curve showing the response of different logs and the calculated Vsh in Meyal
Well-13...........................................................................................................................................60
Figure 6-2 Log curve showing the Water saturation (Sw), Hydrocarbon saturation (Sh), Bulk
Volume, and estimated Permeblity in the lower part of the Jurassic Sequence Meyal Well-13....61

11

Chapter 1
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Study area
Meyal Field is located in Attock district, near Pindi Gheb, 110 kilometers southwest of
Islamabad in an active foreland and thrust belt in the Central Potwar Plateau of the Upper Indus
Basin. Meyal Field is one of the major oil and gas producing fields in the Potwar Plateau. The
field was discovered by Pakistan Oilfields Limited in 1968. Discovery resulted after 52 years of
continuous exploration efforts in the Meyal-Kharpa area. In 1916, soon after the discovery of
Khaur Field, the first well was drilled which was terminated in the Molasse sequence without
reaching the Eocene (Hasany, et al., 2012).
The Meyal Field has produced 36 MMBO and 250 BCF gas from three reservoirs. The bulk of
production has come from the fractured carbonates of the Chorgali-Sakesar formations of Eocene
age, whereas marginal production has also been obtained from the carbonates of Paleocene
Ranikot-Lockhart formations and Jurassic Datta Formation sandstone. The drilling activity was
focused mainly at the central part of the Eocene reservoir. After the discovery, the field was
subsequently developed during 1968 to 1997 by drilling 15 more wells. Except well No. 11, all
wells reached their objective depths and produced varying volumes of hydrocarbons. The
produced gas from Eocene reservoirs contained approximately 2% H2S which was unfit for the
pipeline and for the refinery. A gas sweetening plant and sulfur recovery plant was erected in
1974 for the commercial supply of gas. An LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) plant was also
installed to extract the LPG from the producing gas in 1982-83. The producing capacity of this
plant is 200 metric tons LPG per day (Hasany, et al., 2012).

1.2 Location of Study Area

Geographically the study area is situated at a part of the Potowar basin, which lies in the northern
part of upper Indus basin. In the south of Meyal area there is Kalar Khar, in the east city of
Chakwal and in west city of Talagang. The area is now easily approachable due to construction

12

of Lahore Islamabad Motorway. The study area Meyal lies between latitude 33, 11', 00" N to
33, 22', 00" N and longitude 71, 59', 00" E to 72, 18', 00" E.

Figure 1-1 Regional map showing location of the Meyal Field and tectonic features associated
with Northern Pakistan (Hasany, et al., 2012).
Geologically Meyal block lies in the northern part of Potwar shown in where the structural trend
is northeast-southwest as compared with the dominant east-west trend of northern Potwar. The
13

Meyal block lies in the northern part of Potwar sub-basin i.e. NPDZ. The Indus River and the
Jhelum and Soan rivers are passing on its western and eastern sides respectively. The KalachittaMargalla Ranges are in the north and the Salt Range is in the south. Since area is tectonically
very complex, that is why, seismic study of this area is very tough. There is high concentration of
hydrocarbons in this area. Thrust related structural like pop up, duplex and anticlinal traps are
common in this area.

Figure 1-2 Geological Location of Study Area with Meyal Block Highlighted (Kazmi, et al.,
1992).

1.3 Seismic Reflection Data

The seismic reflection data of the study area was obtained by Directorate General of petroleum
concession (DGPC) Pakistan in digital format .This data was acquired and processed by POL.

14

The trend of the seismic dip and strike lines in SE-NW and SW-NE respectively. The seismic
reflection data are given below;

1.4 Base Map

The base map is important component of interpretation, as it shows the spatial position of each
picket of seismic section. For a geophysicist a Base map is that which shows the orientations of
seismic lines and specify points at which seismic data were acquired or simply a map which
consist of number of dip and strike lines on which seismic survey is being carried out . A base
map typically includes location of lease and concession boundaries, wells, seismic survey points
and other cultural data such as buildings and roads with geographic reference such as latitude
and longitude. Geophysicist typically use shot points maps, which show the orientation of
seismic lines and shot points at which seismic data were required , to display interpretation of
seismic data.

15

Figure 1-3 Base Map of Study Area

1.5 Data Formats

Seismic reflection data which consist of following formats;
1.5.1 SEG-Y
The SEG Y (sometimes SEG-Y) file format is one of several standards developed by the Society
of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) for storing geophysical data. It is an open standard, and is
controlled by the SEG Technical Standards Committee, a non-profit organization.
The format was originally developed in 1973 to store single-line seismic reflection digital data
on magnetic tapes. The specification was published in 1975.
The format and its name evolved from the SEG "Ex" or Exchange Tape Format. However, since
its release, there have been significant advancements in geophysical data acquisition, such as 3dimensional seismic techniques and high speed, high capacity recording.

16

1.5.2 LAS File

Log ASCII Standard (LAS) is a standard file-format common in the oil-and-gas and water well
industries to store well log information. Well logging is used to investigate and characterize the
subsurface stratigraphy in a well.
A single LAS file can only contain data for one well, but it can contain any number datasets
(called "curves") from that well. Common curves found in a LAS file may include natural
gamma, travel time, or resistivity logs.
1.5.3 Navigation Data
Navigation data actually locate the area where survey has been carried out; it tells us about the
location of that area on the globe. Generally navigation data is given in X, Y coordinates or in the
form of Latitude and Longitudes by which we can trace our area on the globe.

1.6 Work Flow Analysis

The Interpretation was carried forward using different techniques and steps with each step
involve different processes which were performed using the software tools as mentioned above.
Simplified workflow used in the dissertation is given, which provides the complete picture
depicting how the dissertation has been carried.

Figure 1-4 Work Flow Analysis

17

1.7 Objectives
The main objectives of this dissertation based on interpretation of seismic section are:
o Structural and stratigraphic interpretation to find out the structural traps and horizons of
interest.
o Seismic attribute analysis to confirm the interpretation.
o 1 D forward modelling to confirm the marked horizon.
o Petrophysical analysis of reservoir formations to identify their prospect zones.

