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CHAPTER8:BRITISHEMPIRICISM

FromTheHistoryofPhilosophy:AShortSurveybyJamesFieser
Home:www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/110
Copyright2008,updated:1/7/2012

Contents

A.Locke
NoInnateIdeas
SimpleandComplexIdeas
PrimaryandSecondaryQualities
NaturalRightsandRevolution
B.Berkeley
Idealism:NoMaterialsObjects
ArgumentsagainstMaterialObjects
GodandEvil
C.Hume
OriginandAssociationofIdeas
PersonalIdentityandCausality
BeliefinMiracles
Morality:Reasonvs.Emotion
RadicalSkepticismandNaturalBelief

QuestionsforReflection
1.Ourfivesensesclearlygiveusalotofinformation.Isthereanyknowledgethatweobtainwithoutour
fivesenses?
2.Considerthequalitiesofanapple,andexplainwhichofthesebelongtotheappleitself,andwhich
existonlyinourminds.
3.Whenyoulookatanobject,suchasachair,youtypicallyassumethattherereallyexistsachair
shapedthingthatisthesourceofyourperceptionsofit.Whatisyourevidencethataphysical
chairshapedthingactuallyexists?
4.Youtypicallyassumethatyourpersonalidentityremainsunifiedandintactastimepassesfromone
momenttothenext.Doyoureallyhaveaunifiedconsciousexperienceofyourselffromone
momenttothenext?Ifso,trytodescribeit.
5.Somephilosophersthinkthatmoralityinvolvesarationaljudgmentaboutobjectivemoraltruths,and
othersthinkthatmoraljudgmentsareemotionalreactionsthatwehavewhenweobservepeople
actincertainways.Doesoneoftheseviewsseemmorecorrectthantheother?

Duringthe17thand18thcenturies,Britaincertainlyhaditsfairshareofrationalistphilosophers,
particularlyofthePlatonistvariety.However,Britainsphilosophywassoondominatedbyanalternative
andmorescientificviewthatknowledgeisgainedprimarilyormainlythroughthefivesenses.Wesee
thispresumptioninFrancisBaconsstatementthatinoureffortstounderstandnaturewecancanact
andunderstandnofurtherthan[wehave]...observedineithertheoperationorthecontemplationofthe
methodandorderofnature(NewOrganon,1.1).Directexperienceisfoundationalforobtaining
knowledge,andthispositionisknownasempiricism.Duringthefirsthalfofthe18thcentury,threegreat
philosophersLocke,BerkeleyandHumearguedforthisapproach,thusformingaphilosophical
movementknownasBritishempiricism.Contrarytothe17thcenturyrationalistphilosophersin
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ContinentalEurope,theseBritishempiricistslargelydeniedtheroleofinnateideasanddeductioninthe
questforknowledge.Instead,theyargued,knowledgecomesfromsensoryexperienceandinductive
reasoning.

A.LOCKE
TheoriginatorofBritishempiricismwasJohnLocke(16321704),whowasbornintoaPuritanfamily
nearBristol,England,hisfatherbeinganattorneyandgovernmentofficial.HestudiedatOxford
Universityandlaterworkedthereinvariouspositions,wherehetookparticularinterestinthewritingsof
Descartesandothermodernthinkers.ThedirectionofLockeslifeshifteddramaticallywhenheaccepted
employmentasthehouseholdphysicianofaprominentBritishpoliticianwhofoundedtheradicalWhig
party,whichopposedtheabsoluteruleoftheBritishmonarchy.AspublicoppositiontotheKingwason
theincreaseduringthisperiod,LockesassociationwiththeWhigsforcedhimtofleetotheNetherlands
forhissafety.HereturnedhomeaftertheKingwasoverthrownintheGloriousRevolutionof1688,and
subsequentlypublishedasteadystreamofbooksthathehadbeenworkingonforsometime.Thebooks
wereinstantsensations,andhisreputationskyrocketed,rivalingthatofNewton.Hediedatage72,never
havingmarriedorproducedchildren.Lockewroteonarangeofsubjects,includingpolitics,religion,
economicsandeducation.Hisfameasaphilosopher,though,restsonhisworkintwodistinctareas.
First,asametaphysicalphilosopherheexpoundedtheempiricistpositionthattherearenoinnateideas
andallknowledgecomesfromexperience.HesetsthisoutinhisEssayConcerningHuman
Understanding(1689).Second,asapoliticalphilosopherhedevelopedthenotionofnaturalrightsinhis
TwoTreatisesofGovernment(1690).Wewilllookateachofthese.

NoInnateIdeas
Throughoutthehistoryofphilosophyitwascommontoholdthathumanbeingsarebornwithaspecial
setofideasinnateideasthatguideusinourquestfortruthandcertainty.InancienttimesPlatoheld
thatwehaveaninbornknowledgeoftheperfectFormsofjustice,piety,goodness,andcountlessothers.
IntheRenaissanceJohnCalvinheldthatweareallbornwithasenseofGod.Descartes,theleading
Continentalrationalist,heldthatwehaveaninnateideaofourselvesandofinfiniteperfection.When
lookingatthislonghistoryofbeliefininnateideas,Lockesaidthatenoughwasenough,andhelaunched
apowerfulattackontheveryconcept.ForLocke,wesimplyhavenoinnateideas,andallnotionsthatwe
havecometousthroughexperience.ItsimportanttorecognizethatLockewasnotcriticalofothertypes
ofinnatehumancharacteristics,suchascoughingorblinking,whichareinbornmusclereflexes.His
attackfocusesexclusivelyontheideasthatwearebornwith.ThemovieCloseEncountersofaThird
Kindillustratesthefeaturesofaninnateidea.Theleadcharacterhasanideaofamountainembeddedin
hismindbysomealiensfromouterspace.Theideaobsesseshimtothepointthatoneeveningatthe
suppertablehescoopsapileofmashedpotatoesontohisplateandthenshapesitintotheimagehehasof
themountain.
WhileLockesattackoninnateideascertainlyappliestotheviewsofDescartesandother
Continentalrationalists,theywerenothisimmediatetarget.Instead,accordingtoLocke,therearetwo
typesofinnateideasthatphilosopherscommonlyallege:speculativeonesandpracticalones.Good
examplesofspeculativeinnateideas,heargues,arethefoundationallogicalconceptsthataresometimes
dubbedlawsofthoughtandassociatedwithAristotle.Chiefamongtheseisthelawofidentitywhich
simplystatesthatanobjectisthesameasitself,or,inmoreformalterms,A=A.Thechairinfrontofme
isidenticaltothechairinfrontofme.Thetreeintheyardisidenticaltothetreeintheyard.Whilethis
seemstobeapainfullyobvioustruth,itdoesplayanimportantroleinlogicalsystems.Next,thereisthe
lawofnoncontradiction,whichAristotlehimselfstatesasfollows:Itisimpossibleforthesamethingto
belongandnottobelongatthesametimetothesamethingandinthesamerespect(Metaphysics,4.3).
Thepointcanbestatedmoreformallyasnot(PandnotP),thatis,itisnotthecasethatPandits
oppositenotPobtainatthesametime.Itisimpossibleforthechairinfrontofmetoexistandnotexist
atthesametime.Itisimpossiblefortheappleonthetabletobecompletelyredandnotcompletelyredat
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thesametime.
Thesecondtypeofallegedinnateideainvolvespracticalones,thatis,ideasthatregulatemoral
behavioralpractices.Examplesofthese,accordingtoLocke,arethefamousfivecommonnotionsof
religionandmoralityproposedbyBritishphilosopherEdwardHerbert(15831648).Theyare(1)There
existsasupremeGod,(2)WeshouldworshipGod,(3)Thebestformofworshipispropermoral
behavior,(4)Weshouldrepentforourimmoralconduct,(5)Wewillberewardedorpunishedinthe
afterlifeforourconductonearth.Herbertarguedthatallhumanshaveaninbornknowledgeofthese
truthsandwefindthesetruthsexhibitedinvirtuallyallreligionsaroundtheworld.
Lockehastwomainargumentsagainsttheinnatenessofideas,bothspeculativeandpractical.
First,heargues,peopleinfactdonotuniversallyholdtotheseideas,contrarytowhatdefendersofinnate
ideastypicallyclaim.Thisisparticularlyobviouswiththelawsofthought,whichchildrenandmentally
challengedpeoplehavenoconceptionofwhatsoever:

Ifthereforechildrenandidiotshavesouls,haveminds,withthoseimpressionsuponthem,they
mustunavoidablyperceivethem,andnecessarilyknowandassenttothesetruths.Whichsince
theydonot,itisevidentthattherearenosuchimpressions.Foriftheyarenotnotionsnaturally
imprinted,howcantheybeinnate?andiftheyarenotionsimprinted,howcantheybeunknown?
Tosayanotionisimprintedonthemind,andyetatthesametimetosay,thatthemindisignorant
ofit,andneveryettooknoticeofit,istomakethisimpressionnothing.[Essay,1.2.12]

Lockessecondargumentisthatitmakesnosensetoholdthatsuchideasliedormantwithinus,andthen
blossomwhenwereachtherightage,contrarytowhatdefendersofinnateideascommonlyclaim.Again,
particularlywiththelawsofthought,childrenreasonperfectlywellregardingidentityandnon
contradiction,yetatthesametimearecompletelyincapableofarticulatingthosespecificideas.Ifthese
ideasreallywereinnate,thenchildrenshouldbeabletoverballyexpressthem.AsLockestatesit,How
manyinstancesoftheuseofreasonmayweobserveinchildren,alongtimebeforetheyhaveany
knowledgeofthismaxim,Thatitisimpossibleforthesamethingtobeandnottobe?(ibid).Also,it
isobviousthatmayadultshavereachedthesocalledageofreason,suchastheilliterateandthosefrom
primitivesocieties,andyetlacktheseideas.Thesepeoplepassmanyyears,evenoftheirrationalage,
withouteverthinkingonthisandthelikegeneralpropositions.

SimpleandComplexIdeas
AccordingtoLocke,then,weshouldcompletelyrejectthetheoryofinnateideasandinsteadlookforthe
truesourceofourideaswithinhumanexperience.Hisbasicposition,whichencapsulatestheentire
empiricistapproach,isthatthemindisfrombirthablankslate(orsheetofwhitepaperinhiswords),
whichgetsfilledwithinformationthroughexperience.However,theprocessbywhichweformourideas
throughexperiencehastwomainsteps.Wefirstacquiresimpleideasthroughexperience,andthen
recombinethosesimpleideasindifferentwaystocreatemorecomplexideas.
Simpleideasarethebuildingblocksfromwhichallotherideasareformed,and,forLocke,there
aretwomainsourcesofsimpleideas.Thefirstandmostobvioussourceisthattheycomefrom
sensation,specificallyourfivesenseswhichgiveusperceptionsofcolors,tastes,smells,tactilesolidity.
Thecolorofblue,thetasteofsweetness,thetactilesensationofsmoothness,thesoundofahighpitched
squeakareallbasicsensoryexperiencesthatarebuildingbocksforourideasabouttheexternalworld.
Second,therearesimpleideasthatcometousthroughreflectingonourmentalprocessestheseareideas
ofreflection,orintrospectionaswenowcallthem.Icanshutmyeyesandthinkabouthowmymind
operates:howIperceivethingsthroughmysenses,howIthinkaboutproblems,howIdoubt
questionableideas,howIbelievereasonableideas,howIwilltoperformactions.AccordingtoLocke,
Thissourceofideaseverymanhaswhollyinhimselfandthoughitbenotsense,ashavingnothingto
dowithexternalobjects,yetitisverylikeit,andmightproperlyenoughbecalledinternalsense(ibid,
2.1.3).
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AccordingtoLocke,someofoursimpleideascomesolelythroughsensationwithoutany
introspectivereflection,suchasourperceptionsofcolors,soundsandsmells.Otherscomesolelythrough
introspectivereflection,suchasournotionsofperceptionsofthementalactsofthinkingandwilling.
Nothingthatweperceivethroughourfivesenseswillgiveusideasofthese.Thenthereisanespecially
interestinggroupofsimpleideasthatwecangeteitherthroughsensationorintrospectivereflection.
Pleasureandpainisagoodexample.Icanfeelphysicalpainthroughmysensesaswhenacandleflame
burnsmebutIcanalsoexperienceemotionalpaininmymindwhenalovedonedies.Anotherexample
isthenotionofcausalforce,orpoweras18thcenturyphilosopherscalledit.Throughmysenses,Isee
avolcanospewoutlavawithgreatcausalforce.ButthroughintrospectivereflectionIcanalso
experiencecausalforcewhenIreflectonmyownwillfuldecisions,suchaswhenIwilltoconjureupin
mymindtheideaofarock,atreeoraunicorn.Mywillitselfisacausalpower.Otherideasthatweget
throughbothsensationandreflectionareexistence,unity,andsuccession.
ForLocke,therearecountlesssimpleperceptionsthatfloodintoourmindsthroughsensationand
reflection,infactsomanythatwedontevenhavenamesformostofthem.Butaswestoretheseraw
simplenotionsinourmemories,ourmindsmechanicallyshufflethemaroundandcreatenewoneswhich
hecallscomplexideas.Therearethreespecificmentalprocessesthatformcomplexideas.First,someare
theresultofsimplycombiningtogethermoresimpleideas.Forexample,Icangetacomplexideaofan
applebyassemblingthesimpleideasofroundness,redness,sweetness,andmoistness.Second,some
complexideasinvolverelationsthatwegetfromcomparingtwothings,suchasthenotionsoflarger
andsmallerthatIgetwhencomparingtwoapplesofdifferentsizes.Third,therearecomplexideasthat
resultfromthementalprocessofabstraction,suchaswhenIarriveattheabstractnotionofroundness
bylookingatanappleandstrippingawayallofitsattributesexceptforitsbeinground.Asthemindthen
churnsoutcomplexideasfromsimpleones,thecomplexideaswillbeoftwotypes:ideasofsubstances
andideasofmodes.Ideasofsubstancesarethoseofindividualobjectssuchassuchasrocks,trees,
houses,animals,peopleandGod.Ideasofmodesareattributesofthoseobjectsthatcannotexist
independentlyofthem,suchasanapplesattributesofbeinground,crunchyandmoist.