18

Chapter 2
2 Geology and Tectonics of Study Area
2.1 Regional Settings and Tectonics
The Himalayan collision system represents an active collision orogen between the Indian and
Eurasian subcontinents. The collision was active since about 55 Ma (Kazmi, et al., 1992) and
involves continuous uplifting, erosion and deposition of sediments.
The Potwar Plateau is situated in the lesser Himalayas of Pakistan, a zone of deformed metasedimentary and sedimentary rocks originally deposited on the northern Indian continental
margin and in the Indo-Gangetic foreland basin. This zone is south of the high crystalline
Himalayas, which contain, from north to south, meta-sedimentary and igneous rocks of the
northern Asian continental margins; meta-volcanic, igneous and meta-sedimentary rocks of the
Kohistan Island arc terrain; and igneous and high grade metamorphic rocks of the intensely
deformed northern margin of the Indian Plate. Thrust faults have been traditionally assigned for
the fault contacts between these zones (Kazmi, et al., 1992).
Sedimentary strata in the foreland are detached and translated along the Salt Range Thrust over
the Indo-Gangetic foreland (Gee, 1989). The topographically rugged Salt Range and Potwar
Plateau is the northernmost feature of Indus Basin, bounded by the Main Boundary Thrust and
the Kalla Chitta Range in the north and the Salt Range in the south (Gee, 1989). Precambrian
Salt and possibly Eocene evaporites and argi Hites are likely the main decollments that produced
large scale thrusts and telescoping that had transported the sedimentary units substantial
distances from the point of their origin in the Potwar and Kohat basins.
Due to the existence of a number of well-defined mappable surface anticlines in the KohatPotwar Basin, hydrocarbon exploration efforts remained active since 1860 when the first well
was drilled in Kundal near Mianwali. These efforts were focused in the areas of oil seeps.
The last period of uplift and erosion corresponds to major collision probably during the Late
Eocene (Hasany, et al., 2012). Oligocene rocks are not present in the Potwar region which also
led us to assume that prolific structures were going through the process of folding during that
time.
19

2.2 Northward Drift of India and the Opening of Indian Ocean

The Indo-Pakistan subcontinent separated from the Gondwana motherland about 130 million
years ago (Naqvi, 2005).

Figure 2-5 Northward Drift of Indian Plate (Naqvi, 2005)

20

Its location within Gondwana in relation to Africa, Antarctica and Australia is uncertain. Various
authors have placed in different positions. It has been estimated that between 130 m.y. and 80
m.y. India moved northward at a rate of 3 to 5 cm/year.
The vast distance (5,000 Km) between the matching set of anomalies 21 and 32 shows that from
80 m.y. ago India moved at an average rate of about 16 cm/year relative to Australia and
Antarctica Before anomaly 22 (50 m.y.) this rate of movement varied between 15 and 25
cm/year.
This movement was facilitated by transform faulting in the Proto-Owen fracture zone and
extensive sea-floor spreading along Mid Oceanic Ridge. It is noteworthy that extensive extrusion
of Daccan Trap Basalts occurred between 65-60 m.y. ago during the fast northward drift of India.

2.3 Tectonic Zones of Pakistan

Pakistan can be divided into seven tectonic zones, (Kazmi, et al., 1992)
Indus Platform and Fore deep.
East Balochistan Fold and Thrust Belt.
Northwest Himalayan Fold and Thrust Belt.
Kohistan-Ladakh Magmatic Arc.
Karakoram Block.
Kakar Khoransan Flysch Basin and Makran Accretionary Zone.
o Chagai Magmatic Arc
o
o
o
o
o
o

2.4 Sedimentary Basins

Basin is an area that is characterized by regional subsidence and in which sediments accumulate
and preserved for a geologic time. Pakistan has three broad tectonic basins, Indus Basin,
Peshawar Basin and Baluchistan Basin.
2.4.1 Indus Basin
Indus Basin consists of 25000 sq. Km of South-East of Pakistan. It includes the Thar-Cholistan
desert and Indus Plain. Tectonically it is much stable area as compare to other tectonic zone of
Pakistan. It comprises of buried ridges, platform slope, zone of up warp and dawn warp. (Kazmi,
et al., 1992), Structurally Indus Basin divided into two main parts;

21

Figure 2-6 Tectonic Map of Pakistan (Kazmi, et al., 1992).

Upper Indus Basin (in north)

Lower Indus Basin (in south)
22

Lower Indus Basin is further divided into two parts;

Central Indus Basin (in north)
Southern Indus Basin (in south)
2.4.2 Upper Indus Basin
It is located in the northern Pakistan and separated from the lower Indus Basin by the Sargodha
High. MBT is in its north, while in east and west strike slip faults Jhelum and Kalabagh is
located. Upper Indus basin is subdivided into Potwar and Kohat Basins along the Indus River.
(Kazmi, et al., 1992).

Figure 2-7 Tectonic Division of Potwar Basin (Hasany, et al., 2012)

2.4.2.1 Potwar Basin
Potwar is a Fore-land fold and Thrust belt of Himalaya Orogeny that is bounded by Kala-Chitta
and Margallla Hills to the north, Indus River and Kohat Plateau in the west, Jhelum River and
Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis in the east and Salt Range Formation in the south. Potwar Plateau has
undulating topography. It is characterized by a series of parallel ridges and valleys, generally
23

trend in the E-W direction. Geologically, it forms part of the foreland zone of the NW Himalayan
Fold and-Thrust belt. Structurally Potwar Basin is divided into North Potwar Deform Zone
(NPDZ) in the north, Soan Syncline and Southern Potwar Deformed Zone (SPDZ) in the south.
Potwar basin is covered by the molasse sediments ranging in age from Miocene to Pleistocene.
Precambrian to Tertiary sequence is exposed along the ranges in south (Shami, et al., 1998)

2.5 Potwar Sub basin

The Potwar sub-basin is located in the western foothills of Himalayas in northern Pakistan. It
includes the Potwar Plateau, the Salt Range, and the Jhelum Plain. It is bounded in the north by
main Boundary Thrust-MBT (recently the term MBT has been challenged by Iqbal and Bannert,
1998 and Iqbal et al., 2007) however without indulging in this controversy the term is used as
such in the text due to its common use in the literature) and Salt Range in the south. Jhelum
strike-slip fault occurs in the east and Indus River and Kalabagh strike slip fault in the west.
Kohat Plateau is in the western strike extension of the Potwar sub-basin with relatively severely
deformed structures. The Potwar sub-basin is filled with thick Pre-Cambrian evaporites overlain
by relatively thin platform deposits of Cambrian to Eocene age followed by thick Miocene
Pliocene molasse. This whole section has been deformed by intensive Himalayan orogeny in
Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene. The Potwar sub-basin is one of the oldest oil provinces of the
world, where the first commercial discovery was made in 1914 at Khaur. So far, about 150
exploratory wells have been drilled of which most could not reach target depths due to
operational problems related to extremely high-pressure water in mollasse deposits, thus were
prematurely abandoned. This abnormal pressure is related to rapid deposition/burial of molasse
deposits, which is further aggravated by structural complexities. The central, western and the
eastern parts of the Salt Range / Potwar Plateau have quite different structural styles. Uneven
distribution of salt, occurrence of different detachment levels, faults and flexures in the basement
are among the possible reasons for structural complexity. Subsurface picture of the Potwar subbasin demonstrates that structures are regionally bounded by foreland verging thrusts. These
thrusts are generally trending northeast southwest in the eastern part, almost east-west in the
central part, and northwest-southeast in the western parts of the Potwar sub-basin. There is less
distribution of evaporites in the eastern part where competent rocks (carbonates and sandstones)
dominate.
24

Figure 2-8 Generalized Stratigraphy of Potwar Sub-Basin Schematic (Mughal, et al., 2007)

The potwar sub basin is divided into two zones due to the amount of deformation in both the
zones. They are:
o

North Potwar deformed Zone

South Potwar deformed Zone

2.5.1 Norther Potwar Deformed Zone (NPDZ)

The NPDZ is more intensely deformed than the southern part. It is a belt of Neogene
deformation, extending southward from the MBT to the Soansyncline.Formation outcrops and
faults are generally east-northeast trending, approximately perpendicular to the tectonic transport
direction. The highly dissected NPDZ is an area of wide synclines, compressed folds and closely
spaced imbricate thrusts. The deformation style of NPDZ abruptly changes from east to west.
The eastern NPDZ represents a buried thrust front with the development of foreland syncline on
the back of Dhurnal Fault, passive roof duplex (triangle zone) and hinterland dipping imbricate
stack farther north (Kemal, 1991).While the western NPDZ which is characterized by
compressed and faulted anticlines separated by large synclines, representing the emergent thrust
(Kemal, 1991).
25

(Kemal, 1991) calculated about 55 km of horizontal shortening for the zone between the Soan
syncline and a point near MBT and the minimum rate of shortening in this zone is estimated to
be 18 mm/yr.The NPDZ is followed to the south by asymmetrical wide and broad Scan syncline,
with a gently northward dipping southern flank along the salt range and a steeply dipping
northern limb along NPDZ.
2.5.2 Major Faults in Potwar Basin
As Potwar represents the southern margin of the Himalayan collisional zone, a variety of faults
and folds exist in this area. Some of the major faults of the area are given as:
o

Khair-i-Murat Fault (KMF)

Sakhwal Fault (SF)

Kanet Fault (KF)

Dhurnal Back Thrust (DBT)

Mianwala Fault (MF)

Riwat Fault (RF)

Major Folds in Potwar Basin

Besides major faults, other structures present in the area include several anticlinal andsynclinal
features which are given as follows:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Soan Syncline
ChakNaurang Anticline
Adhi-Gungril Anticlines
JoyaMair Anticline
Mahesian Anticline
Tanwin-Banis Anticline

Chapter 3
26

Stratigraphy and Petroleum Geology

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Introduction to the Petroleum Geology of Area
In Meyal area, the Salt Range Formation is overlain by the Cambrian to Eocene platform
sequence. It is generally similar to the rest of Peninsular India. In SRPFB, the Early to Middle
Cambrian Jehlum Group lies on the Eocambrian Salt Range Formation (Gee, 1989).
The Jehlum Group includes Cambrian Khewra and Kussak Formations. These were deposited in
littoral to shallow marine environments. The basin was uplifted during Ordovician to
Carboniferous; therefore no sediments were deposited in SRPFB (Shami, et al., 1998).
The Jehlum Group is disconformably overlain by the Permian Nilawahan Group. It includes the
Tobra, Dandot, Warcha and Sardahi Formations. The Late Permian Zaluch Group was eroded or
not deposited in the area. The Late Permian to Cretaceous rocks from west to east in the basin is
eroded due to significant pre-Paleocene tectonic uplift in SRPFB.
The predominant oil producing Potwar basin lies at the northern extremity of the upper Indus
basin of Pakistan. Potwar Basin is bounded to the west by Indus river and to the east by Jhelum
river in the zone of intensively deformed and imbricate thrust sheet called the North Potwar
Deformed Zone. This zone lies to the north of Soan syncline. It comprises of northern fold zone
and the platform zone formed as a result of Himalayan collision between Indian and Eurasian
plates which is still active since 55 Ma resulting in continuous uplifting, erosion and deposition.
Tectonically Potwar basin is bounded to the north by Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Salt
Range Thrust to the south. This zone consists of a number of anticlines. Eocene and Palaeocene
carbonate succession are the proven reservoirs along with Cambrian, Permian and Jurassic
clastic sediments in different fields (Ghazi, et al., 2014).
.