PrimaryandSecondaryQualities
OneofLockesphilosophicalclaimstofameishisdevelopmentofthedistinctionbetweenprimaryand
secondaryqualitiesofobjects.Theissueinvolvesadistinctionbetweenqualitiesofobjectsthatactually
belongtotheobjectitself,andqualitiesofobjectsthatweimposeonthem.Suppose,forexample,thatI
madealistofthequalitiesthatIperceiveinanapple.Ithasaroundshape,redsurface,smoothtexture,
andasweettaste.Italsohasaparticularsizeandweight.Someofthesequalitiesarepartoftheobject
itself,andothersarequalitiesthatIamimposingontheapple.ForLocke,aprimaryqualityisan
attributeofthatisinseparableforaphysicalbody,andincludessolidity,shape,motion,number.These
arecomponentsthatanobjectretains,regardlessofhowwemightmodifytheobject,suchasbycuttingit
intopieces.Heillustratesthisbyconsideringchangesthatwemightimposeonagrainofwheat:

Takeagrainofwheat,divideitintotwopartseachparthasstillsolidity,extension,figure,and
mobility:divideitagain,anditretainsstillthesamequalitiesandsodivideiton,tilltheparts
becomeinsensibletheymustretainstilleachofthemallthosequalities.Fordivision(whichisall
thatamill,orpestle,oranyotherbody,doesuponanother,inreducingittoinsensibleparts)can
nevertakeawayeithersolidity,extension,figure,ormobilityfromanybody,butonlymakestwo
ormoredistinctseparatemassesofmatter,ofthatwhichwasbutonebeforeallwhichdistinct
masses,reckonedassomanydistinctbodies,afterdivision,makeacertainnumber.[Ibid,2.8.9]

Nomatterhowmuchwegrinddownthegrainofwheat,thepartsstillretainthequalitiesofsolidityand
shapewhichwereinherentintheoriginalgrain.
Incontrastwithprimaryqualities,therearealsosecondaryqualitiesthatarespectatordependent:
weimposetheattributesontoobjects,andtheseincludecolors,sounds,andtastes.Forexample,thereis
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somethingintheapplethatmakesitappearredtome,buttherednessitselfdoesnotresidewithinthe
applebutinsteadisafunctionofmysenseorgansandbiology.Thephenomenonofcolorblindnessis
ampleproofofthis:whilethestructureoftheappleitselfmighttriggertheperceptionofrednessinmy
mind,Ineedtohavetheappropriatelydesignedeyestohavethatperception.Sotoowithotherqualities
oftheappleliketasteandsmell:thespecificsensationsoftasteandsmelldirectlydependuponthe
constructionofmytongueandnose.
Lockeaddsthereisathirdtypeofqualityofobjectstertiaryqualitieswhichinvolvesthe
powerthatanobjecthastoproducenewideasorsensationsinus.Forexample,themeresightofan
applemayproduceafeelingofhungerwithinme.Beingnearafiremayproduceafeelingofwarmth
withinme.Perhapsthemaindifferencebetweensecondaryandtertiaryqualitiesisthatwithsecondary
onesweoftenimproperlymistakethemforprimaryattributesoftheobjectsthemselves.Forexample,I
mightjustassumethatanapplesrednessisactuallypartoftheapplewhen,uponreflection,Iwouldsee
thatitclearlyisnt.Withtertiaryqualities,though,wearelessapttomakethismistakeforexample,I
wouldneverpresumethatmyfeelingofhungerresidesintheappleitself.Aestheticfeelings,suchasthe
senseofbeautyIgetwhenviewingalandscape,mightalsobeincludedamongtertiaryqualities.

NaturalRightsandRevolution
Lockesempiricistviewsimmediatelyimpactedthedirectionofphilosophyforgenerationstocome,
particularlyinGreatBritain.AsinfluentialasLockewasinthisregard,however,hisimpactwaseven
greaterwithhispoliticalphilosophy.Eventoday,peoplearoundtheworldarefamiliarwiththeideathat
thefunctionofgovernmentsistoprotectourfreedoms,andcitizensaremorallyentitledtooverthrow
governmentswhentheyfailtoperformthattask.ThiswasLockesgreatpoliticalcontributiontothe
civilizedworld.PriortoLocke,thestandardviewofpoliticalauthoritywasapositioncalledthedivine
rightofkings.Thatis,politicalrulersareputinpowerbyGod,and,asGodsrepresentativesonearth,
wecanneverchallengetheirauthorityoverus.Lockewasstronglyopposedtothisnotion,inpart
becauseofhispersonalexperienceinEnglandwherethepeoplerecentlyoverthrewtheirdespoticking.
LockesupportedtheoverthrowandcomposedhisTwoTreatisesofGovernment(1690)tojustify
rebellionagainstbadrulers.
ThestartingpointforLockestheoryisthestateofnature,thatis,theconditionthathumanswere
inpriortothecreationofsocietiesandgovernments.ThomasHobbes,weveseen,believedthatthestate
ofnatureisaplaceofmoralchaos,wheremightmakesright,andeveryoneisperpetuallyatwarwith
everyoneelsetogaintheupperhand.Locke,though,isalittlemoreoptimisticthanHobbes.Yes,the
stateofnaturesometimescanbebrutal,buttherestillaremoralrulesthateveryonemustfollow.For
Locke,everyoneisbornwithfundamentalGodgivenrightsand,evenwithoutgovernments,wehavea
moralobligationtorespecteachothersrights.Thefourmainnaturalrightsarethoseoflife,health,
libertyandpossessions:

Thestateofnaturehasalawofnaturetogovernit,whichobligeseveryone:andreason,whichis
thatlaw,teachesallmankind,whowillbutconsultit,thatbeingallequalandindependent,noone
oughttoharmanotherinhislife,health,liberty,orpossessions.[TwoTreatises,2.6]