27

.
Figure 3-9 Stratigraphic Column of Potwar Region (Hasany, et al., 2012)
The early Paleocene marine transgression resulted thick deposition of the Paleocene to Eocene
carbonate-shale sequence. It includes the Lockhart, Patala, Sakesar and Chorgali Formations.
The carbonates of these formations form the principal reservoirs for the accumulation of oil in
the area. Hangu Formation is not identified in this part of SRPFB, which is eroded after
deposition and is identifiable on outcrop representing residual environments of deposition. The
Himalayan orogeny initiated the Eocene-Oligocene uplift and erosion in the SRPFB (Shami, et
al., 1998).
The upper part of the stratigraphic section comprises of the Miocene to Pleistocene non-marine
molasse deposits.These include rocks of the Rawalpindi Group (Murree, Kamlial). On top of
these are Siwaliks that include Chinji, Nagri, DhokPathan and Soan formations. The
transgressive molasse sediments represent the erosional products of the southward advancing
28

Himalayan thrust sheets. The molasses sediments in the southern SRPFB lie on the lower Eocene
carbonates.
The thick molasse sediments were rapidly deposited in the Himalayan SRPFB .The molasses
sediments are generally over pressured throughout the basin. The significant part of these
sediments in depth fall in the zone of oil window, serving as a regional over pressured cap (seal)
rock over the reservoir rocks in northern SRPFB (Shami, et al., 1998).

3.3 Petroleum Geology

The Kohat-Potwar depression has several features that make it a favorable site for hydrocarbon
accumulations. Located on a continental margin, the depression is filled with thick deposits of
sedimentary rocks, including potential source reservoir and cap rock. It contains a thick
overburden (about 3000 m) of fluvial sediments, which provide the burial depth and optimum
geothermal gradient for seeps found in this area (Hasany, et al., 2012).
3.3.1 Structure
Meyal-Kharpa surface structure is an east-west trending narrow, steep, faulted anticline with two
major thrusts cutting the structure longitudinally. The subsurface structure does not lie directly
underneath the surface structure. There is a southwest shift of subsurface structure to the surface
structure. This shift is likely due to relatively younger transpressional movement of the blocks.
Previous exploratory attempts were mainly based on the surface geological mapping. Seismic
data acquisition during 1965-1966 had helped identify the subsurface structure configuration.
At the Eocene level the sub-surface structure is defined as east-west trending pop-up, salt cored,
doubly plunging, gentle dipping anticlinal fold bounded by thrust faults in the north and south .
The eastern part of the fold is slightly tighter than the west. Most of the wells were drilled in the
central part of the Eocene structure. Trapping mechanism in the Meyal Field is structural.
(Hasany, et al., 2012)-

3.4 Hydrocarbon Potential

The SRPFB belongs to the category of extra continental down warp basins, this account for 48%
of the world known petroleum. It has several features suitable for hydrocarbon accumulation
including continental margin, thick marine sedimentary sequence, potential source and reservoir
29

and cap rocks. The thick overburden of 3047 m of molasse provides burial depth and optimum
geothermal gradient for oil formation.. The presence of an optimal combination of source,
reservoir and trap within the oil window resulted oil and gas accumulation in JoyaMair, Toot,
Meyal and Dhulian oilfields (Shami, et al., 1998).
3.4.1 Reservoir Rock
The Cambrian, Permian, Jurassic, Paleocene and Eocene reservoirs are producing oil in SRPFB.
The fractured carbonates of the Sakesar and Chorgali Formations are the major oil producing
reservoirs in JoyaMair area. In Meyal, Chorgali and Datta Formations is major oil producing
reservoirs. The Sakesar limestone is light yellow gray, massive and partly dolomitized and
locally contains chert concretions. The Chorgali Formation is creamy yellow to yellow gray,
silty, partly dolomitic and thin bedded limestone. The Datta Formation is dominantly sandstone.

Figure 3-10 Shows the oil and gas fields of Potwar Plateau (Shah, 1977).
Core analysis from Meyal, Dhulian and Balkassar oilfields shows that the primary porosity is
less than 1% in the Chorgali and Sakesarlimestones. The fracture porosity is relatively higher in
wells of northwestern Potwar because the rocks deformed several times during the Himalayan
orogeny. The fracture sets trend eastwest, northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast. The
30

fractures develop parallel, oblique and perpendicular to the fold axes of anticlines (Shami, et al.,
1998).
3.4.2 Source Rock
The gray shales of the Mianwali, Datta and Patala Formations are potential source rocks in
SRPF. The oil shales of the Eocambrian Salt Range Formation include 27% to 36% total organic
content (TOC) in isolated pockets of shales, and are considered as the source rock in SRPFB
(Shami, et al., 1998).
3.4.3 Cap Rocks
The Kuldana formation acts as cap for the reservoirs of Chorgali and Sakesar limestones in
SRPFB. The clays and shales of the Murree Formation also provide efficient vertical and lateral
seal to Eocene reservoirs in SRPFB where ever it is in contact. The following Oil & Gas field is
present in Upper Indus Basin that accounts for large supply of energy in Pakistan.
Age
Eocene/Paleoce
ne

Formations
Lockhart/
Sakesar/

Lithology
Limestone&
Shale

Chorgali
Jurassic

Oil&Gas
Field

Production

Dhurnal,
Balkassar&

Oil

Meyal

Data &

Sandstone &

Samana Suk

Limestone

Dhulian, Toot
&

Oil

Meyal

Permian

TobraNilawa

Conglomerat

han&

e&

Adhi&
Dhurnal

Oil

Adhi&

Gas

Zaulch Group Limestone

Cambrian

KhewraSandstone

Sandstone

MissaKeswal

31

Chapter 4
4 Seismic Interpretation
4.1 Introduction
In seismic, interpretation is defined as, the translation of seismic information into geologic terms.
According to (Robinson, et al., 1988) interpretation is defined as, the transformation of the
seismic reflection data into a structural picture by the application of correction, migration and
time depth conversion.
Interpretation is the transformation of seismic data into structural and stratigraphic picture
through a series of different steps. Thus threading together all the available geological and
geophysical information including the seismic and then integrating them all in a single picture
can only give a picture closer to the reality.
The main purpose of seismic reflection survey is to reveal as clearly as possible, the structures
and stratigraphy of the subsurface. The geological meanings of seismic reflection are simply
indications of different boundaries where there is a change in acoustic impedance. These
observed contrasts are associated with different geological structures are stratigraphic contacts.
To distinguish different formations by means of seismic reflection is an important question in
interpreting seismic reflection data. For this purpose we correlate the data with the well data and
geology of the area under observation. The well data provides links between lithology and
seismic reflections. The reflector identification is the next stage by which the actual
interpretation starts and it establishes a stratigraphic frame block for the main interpretation.
Extracting geological structures from seismic data such as folding and faulting are referred to as
structural interpretation (Telford, 2004).On the other hand, extracting non-structural information
from seismic data is called, Seismic Facies Analysis.

4.2 Seismic Data Interpretation Techniques

There are two main techniques of seismic data interpretation i.e.
Stratigraphic Analysis
Structural Analysis

32

4.2.1 Stratigraphic Analysis

Stratigraphic analysis involves the subdivision of seismic sections into sequences of reflections
that are interpreted as the seismic expression of genetically related sedimentary
sequences.Stratigraphic analysis involves the delineating the seismic sequences, which present
the different depositional units, recognizing the seismic facies characteristic with suggest
depositional environment and analysis the reflection characteristic variation to locate the both
stratigraphicchange and hydrocarbon depositional environment. 3D work is especially important
in recognizing the stratigraphic feature with distinct shape.
Hydrocarbon accumulation is indicated by the amplitude, velocity, frequency or the change in
wave shape. Variation of the amplitude with the offset is also an important hydrocarbon
indicator. Unconformities are marked by drainage pattern that help to develop the depositional
environment. Reef, lenses, unconformity are example of stratigraphic traps. (Sheriff, 1999)
Some of the parameters used in seismic stratigraphic interpretation are,

Reflection Configuration
Reflection Continuity
Reflection Amplitude
Reflection Frequency
Interval Velocity
External Form

4.2.2 Structural Analysis

Structural interpretation of 2-D Seismic reflection data includes marking of the Horizons and the
faults. With the help of these marked structures we try to interpret structural traps, which is the
consequence of the structural dynamics that have large extension in the geological history. So we
can say that structural interpretation would also include the study of geological history of the
area. In structural interpretation main emphasis is on the structural traps in which tectonics play
an important role. Tectonic setting usually governs which types of structures are present and how
the structural features are correlated with each others, so tectonics of the area is helpful in
determining the structural style of the area and to locate the traps. Structural traps include the
faults, anticlines, duplex etc. (Sheriff, 1999).
Seismic sections can predict the structure that scale up to few tens of kilometres. For large scale
interpretation we have to use the grids of seismic lines. Immigrated section is not suitable for
structure interpretation, because it creates many problems like synclines becomes narrows and
33

vice versa. Even a migrated section not fully fit for complex area like the area of study
(Robinson, et al., 1988).Some seismic section contains images that can be interpreted without
any difficulty. Discontinuous reflectors clearly indicate faults and undulating reflections reveals
folded beds. Most interpretation of structural features are directly marked on seismic time
sections (Robinson, et al., 1988)
Structural interpretation usually includes,
Identification of Horizons
Identification of Faults and Folds
Above mentioned features are easily marked if the reflections on seismic section are clear, and
they are seen continuing through a certain geographic extent.
4.2.2.1 Identification of Horizons
Normally the horizons are named on the basis of the check shot survey and/or on the basis of
VSP data. The synthetic seismogram can also be used to name the horizons accurately, to some
extent. But the naming of the horizons can also be done on the basis of well summery sheet.
4.2.2.2 Identification of Faults and Folds
The appearance of the folds and the faults on the seismic section can be considerably distorted;
especially on immigrated section i.e. anticlines appear too broad, but the anticline crest is in its
proper subsurface position and synclines are narrowed, but syncline axis is in its proper
subsurface position.
Faults almost always have inclined faults planes which will be properly represented only on the
seismic line, crossing the fault trace at the right angle. The interpretation of the faults will not be
proper only on the section oblique to the fault trace. Strike slip faulting is also difficult to detect.
Strike slip faulting may be suspected when mapping shows offsets of major structural features.

4.3 1-D Forward Seismic Modeling

An artificial seismic reflection record, prepared from velocity log data and density log data by
convolving the reflectivity function derived from digitized acoustic and density logs with the
wavelet

derived from seismic

data is

called as Synthetic

Seismogram.

Synthetic

seismogram is an artificial model of the Earth that is used to mark the different geological
horizon on the seismic section. It is direct one-dimensional model of acoustic energy traveling
through different layers of Earth. The synthetic seismogram can be of great value to the
34

interpreter and it is best presented by splicing it to an interpreted seismic section through the
well location. Synthetic seismogram of Meyal-08 well was generated using Geographix Seismic
software. In this procedure the petrophysical logs; Sonic (DT) and Bulk Density (RHOB),
which provide the velocity and density information of subsurface layers respectively, are
used. The DT is a delay time log and its inverse gives the velocity. These logs are acquired in the
borehole. We use this velocity and density data to compute a series of reflection coefficients
called reflectivity series. Then a source Ricker wavelet with a dominant frequency of 35 Hz is
generated. The reflectivity series is convolved with the source wavelet to get a synthetic
seismogram. In this case we have performed the convolution with only one reflectivity series
(1D), thus only one seismic trace is generated. Graphically we plot multiple copies to
display it in the form of a stack section. The synthetic seismogram vertical units are meters or
feet and it can be converted into time units by using its own velocity information. Synthetic
seismogram is matched with the seismic section at the well point to correlate the succession of
reflectors. It may also be used to calibrate our seismic velocities.
Synthetic seismogram= Reflection coefficient * Source Wavelet
The parameters used for the generation of synthetic seismogram are given below:

Type of wavelet: Ricker

Frequency: 35 Hz
Sampling Rate: 2 Milliseconds
Phase: Zero Phases
Number of traces: 40

35

4.3.1

Synthetic Seimogram of Meyal-08

Stratigraphic formation tops of Meyal-08 well.