Whatifsomeonedoesviolatemyrightsbymuggingmeandtakingmywallet,forexample?Lockes
answeristhatIamentitledtopunishthemugger:everyonehasarighttopunishthetransgressorsof
thatlawtosuchadegree,asmayhinderitsviolation(ibid,2.7).Byviolatingmyrights,themuggerhas
therebyforfeitedallofhisownrights,includinghisrighttolife,andatthatpointIamfullyentitledto
hunthimdown,punishhim,andevenkillhimasIseefit.Thereasonforsuchaharshreprisalisthat,
whenthemuggerattacksmeheputsmeinapositionwhereImfullyunderhiscontrol,and,evenifhe
doesntkillme,Ihaveeveryreasontoassumethathemight.Themuggerhasthusdeclaredwaronme
and,atthatpoint,Ihavetherighttopunishhimbyanymeanswhatsoever.
Whileinthestateofnature,vigilantejusticeistheonlyrecoursewehavetoretaliateagainst
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attackers.Oncewecreateacivilsocietywithagovernment,however,allthatchanges.Following
Hobbes,Lockearguesthatwecreatesocietiesbyformingasocialcontractwitheachother:weagreeto
mutuallysetasideourhostilitiesinthenameofpreservingpeace.And,toassurethatweallfollowthe
rules,wesetupagovernmentthathastheauthoritytopunishanyonewhobreakstherulesandthereby
violatesourbasicrights.Thewholepointofestablishingsocietiesandgovernmentstobeginwithisto
preserveournaturalrights,particularly,Lockeargues,ourrighttopossessions:

Thereasonwhymenenterintosociety,isthepreservationoftheirproperty.Andtheendwhy
theychooseandauthorizealegislative,is,thattheremaybelawsmade,andrulesset,asguards
andfencestothepropertiesofallthemembersofthesociety,tolimitthepower,andmoderatethe
dominion,ofeverypartandmemberofthesociety.[ibid,222]

Whathappens,though,whengovernmentsfailattheirassignedtask,and,ratherthanprotecting
ourrightstheyunderminethem?Lockespecificallyhasinmindasituationinwhichthegovernment
unjustlytakespeoplespropertyandreducesthemtoslaveryunderarbitrarypower(ibid,222).His
answeristhatwearethrownbackintoastateofwar,thistimeawarwithourgovernment.Byviolating
ourrights,thegovernmenthasforfeiteditsauthorityoverus,andwearefullyentitledtoremovethe
offendinggovernmentandsetupabetterone:

bythisbreachoftrusttheyforfeitthepowerthepeoplehadputintotheirhandsforquitecontrary
ends,anditdevolvestothepeople,whohavearighttoresumetheiroriginalliberty,and,bythe
establishmentofanewlegislative,(suchastheyshallthinkfit)providefortheirownsafetyand
security,whichistheendforwhichtheyareinsociety.[Ibid,222]

Asnecessaryasgovernmentsareforassuringthatindividualcitizensrespecteachothersrights,the
governmentitselfhasaresponsibilitytoupholditspartofthesocialcontractifitfailsinthatregard,
societyisentitledtodowhatsnecessarytoremoveitevenstartafullfledgedrevolution.Ifitcomesto
that,accordingtoLocke,theblamelieswiththegovernment,notwiththerevolutionaries.
Lockesjustificationforrevolutionwasquiteradicalinhistime,especiallywhenother
philosopherswerearguingthatgovernmentshaveabsoluteauthorityovercitizensthroughadivineright
ofkings,andcanneverbeoverthrown.Withinamatterofdecades,Lockesrationalewasadoptedby
revolutionarymovementsinbothAmericaandFrance,asweseespecificallyinthisfamousopeningto
theU.S.DeclarationofIndependence,pennedbyThomasJefferson:

Weholdthesetruthstobeselfevident,thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedby
theircreatorwithcertainunalienablerights,thatamongthesearelife,libertyandthepursuitof
happiness.Thattosecuretheserights,governmentsareinstitutedamongmen,derivingtheir
justpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned,thatwheneveranyformofgovernmentbecomes
destructiveoftheseends,itistherightofthepeopletoalterortoabolishit,andtoinstitutenew
government,layingitsfoundationonsuchprinciplesandorganizingitspowersinsuchform,asto
themshallseemmostlikelytoeffecttheirsafetyandhappiness.

Locke,weveseen,stressedthatrevolutionisjustifiedparticularlywhengovernmentsviolateour
propertyrights.Jefferson,though,deemphasizesourpropertyrightsandimpliesthatthegovernmental
violationofanyofourfundamentalnaturalrightsmayjustifyrevolution.

B.BERKELEY
ThesecondmajorfigureinBritishEmpiricismwasGeorgeBerkeley(16851753).Bornintoa
moderatelywealthyfamilynearKilkenny,Ireland,hisfatherwasacustomsofficerwhomigratedthere
fromEngland.BerkeleyreceivedhisB.A.andM.A.degreesfromTrinityCollege,Dublin,andtaught
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thereforsomeyears.Stillinhistwentieshe,hewrotehistwomainphilosophicalworks,uponwhichhis
fametodayrests:ATreatiseconcerningthePrinciplesofHumanKnowledge(1710)andThreeDialogues
betweenHylasandPhilonous(1713).InhisthirtieshewasordainedintotheAnglicanChurchofIreland
andreceivedisDoctorofDivinitydegree.Shortlyafter,hedevisedaplantoestablishacollegeinthe
BermudaIslandstotrainministersandmissionariesforthecolonies.HetraveledtoRhodeIslandto
preparefortheproject,butafterthreeyearsabandoneditwhengovernmentalfundingforitnevercame
through.HethendonatedlandandbookstothenewlyfoundedYaleCollegeandreturnedtoIreland.
BackhomehewasappointedBishopofCloyneinsouthIreland,apositionthatheretainedformostof
theremainderofhislife.Berkeleysfamegrewwithhismanypublications,oneofthemostunusualof
whichwasaworkcalledSiris(1744),whichdetailsthemedicalbenefitsoftarwater,whichhelearned
fromNativeAmericansyearsearlier.Hediedofastrokeatage67.