FF NAGRI 000000.0m
FF CHINJI

000195.0m

FF KAMLIAL 001790.7m
FF MURREE 002001.9m
FF KOHAT 003599.7m
FF MAMI KHEL 003635.7m
FF CHORGALI 003681.4m
FF SAKESAR 003757.3m
Meyal-08 well has eight formations encountered during drilling. These are also confirmed by one
dimensional forward seismic model. For correlation caliper and gamma ray logs are used. Black
wiggles represent the stratigraphic reflectors. Chorgali and Sakessar formations have also strong
reflection in this well.
To make one dimensional seismic model of Meyal-08 well first of all sonic log and density log
were used to find out acoustic impedance. From acoustic impedance reflection coefficient series
was determined. This reflection coefficient series then convolved with theoretically calculated
wavelet known as Ricker Wavelet. After convolving reflection coefficient series with Ricker
wavelet one dimensional forward seismic model of Meyal--08 well was obtained.
The reflectors on the time sections are marked on the basis of Synthetic Seismogram because by
the help of Synthetic Seismogram we know the time of the reflector and then we mark it on the
seismic section.

36

Figure 5-11 Synthetic Seismogram of Meyal-08

4.3.2 One Dimensional Forward Model of Well Meyal-08
To make one dimensional seismic model of Meyal-08 well first of all sonic log and density log
were used to find out acoustic impedance. From acoustic impedance reflection coefficient series
was determined. This reflection coefficient series then convolved with theoretically calculated
wavelet known as Ricker Wavelet. After convolving reflection coefficient series with Ricker
wavelet one dimensional forward seismic model of Meyal--08 well was obtained.

37

Figure 5-12 One- Dimensional Forward Model of Meyal 08

38

4.4 Time section of Line 97-MYL-02

.

Figure 4-13 Time Section of 97-MYL-02

4.5 Time Section of Line 97-MYL-07

Figure 4-14 Time Section of Line 97-MYL-07

39

4.6 Time section of Line 97- MYL-09

Figure 4-15 Time Section of Line 97-MYL-09

4.7 Time Section of 97-MYL-12

Figure 4-16 Time Section of 97-MYL-12

40

4.8 Time Section of 97-MYL-13

Figure 4-17 Time Section of 97-MYL-13

4.9 Fault Polygon Generation

A fault polygon represents the lateral extent of dip faults or strike faults having same trend. Fault
polygons show the sub-surface discontinuities by displacing the contours. To generate fault
polygons it is necessary to identify the faults and their lateral extent by looking at the available
seismic data. If one finds that the same fault is present on all the dip lines, then all points on base
map can be manually joined to make a polygon.

41

4.9.1

Fault Polygons Constructed at The Level of Chorgali Formation

Figure 4-18 Fault Polygons Constructed at the Level of Chorgali Formation

4.9.2

Fault Polygons Constructed at the Level of Sakesar Formation

Figure 4-19 Fault Polygons Generated at the Level of Sakesar Formation

42

4.10 Contour Maps

The results of seismic interpretation are usually displayed in map form. Mapping is partof the
interpretation of the data. The seismic map is usually the final product of seismic exploration, the
one on which the entire operation depends for its usefulness. The contours are the lines of equal
time or depth wandering around the map as dictated by the data ( Coffeen, 1986).
In constructing a subsurface map from seismic data, a reference datum must first be selected. The
datum may be sea level or any other depth above or below sea level .Frequently, another datum
above sea level is selected in order to image a shallow marker on the seismic cross-section,
which may have a great impact on the interpretation of the zone of interest (Coffeen, 1986).
Contouring represents the three-dimensional earth on a two dimensional surface. The spacing of
the contour lines is a measure of the steepness of the slope; the closer the spacing, the steeper the
slope. A subsurface structural map shows relief on a subsurface horizon with contour lines that
represent equal depth below a reference datum or two-way time from the surface. These contour
maps reveal the slope of the formation, structural relief of the formation, its dip, and any faulting
and folding.
The interpreted seismic data is contoured for producing seismic maps which provide a threedimensional picture of the various layers within an area which is circumscribed by intersecting
shooting lines. The picked times for each reflector are exported along with the navigation data in
the form of an XYZ file to be used for contouring. The Kingdom software is used to generate all
contour maps.
4.10.1 Time Contour Map of Chorgali Formation
Chorgali formation is one of the main reservoir formations in Meyal area. This formation has
both Oil & Gas content and is mainly composed of limestone with some shaly content. Chorgali
time contours maps are plotted on the seismic base map along with well locations and fault
polygons. Fault polygons make pop-up structures which are suitable for hydrocarbon
accumulation. Contour interval in time contour maps is set as 50 milliseconds. As the red color
showing the uplifted zone of Meyal area because the time is less there so it indicates the uplifted
structure which is pop-up structure and that is suitable for the hydrocarbon accumulation and the
well in our area are also drilled in that zone. The pop-up structures are bounded by two major
faults.

43

Figure 4-20 Time Contour Map of Chorgali Formation

4.10.2 Time Contour Map of Sakesar Formation
Sakesar formation is also one of the main reservoir formations second in Meyal area.. Sakasser
formation lies below Chorgali formation in all seismic sections. Fault polygons of Sakasser
formation are similar to Chorgali formation which indicates the presence of same faults on both
formations. Contour interval in time & depth contour maps is 50 milliseconds.
Time variation is shown in contour map the blue colored portion shows deepest part of formation
red color from shows highest point known as pop up structure and it is the most favorable area
for hydrocarbon extraction from Sakasser formation.

44

Figure 4-21 Time Contour Map of Sakesar Formation

4.10.3 Time Contour Maps of Nammal Formation
Nammal formation has also reservoir properties. This formation is also mainly composed of
limestone with shaly content at its bottom level. Fault polygon of Nammal formation have same
trend as those of Chorgali formation and Sakesar formation. A pop up structure exists between
the same fault polygons. Contour interval in time & depth Contour maps is 50 milliseconds.
Time variation is shown by the color red color shows highest point known as pop up structure
and it is favorable area for hydrocarbon extraction from Nammal formation.

45

Figure 4-22 Time Contour Map of Nammal Formation

4.11 Depth Contours

Depth contour maps are also formed as the time contours difference between depth and time
contours is that in the time contours the formation is contoured with time and the depth contours
are formed according to the depth of formations.
4.11.1 Depth Contour Map of Chorgali Formation
The blue color in contour map showing the shallow part with respect to surroundings which is
showing the uplifted potion of the pop-up structure which is suitable for the hydrocarbon
accumulation and well in Meyal area are also installed in this portion.

46

Figure 4-23 Depth Contour Map of Chorgali Formation

4.11.2 Depth Contour Map of Sakear Formation
Sakesar limestone is also act as the reservoir in the Meyal area in depth contour map of sakesar
formation. The pink colour zone showing the shallow part with respect the surroundings which is
showing the uplifted part of the pop-up structure which is suitable for the hydrocarbon
accumulation and well in Meyal area are also installed in this zone.

Figure 4-24 Depth Contour Map of Sakesar Formation

47

Chapter 5
5 Seismic Attributes
5.1 Seismic Attributes
Seismic attributes are a set of properties computed from input seismic data which consist of
amplitude as the basic attribute. Attributes can be calculated on the pre-stack as well as poststack data. The most common post stack attributes are instantaneous attributes that are computed
at each sample of seismic trace. The seismic energy is basically a mechanical energy which has
two components kinetic and potential energy. Through experiments it has found that we can only
measure the kinetic energy. Now to compute instantaneous attributes we need to calculate the
imaginary potential energy component of seismic energy. The imaginary component is basically
a 90 degrees phase rotated version of the input seismic trace and therefore can be computed
through the Hilbert transform (Taner, et al., 1969).

5.2 Applications of Seismic Attributes

Uses of Seismic attributes include

To check seismic data quality identifying artifacts

Performing seismic facies mapping to predict depositional environment
Hydrocarbon play evaluation
Prospect identification and risk analysis
Reservoir characterization

5.3 Types of Attributes

The default attribute of Seismic data is Amplitude.Attributes can be computed from pre-stack or
from post-stackdata, before or after time migration. The procedure is the same in allof these
cases. Attributes can be classified into many types but there are two broad classifications of the
attributes (Taner, et al., 1969). They include;
5.3.1

Geometrical attributes
Geometrical attributes are used to enhance the visibility of the geometrical characteristics
of seismic data; they include dip, azimuth, and continuity.
48

5.3.2

Physical Attributes
Physical attributes have to do with the physical parameters of the subsurface and so relate
to lithology. These include amplitude, phase, and frequency.

5.3.2.1 Envelope of Trace

The envelope is the envelope of the seismic signal. It has a low frequency appearance and only
positive amplitudes. It often highlights main seismic features. The envelope represents the
instantaneous energy of the signal and is proportional in its magnitude to the reflection
coefficient.The envelope is useful in highlighting discontinuities, changes in lithology, faults and
changes in deposition, tuning effect, and sequence boundaries. It also is proportional to
reflectivity and therefore useful for analyzing AVO anomalies. This attribute is good for looking
at packages of amplitude. This attribute represent mainly the acoustic impedance contrast, hence
reflectivity. It always remains positive whether the reflection coefficient is positive or negative
and it highlights the petroleum play as a bright spot. This attribute is mainly useful in
identifying:

Bright spots.
gas accumulation.
Sequence boundaries, major changes or depositional environments.
Unconformities.
Major changes of lithology.
Local changes indicating faulting.

49

Figure 5-25 Envelope of Line 97-MYL-02

5.3.2.2 Apparent Polarity
Some of the instantaneous attributes such as instantaneous frequency show a very sharp or
crispy signature therefore are difficult to interpret thus wavelet attributes are computed our each
cycle of the seismic attribute (Taner, et al., 1969).Wavelet attributes show a blocky response as
they represent average value over each cycle in the seismic trace.
Average energy is a post stack attribute that computes the sum of the squared amplitudes divided
by the number of samples within the specified window used. This provides a measure of
reflectivity and allows one to map direct hydrocarbon indicators within a zone of
interest.Average energy exhibits more contrast than reflection strength and its greater contrast are
only due to how it presents the information.

50

Figure 5-26 Average Energy of Line 97-MYL-02

5.3.2.3 Phase Attributes
The argument of the complex function is defined as the phase. The phase component is
independent of seismic amplitude therefore can be used as a good indicator of reflector
continuity.

Figure 5-27 Phase Attributes of Line 97-MYL-02

51

5.3.2.4 Instantaneous Phase Frequency

The computations of instantaneous frequency as the time derivative of phase, and its meaning
has been the subject of a number of papers. It has been shown that the instantaneous frequency
attribute relates to the centroid of the power spectrum of the seismic wavelet. Instantaneous
frequency attribute responds to both wave propagation effects and depositional characteristics,
hence it is a physical attribute and can be used as an effective discriminator. Its uses include,
fracture zone indicator, fractures may appear as lower frequency zones, bed thickness indicator.
Higher frequencies indicate sharp interfaces such as exhibited by thinly laminated shales, lower
frequencies are indicative of more massive bedding geometries, e.g. sand-prone lithologies.

Figure 5-28 Instantaneous Phase Frequency of Line 97-MYL-02

52

Chapter 6
6 Petrophysics
6.1 Introduction
Petrophysics is the study of the physical and chemical properties that describes the occurrence
and behavior of the rocks, soils and fluids. To accurately characterize an oil or gas reservoir,
measurements such as resistivity and density are made, from which effective porosity, saturations
and permeability can be quantified.