Idealism:NoMaterialObjects
TheheartofBerkeleysphilosophyishistheoryofidealism:materialthingsdonotexist,andallreality
existsasperceptionswithinthemindsofspirits.Thetermidealismcomesfromthewordideainsofar
astheonlythingsthatexistareideasinonesmind.Inthatsense,atermlikeideaismmighthave
betterconveyeditsmeaning.AgoodwayofunderstandingBerkeleyspositionistoseeitastaking
Descartesevilgeniushypothesisseriously.ConsideragainwhatDescartessuggested.ForallIknow,
thereisnomaterialworldwhatsoever,andallofmyexperiencesarehallucinationsthatareimposedinto
mymindbyanevilgenius.ItmightappearthatIhaveabodyandamsittingonachair,butitcouldbe
thatthereisnothreedimensionalworldatall,andanevilgeniusisjustmakingthosethingsappearin
mymind,whilemyminditselffloatsaroundwithoutanybody.Descartes,wenoted,didnotactually
believethishypothesis,butonlyproposeditasastrategyforarrivingatcertaintyabouttheworldaround
us.Berkeley,however,doestakethisscenarioseriously,althoughherejectsthatthereisanythingsinister
ordeceptiveaboutit.ThisissimplythewaythatGodconstructedtheworld:itisavirtualrealitythat
consistsofGodcontinuallyfeedingourspiritmindssensoryinformationinaveryconsistentway.
KeyhereforBerkeleyistheregularityandconsistencywithwhichGodfeedsourmindssensory
data.Godstoresallsensibleperceptionsinhismindinsomethinglikeamasterdatabaseandhefeeds
themtousattheappropriatetime.ImaginethatIperceivemyselftobeinaroomconversingwithfive
friends.ForBerkeley,therealityisthatIandfiveotherspiritmindsarebeingconsistentlyfedsimilar
sensedatabyGod.Drawingfromhismasterdatabaseofperceptions,Godfeedsusallsensedataof
walls,tablesandchairswithintheroom.IdecidetospeaktomyfriendsandsayDidyouhearthe
Presidentsspeechlistnight?Drawingagainfromhismasterdatabaseofperceptions,Godthen
interjectssensorydataintoallofourmindsthatportraytheimageofmymouthmovingwithaudible
wordscomingout.OneofmyfriendsdecidestorespondandsayThePresidentsspeechwasaninsult
totheintelligenceofeveryoneinthiscountry!AnotherfrienddecidestosayIdisagree,andthinkthe
Presidentproperlyaddressedtheconcernsofthenation.Ineachcase,Godreadsthethoughtsofmy
friendsandinterjectssensorydataintoallofourminds,thusportrayingthemspeaking.Whenweredone
conversing,wedecidetogetupandleavetheroom.Wemightthenaskwhathappenstotheemptyroom
sinceGodisnolongerfeedingussenseperceptionsofit.Doestheroomgooutofexistence?According
toBerkeley,noitdoesnot:Godhimselfisstillperceivingthesensoryinformationabouttheroomandit
continuestoexistinhismind.Indeed,Godcontinuallymonitorshismasterdatabaseofperceptions,and
thuskeepstheperceptionsactive.Berkeleyexpressesthispointwiththeidealistmottothattobeistobe
perceived.Thatis,externalthingsexistonlyinourmindsorinGodsmind.
Onfacevalue,theidealistpositionofdenyingmaterialobjectsseemsridiculous.Thevast
majorityofusbelievethatweliveinaworldofmaterialobjectsthatincludesphysicalthingslikerocks,
houses,chairs,andourownbodies.Berkeley,though,takestheoppositeview:itisbeliefintheexistence
ofmaterialobjectsthatisridiculous.Hewrites,

Itisindeedanopinionstrangelyprevailingamongstmen,thathouses,mountains,rivers,andina
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wordallsensibleobjects,haveanexistence,naturalorreal,distinctfromtheirbeingperceivedby
theunderstanding.But,withhowgreatanassuranceandacquiescencesoeverthisprinciplemay
beentertainedintheworld,yetwhoevershallfindinhishearttocallitinquestionmay,ifI
mistakenot,perceiveittoinvolveamanifestcontradiction.For,whataretheforementioned
objectsbutthethingsweperceivebysense?andwhatdoweperceivebesidesourownideasor
sensations?andisitnotplainlyrepugnantthatanyoneofthese,oranycombinationofthem,
shouldexistunperceived?[Principles,4]

HispointisthatwhenIperceivesomethinglikeatable,Imnotreallyexperiencinganyphysicalthing,
butinsteadImonlyreceivingsensations.ThissensorydataisallthatIreallyknow,anditisacolossal
fabricationtoassumethatsomephysicalthingisthesourceofmyperceptionsofthetable.Berkeley
recognizesthatthereisindeedsomeexternalsourceofmyperceptionofthetable,butthatsourceisGod,
notsomemysteriousphysicalstuff.Sonaturalisthisposition,heargues,thatitisbackedbycommon
sense:

Iamcontent...toappealtothecommonsenseoftheworldforthetruthofmynotion.Askthe
gardenerwhyhethinksyondercherrytreeexistsinthegarden,andheshalltellyou,becausehe
seesandfeelsitinaword,becauseheperceivesitbyhissenses.Askhimwhyhethinksan
orangetreenottobethere,andheshalltellyou,becausehedoesnotperceiveit.Whathe
perceivesbysense,thathetermsareal,being,andsaysitisorexistsbut,thatwhichisnot
perceivable,thesame,hesays,hasnobeing....Thequestionbetweenthematerialistsandmeis
not,whetherthingshavearealexistenceoutofthemindofthisorthatperson,butwhetherthey
haveanabsoluteexistence,distinctfrombeingperceivedbyGod,andexteriortoallminds.
[Dialogues,3]

BerkeleyisclassifiedasanempiricistphilosopheralongwithLocke.How,though,canBerkeleybean
empiricistifhedoesntbelieveinmaterialobjects?Theansweristhatthecentralpointofempiricism
involvesgainingknowledgethroughthesenses,ratherthanthroughinnateideas.AndBerkeley
wholeheartedlybelievesthatwedoacquireallofourknowledgethroughsenseperception.Theonly
issueinvolveswhatthesourceisofthosesenseperceptions.WhereasLockebelievedthatmaterial
objectsfeedussensoryinformation,BerkeleybelievedthatGodperformsthatrole,notmaterialthings.

ArgumentsagainstMaterialObjects
Asalwayswithphilosophy,itsonethingtosimplyproposeatheory,butquiteanothertoproveit.
Berkeleyrisestotheoccasion,though,offeringanabundanceofargumentsforhisposition.Welllookat
thetwomostcompellingofthese.Thefirstishisargumentfromprimaryandsecondaryqualities.
AccordingtoLocke,thefundamentaldifferencebetweenthetwotypesofqualitiesiswhethertheyare
spectatordependent.Primaryones,suchasshape,motionandsolidity,arepartoftheexternalthings
themselvesandnotspectatordependent,whereassecondaryonessuchascolors,soundsandtastesare
notpartofexternalthingsandarespectatordependent.OnLockesview,primaryqualitiesinvolvethe
fundamentalnatureofexternalthings:theyarethreedimensional,havesolidity,andmovearoundina
threedimensionalarea.Tobelieveinexternalmaterialobjects,then,requiresacommitmenttothereality
ofprimaryqualitiesthatexistinthings,independentlyofwhataspectatormightperceive.Berkeley
deniesthatthereareanyprimaryqualitiesofobjectsinthissense,andhearguesinsteadthatallsocalled
primaryqualitiesarejustasspectatordependentassecondaryones.Inotherwords,allqualitiesof
objectsarereallysecondaryandthusspectatordependent.Hismainargumentishere:

Theywhoassertthatfigure,motion,andtherestoftheprimaryororiginalqualitiesdoexist
withoutthemindinunthinkingsubstances,doatthesametimeacknowledgethatcolors,sounds,
heatcold,andsuchlikesecondaryqualities,donotwhichtheytellusaresensationsexistingin
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themindalone,thatdependonandareoccasionedbythedifferentsize,texture,andmotionofthe
minuteparticlesofmatter.Thistheytakeforanundoubtedtruth,whichtheycandemonstrate
beyondallexception.Now,ifitbecertainthatthoseoriginal[primary]qualitiesareinseparably
unitedwiththeothersensible[secondary]qualities,andnot,eveninthought,capableofbeing
abstractedfromthem,itplainlyfollowsthattheyexistonlyinthemind.ButIdesireanyoneto
reflectandtrywhetherhecan,byanyabstractionofthought,conceivetheextensionandmotion
ofabodywithoutallothersensiblequalities.Formyownpart,Iseeevidentlythatitisnotinmy
powertoframeanideaofabodyextendedandmoving,butImustwithalgiveitsomecoloror
othersensiblequalitywhichisacknowledgedtoexistonlyinthemind.[Principles,10]