6.2 Types of Logs

Gamma Ray
Spontaneous Potential
Caliper Log
Resistivity Log
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron Log

6.2.1 Gamma Ray Log

Gamma ray logging is a method of measuring naturally occurring gamma radiation to
characterize the rock or sediment in a borehole or drill hole. It is a wireline logging method used
in mining, mineral exploration, water-well drilling, for formation evaluation in oil and gas well
drilling and for other related purposes. Different types of rock emit different amounts and
different spectra of natural gamma radiation. In particular, shales usually emit more gamma rays
than other sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, gypsum, salt, coal, dolomite, or limestone
because radioactive potassium is a common component in their clay content, and because the
cation exchange capacity of clay causes them to absorb uranium and thorium. This difference in
radioactivity between shales and sandstones/carbonate rocks allows the gamma tool to
distinguish between shales and non-shales.

53

6.2.2 Spontaneous Potential Log

The Spontaneous Potential (SP) log measures the natural or spontaneous potential difference
between the borehole and the surface, without any applied current. It was one of the first wireline
logs to be developed, found when a single potential electrode was lowered into a well and a
potential was measured relative to a fixed reference electrode at the surface.
The most useful component of this potential difference is the electrochemical potential because it
can cause a significant deflection in the SP response opposite permeable beds. The magnitude of
this deflection depends mainly on the salinity contrast between the drilling mud and the
formation water, and the clay content of the permeable bed. Therefore, the SP log is commonly
used to detect permeable beds and to estimate clay content and formation water salinity.
6.2.3 Caliper Log
A caliper log is a well logging tool that provides a continuous measurement of the size and shape
of a borehole along its depth and is commonly used in hydrocarbon exploration when drilling
wells. The measurements that are recorded can be an important indicator of cave ins or shale
swelling in the borehole, which can affect the results of other well logs.
6.2.4 Resistivity Log
Resistivity logging measures the subsurface electrical resistivity, which is the ability to impede
the flow of electric current. This helps to differentiate between formations filled with salty waters
(good conductors of electricity) and those filled with hydrocarbons (poor conductors of
electricity). Resistivity and porosity measurements are used to calculate water saturation.
Resistivity is expressed in ohms or ohms\meter, and is frequently charted on a logarithm scale
versus depth because of the large range of resistivity. The distance from the borehole penetrated
by the current varies with the tool, from a few centimeters to one meter.
6.2.5 Sonic Log
Sonic logging is a well logging tool that provides a formations interval transit time, designated
as

, which is a measure of a formations capacity to transmit seismic waves. Geologically, this

capacity varies with lithology and rock textures, most notably decreasing with an increasing
effective porosity. This means that a sonic log can be used to calculate the porosity of a
formation if the seismic velocity of the rock matrix,
is very useful for hydrocarbon exploration.
54

, and pore fluid,

, are known, which

6.2.6 Density Log

Density logging is a well logging tool that can provide a continuous record of a formation's bulk
density along the length of a borehole. In geology, bulk density is a function of the density of the
minerals forming a rock (i.e. matrix) and the fluid enclosed in the pore spaces. This is one of
three well logging tools that are commonly used to calculate porosity, the other two being sonic
logging and neutron porosity logging.
6.2.7 Neutron Log
The neutron porosity log works by bombarding a formation with high energy epithermal
neutrons that lose energy through elastic scattering to near thermal levels before being absorbed
by the nuclei of the formation atoms. Depending on the particular type of neutron logging tool,
either the gamma ray of capture, scattered thermal neutrons or scattered, higher energy
epithermal neutrons are detected. The neutron porosity log is predominantly sensitive to the
quantity of hydrogen atoms in a particular formation, which generally corresponds to rock
porosity.

6.3 Petrophysical Properties of Meyal Well-13

By using the well data given by the the DGPC we had calculated the petrophysical properties of
meyal Well-13 using the LAS file of the well in which we had all the data of the log run in the
well. We have calculated different petrophysical properties of the well-13 and shown the graph.
The upper part extends from 13578 feet depth to 13735 feet and consists of alternating beds of
shale and sandstone. A 38 feet thick bed of shale is present at the depth of 13675 feet which is
indicated by high neutron porosity, density porosity and gamma-ray curves. This part can be
considered as a seal rock for underlying oil reservoir .The lower part lies at the depth of 13736
feet and extends to 13850 feet depth, containing thick shaly sandstone and interbedded thin
sandstone at the bottom. This part was characterized by high values of neutron porosity, gammaray and resistivity while low response of SP. High values of gamma-ray log indicate the presence

of highly radioactive material.

55

Figure 6-29 Log curve showing the response of different logs and the calculated Vsh in Meyal
Well-13

56

Figure 6-30 Log curve showing the Water saturation (Sw), Hydrocarbon saturation (Sh), Bulk
Volume, and estimated Permeblity in the lower part of the Jurassic Sequence Meyal Well-13.

6.4 Interpretation
By understanding these type curves in which we had calculated the Water saturation, Volume of
Shale, Hydrocarbon Saturation, Bulk volume and Permeablity. These are all properties which tell
us about the reservoir quality and the ability of reservoir to accumulate the hydrocarbons. By
calculating all these parameters with respect to depth we can reach our reservoir in above figure
as we can observe that at the depth ranging from 13753-13774 and 13795-13830 can be our pay
zone because all parameters on this depth showing the availability of good reservoir, as we can
see the Sw on this depth is very less which indicates the availability of hydrocarbons.

57

Conclusion
1. On the basis of history and type of structures identified on the given seismic sections, the
study area is under compressional regime.
2. Three reflectors R1, R2, R3 which are marked are Chorgali, Sakesar and Nammal
formations respectively of Eocene age.
3. Seismic interpretation results have identified pop-up structures in the area of study which
are favorable structures for the accumulation of hydrocarbons.
4. On the basis of time and depth contour maps pop-up structures have been identified at
Chorgali, Sakesar and Nammal formations of Eocene level. These structures are
favorable for drilling.
5. The Petrophysical analysis of Meyal-13 confirms different zones of interest for
hydrocarbon extraction in limestone of Chorgali and Sakasser formations. Petrophysical
analysis of these reservoir formations shows a high hydrocarbon potential.

58

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