Hismainpointisthatsocalledprimaryqualitiesarenothingbeyondthesecondaryqualitiesthatwe
perceiveinthings.Visualperceptionsofshape,forexample,arejustpatchesofcolor,whichare
secondary.
Tomakehiscase,Berkeleyexaminesseveralsocalledprimaryqualitiesandexplainswitheach
onehowitisspectatordependent.Take,forexample,thequalityofextension,thatis,threedimensional
shape.Ourconceptionsofanobjectsshapehingedirectlyontheperspectiveofthespectator.Thelegof
abug,forexample,appearsexceedinglysmalltoustothebugitselfitwouldappeartobeamedium
sizedthing,yettoaneventiniermicroscopicorganismitwouldappeartobehuge.Thetextureofan
objectsimilarlyhingesontheperspectivefromwhichweexamineit.Fromadistancebugslegmight
appeartobesmooththroughamicroscopeitmightappeartobequitecoarse.Thepointisthat
everythingthatweknowaboutshapedependsuponwherewestandinrelationtothethingsthatweare
perceivingthus,allnotionsofshapearespectatordependent.Thesocalledprimaryqualityofmotionis
alsorelativetotheperceiver.Imagine,forexample,thataleafisfallingfromatreedirectlyinfrontofa
hummingbird,ahuman,andasloth.Howwouldeachofthesecreaturesperceivetheleafsmotion?To
thehummingbirdtheleafsmotionmightappeartobesoslowastobealmostfrozenintime.Tothe
humanitwouldappeartobemovingatanormalpace.Totheslothitmightappearexceedinglyrapid.
AccordingtoBerkeley,speedandtimearemeasuredbythesuccessionofideasinourminds,which
variesindifferentperceivers.
Berkeleyssecondargumentagainstmaterialobjectsisbasedontheprincipleofsimplicity:there
isnorealneedforthematerialobjects,hencewouldbeauselesscreation.Everythingweneedto
perceivesensiblequalitiesisaccountedformoreefficientlythroughidealism:Goddirectlyfeedsus
sensoryinformationwithoutcreatingthematerialworldasauselessmiddleman.Hewrites,

Ifthereforeitwerepossibleforbodiestoexistwithoutthemind,yettoholdtheydoso,must
needsbeaveryprecariousopinionsinceitistosuppose,withoutanyreasonatall,thatGodhas
createdinnumerablebeingsthatareentirelyuseless,andservetonomannerofpurpose.
[Principles,19]

Intheory,wemightthinkthatGodcouldhavecreatedthematerialworldasamiddlemanifhewantedto,
sortofasaninstrumenttoaccomplishthetask.Buteventhat,accordingtoBerkeley,isinconsistentwith
Godsnature.Instrumentsareusedonlywhenthereisaneed.AhammerisausefulinstrumentsinceI
canteffectivelypoundinanailwithmybarehands.MyglassesareausefulinstrumentsinceIcantsee
verywellwithoutthem.However,God,whohasinfinitepowers,hasnoneedsandthushasnouseofany
instrumentthatmighthelphimaccomplishsometask.Berkeleywrites:

Weindeed,whoarebeingsoffinitepowers,areforcedtomakeuseofinstruments.Andtheuseof
aninstrumentshowstheagenttobelimitedbyrulesofanothersprescription,andthathecannot
obtainhisendbutinsuchaway,andbysuchconditions.Whenceitseemsaclearconsequence,
thatthesupremeunlimitedagentusesnotoolorinstrumentatall.[Dialogues,2]

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Thus,Godisperfectlycapableoffeedingussensoryinformationdirectlywithouttheneedforhimto
createthematerialworldasacrutch.

Godandevil
ReconcilingGodsexistencewiththepresenceofevilintheworldhasbeenacentralconcernamong
philosopherssinceatleastthetimeofAugustine.WhywouldanallgoodGodpermittheenormous
amountofsufferingthatweseeintheworldaroundus?TheproblemisespeciallyacuteforBerkeleys
theorysinceGodnotonlypermitssuffering,buthealsoseemstobetheoriginatorofsufferingashe
injectsallexternalsensoryinformationintoourminds.ImagineagainthatIperceivemyselftobeina
roomconversingwithfivefriendsaboutthePresidentsspeech.Allofmyperceptionsoftheroomitself
areimplanteddirectlyintomymindbyGodthedialoguethatImhavingwithmyfriendsalsodepends
uponGodfeedingeachofussensationsofourvoicesandbodilyimages.Supposethatourpolitical
conversationbecomesheated,afighteruptsandinafitofangermyfriendthrowsmeoutthewindow
myspineisbrokenandImparalyzedforlifefrommyneckdown.LetsnowseewhatGodsrolewasin
thistragedy.First,heenabledthecontroversybymediatingthesensoryinformationofthedialogue.
Whenthingsbecameheated,hecouldhavejustcutofftheflowofperceptions.Second,since,according
toBerkeleystheory,Ihavenophysicalbody,GodaloneisthesourceofwhateverphysicalpainI
experiencefrommysocalledphysicalinjury.Third,Godisdirectlyresponsibleforwhatever
continuedincapacityIhaveasaquadriplegic.GoddecidestoshutoffallperceptionsImighthaveof
bodilymovementandsensationinmyarmsandlegs,andImstuckwiththatforlife.WhileIandmy
friendsarecertainlymorallyresponsibleforourrespectiveroles,Godisneverthelessanactive
participantandconspiratorinhowIamaffected.
Berkeleyhastworesponsestothiscriticism.First,hearguesthattheproblemwithGodandevil
isnomoreseverewithhisidealisttheorythanitisforthosewhobelieveintheexistenceofmatter.In
bothcases,Godisactivelyinvolvedinsustainingaworldthatincludesimmoralityandsuffering.Ifa
materialworlddoesexist,thenitwouldjustbeaninstrumentinGodshands,andapersonisjustas
morallyresponsiblewhetherornotheusedaninstrument.Hewrites,

theimputationofguiltisthesame,whetherapersoncommitsanactionwithorwithoutan
instrument.IncasethereforeyousupposeGodtoactbythemediationofaninstrumentor
occasion,calledmatter,youastrulymakeHimtheauthorofsinasI,whothinkHimthe
immediateagentinallthoseoperationsvulgarlyascribedtoNature.[Dialogues,3]

Technically,thisresponsedoesnotattempttosolvetheproblemofGodandevil,butonlymaintainsthat
thereisnoextraproblemaddedtothesituationbyendorsingBerkeleysidealism.
Berkeleyssecondresponse,though,doesattempttosolvetheprobleminamorepositiveway.
AccordingtoBerkeley,evildoesnotconsistofoutwardactions,butinwardattitudes:

Ifartherobservethatsinormoralturpitudedoesnotconsistintheoutwardphysicalactionor
motion,butintheinternaldeviationofthewillfromthelawsofreasonandreligion.Thisisplain,
inthatthekillinganenemyinabattle,orputtingacriminallegallytodeath,isnotthoughtsinful
thoughtheoutwardactbetheverysamewiththatinthecaseofmurder.Since,therefore,sindoes
notconsistinthephysicalaction,themakingGodanimmediatecauseofallsuchactionsisnot
makingHimtheAuthorofsin.[Dialogues,ibid]

Thus,whenGodfeedsussensoryinformationthatinvolvesimmoralityorispainful,hismotivesare
pure.Itisasthoughheisperformingtheroleofamessengerordeliveryservicesometimesthe
informationisgood,sometimesnotsogood.Butweshouldntblamethemessengerwhenwedontlike
whathedelivers.Ultimatelythefaultrestswiththepersonwhoinitiallysentthemessage,notdelivered
it.Withthepresentexample,thefaultrestssolelywithmeandmyfriends.
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C.HUME
ThelastofthegreatBritishempiricistswasDavidHume(17111776),whopushedempiricismtoits
skepticalconclusions.HumewasbornnearEdinburgh,Scotlandintoamoderatelywealthyfamily,but
thebulkofthefamilyfortunewenttoHumesolderbrotheraftertheirfatherdied,thusforcingHumeto
befrugalforsomedecades.Educatedinlawathisfamilysdirection,hequicklyabandonedthatcareer
anddevotedhimselftothestudyofphilosophy.InhisteenswrestledwiththequestionofGods
existence,balancingtheargumentsonbothsides,andsoonrejectedthenotionofanallpowerfuldivine
being.Inhisearlytwentieshewrotethemanuscriptofhismostimportantwork,ATreatiseofHuman
Nature(17391740).ToHumesdisappointment,itreceivedlittleattention,andthediscussionthatitdid
generatewashighlycritical.Blamingitsfailureontheworkstechnicalstyle,herewroteandpublished
portionsofitinamorereaderfriendlyformat.Humehopedtoworkasaphilosophyteacheratoneof
Edinburghsuniversities,buttheskepticalandantireligiousnatureofhiswritingspoisonedhisefforts,
andinsteadhetookontemporaryjobsingovernmentandasalibrarian.Withasteadyflowof
publications,branchingoutintohistoryaswellasphilosophy,byhismidfortieshebecameoneofthe
mostfamousandcontroversialauthorsinEurope.Hiswealthgrewwithhisfame.Inspiteofthe
skepticaltoneofhiswritings,Humewasacheerfulpersonandenjoyedsocializingwithpeopleatall
levelsofsociety.Thoughhenevermarried,hewaswellreceivedbymodestwomenashewordsitin
hisautobiography.OneofhisfriendswasthecontroversialFrenchauthorJeanJacqueRousseau,who
tookpoliticalrefugeinHumeshomeforashorttime.Rousseauhadmentalproblems,though,and,
turningonhisgeneroushost,hepubliclyaccusedHumeoftryingtosabotagehisreputation.Theevent
turnedintoaninternationalscandal,andthetwoneverreconciled.Humediedatage65fromadigestive
disorderthatlingeredforayearandlefthimemaciated.Onhisdeathbed,crowdsofpeoplegathered
aroundhisEdinburghhome,curioustoknowwhetherhewouldrepentofhisirreligion.Heheldfirmin
hisdisbelief,and,infact,oneofhisfinalactswastoplanfortheposthumouspublicationofhismost
antireligiouswriting,whichhefeltwastoocontroversialtoappearinprintwhilehewasalive.

OriginofandAssociationofIdeas
Inhisownday,asnow,Humehadanotoriousreputationasaskepticalphilosopher,andinmanywayshe
carriedontheskepticaltraditionforgedinancientGreece.MuchofHumesskepticism,though,results
frompushingtheempiricistagendatoitslogicalconclusion.Therearetwomainbuildingblocksupon
whichhisempiricistphilosophyisfounded.Thefirstoftheseconcernstheoriginofideas.Thoughtsand
ideasflowthroughourmindsendlesslyideasofpeople,houses,musicconcerts,scientificdiscoveries,
God,onandon.Wheredotheyallcomefrom?Humesansweristhatallofourideascomefromtwo
typesofexperiences,orimpressionsashecallsthem:(1)outwardimpressionsthroughourfivesenses
and(2)inwardimpressionsthroughreflectiononourmentaloperations.Forexample,theideaIhaveof
thecolorredultimatelycamefromsomeoutwardsensoryexperiencethatIhadofthecolorredthatwas
storedinmymemory.TheideaIhaveoffearsimilarlycamefromaninwardfeelingoffearthatI
experiencedinthepast.Hewrites,

thoughourthoughtseemstopossessthisunboundedliberty,weshallfind,uponanearer
examination,thatitisreallyconfinedwithinverynarrowlimits....Whenwethinkofagolden
mountain,weonlyjointwoconsistentideas,gold,andmountain,withwhichwewereformerly
acquainted....Inshort,allthematerialsofthinkingarederivedeitherfromouroutwardor
inwardsentiment:Themixtureandcompositionofthesebelongsalonetothemindandwill.Or,
toexpressmyselfinphilosophicallanguage,allourideasormorefeebleperceptionsarecopiesof
ourimpressionsormorelivelyones.[Enquiry,2]

Humeofferstwoproofsforhispositionthatallideasarecopiedfromimpressions.First,hesaysthatif
youtakeanyideayouhaveandexamineitscomponents,youllfindthatittracesbacktooutwardor
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inwardoneormoresensoryexperienceorinwardfeeling.Second,hesaysthat,ifyougoyourentirelife
withouthavingaparticulartypeofsensation,thenyouwouldlackthecorrespondingideaofthat
sensation.Forexample,ablindmancanformnonotionofcolors.
Onfacevalue,Humesviewisinnocentenough,andheseemstojustbereiteratingLockes
positionthatexperienceisthesourceofallourmentalcontents.WhatHumedoeswiththis,though,is
quiteradicalinsofarashetransformsitintoatheoryofmeaning.Formyideastohaveanymeaning,they
mustbegroundedinsomeimpressionthatIvehad.Anideaismeaningless,then,ifIcannottraceitback
toanyimpression.Hewrites,

Whenweentertain,therefore,anysuspicionthataphilosophicaltermisemployedwithoutany
meaningoridea(asisbuttoofrequent),weneedbutenquire,fromwhatimpressionisthat
supposedideaderived?Andifitbeimpossibletoassignany,thiswillservetoconfirmour
suspicion.Bybringingideasintosoclearalightwemayreasonablyhopetoremovealldispute,
whichmayarise,concerningtheirnatureandreality.[Ibid]

Forexample,ifIhaveanideaofanallpowerfuldivinebeing,butIveneverhadanyimpressionof
somethingthatisallpowerfulordivine,thenmyideaiswithoutmeaning.WhateverIideaIdohaveof
GodregardlessofwhetherGodevenexistsitmustbegroundedinimpressionsthatIvehad.Itisthis
theoryofmeaningthatleadsHumedownthepathofskepticismasheexploresonephilosophicaltheory
afteranother.Infact,hebelievesthatmuchoftraditionalphilosophyandreligioncanbedismissedas
meaninglesssinceitfailsthistest.
ThesecondbuildingblockofHumesempiricismishistheoryoftheassociationofideas.
SupposethatIsitdownonacouchandletmymindwanderwhereitwill.IthinkaboutthePresident,
thenJapan,thenmycar,thenatelephonepole,thenarailroadtrack,thenanoldapartmentIlivedin.Itis
temptingtothinkthatIamconjuringuptheseideasspontaneouslywithoutanyorganizationbehindthem.
Notso,Humeargues.Ourflowofideasisconnectedtogetherbythreeprinciplesofassociation.Firstis
resemblance,whereonethoughtleadstoanotherbecauseofresemblingfeaturesthattheyhave.For
example,ifIlookataphotographofafriend,Illstartthinkingaboutthatfriend.Secondiscontiguity,
thatis,onethingbeingincloseproximitytoanother.Forexample,ifsomeonesayssomethingabouta
storeinashoppingmall,Imightthenthinkaboutthestorelocatednexttoit.Thirdiscauseandeffect.
Forexample,ifIlookatascaronmyarm,IimmediatelystartthinkingabouttheaccidentIhadthat
causedmetogetthescar.Thesethreeprinciplesalone,accordingtoHume,areresponsibleforallmental
associationthatourmindsmakeinthenormalflowofideas.Withtheaboveexample,mythoughtabout
thePresidentleadsmetothinkaboutJapansinceherecentlyvisitedthere(contiguity)Japaniswhere
mycarwasbuilt(causality)mycarisparkednexttoatelephonepole(contiguity)thetelephonepoleis
coveredwiththesamekindofblacktarthatsonrailroadties(resemblance)myoldapartmentwasalong
sidearailroadtrack(contiguity).HumesaysthatThemoreinstancesweexamine,andthemorecarewe
employ,themoreassuranceshallweacquire,thattheenumeration,whichweformfromthewhole,is
completeandentire(Enquiry,3).

PersonalIdentityandCausality
Humesskepticismemergesquiteclearlywithhistreatmentoftwophilosophicalnotions,namely
personalidentityandcausality.Inbothofthesecaseshisskepticalconclusionsarisefromapplyingthe
theoryofmeaningdescribedabove.Ifthetraditionalideasofcausalityandpersonalidentityaretobe
meaningful,thenwemustbeabletotracethoseideasbacktosomeimpression.Ineachcase,though,
thereareproblemslocatinganimpressionthatissuitableforformingtheseideas.
Letsstartwiththeideaofpersonalidentity.Thetraditionalnotionofpersonalidentityheldby
Descartesandotherphilosophersisthatitisasingle,unifiedsubstancethatcontinuesthroughtime.On
thisview,Iamasingleconsciousentity,and,eventhoughmyspecificthoughtschange,myidentity
remainsintactthroughouttime,andperhapsevenintotheafterlife.ThecriticalquestionforHume,then,
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iswhatimpressionisthebasisofthistraditionalideaofpersonalidentity?Hisskepticalansweristhat
wehavenoactualexperienceorinternalimpressionofaunified,continuousselfthusthetraditional
notionofpersonalidentityismeaningless.IfIintrospectivelyexaminetheactualexperienceIhaveofmy
identity,Illdiscoverthatitconsistsonlyofvariousperceptionsthatcomeandgo,suchasfeelingsof
heatorcold.Hewrites,

Formypart,whenIentermostintimatelyintowhatIcallmyself,Ialwaysstumbleonsome
particularperceptionorother,ofheatorcold,lightorshade,loveorhatred,painorpleasure.I
nevercancatchmyselfatanytimewithoutaperception,andnevercanobserveanythingbutthe
perception....Themindisakindoftheatre,whereseveralperceptionssuccessivelymaketheir
appearancepass,repass,glideaway,andmingleinaninfinitevarietyofposturesandsituations.
Thereisproperlynosimplicityinitatonetime,noridentityindifferent....[Treatise,1.4.6]

Thus,theinwardimpressionthatIhaveofmyidentityisthatofanevershiftingbundleofperceptions,
andthisistheimpressionthatmustformthebasisofmytruenotionofpersonalidentity.
Humeanalyzesthetraditionalnotionofcausalityinthesameway,firstattemptingtodiscover
someimpressionthatformstheidea,thenabandoningthetraditionalnotionwhentheappropriate
impressioncantbefound.Letsbeginwithasimpleexampleofacauseeffectconnection,whichHume
himselfuses:billiardballAstrikesbilliardballBandcausesittomove.Thetraditionalnotionof
causalityisthatthereisanexternalpowerorforcethatcausesballAtostrikeandmoveballB,
independentlyofwhatyouorImightperceivewhenwewatchtheballsmove.Thinkofitlikean
invisibleexplosionthatoccurswhenAstrikesBandforcesittomove.Thatis,thereisanobjective
necessaryconnectionbetweenthecauseandeffect.ApplyingHumestheoryofmeaning,forthisideaof
necessaryconnectiontobemeaningful,weneedtodiscovertheimpressionwhichformsthebasisofit.
Onepossibilityisthatweperceiveanoutwardimpressionthroughourfivesensesthatformsthe
ideaofanobjectivenecessaryconnection.Butdowe?SupposethatwhenballAstruckballB,it
producedaflashoflightandaloudboom,and,infact,thateverycausalconnectionwesawwas
similarlyaccompaniedbyalightflashandaboom.Ifthatwasthecase,then,yes,wewouldhaveavery
strongoutwardimpressionthatwouldgiveustheideaofanobjectivenecessaryconnection.Butthats
notwhathappens.WhenAstrikesandmovesB,allthatappearstooureyesisthemotionoftwoballs,
andthatsit.Hewrites,

Whenwelookaboutustowardsexternalobjects,andconsidertheoperationofcauses,weare
neverable,inasingleinstance,todiscoveranypowerornecessaryconnectionanyquality,
whichbindstheeffecttothecause,andrenderstheoneaninfallibleconsequenceoftheother.We
onlyfind,thattheonedoesactually,infact,followtheother.Theimpulseofonebilliardballis
attendedwithmotioninthesecond.Thisisthewholethatappearstotheoutwardsenses.
[Enquiry,7]

Henextconsiderswhetherthereisanyinwardimpressionthatformstheideaofnecessaryconnection.
Lockehadsuggestedonepossibility:weexperienceafeelingofcausalpowerwhenwewillfullymove
partsofourbodies,suchaswhenIraisemyarm.Herewehaveacausalsequencewherethecauseismy
mentaldecisionandtheeffectistheraisingofmyarm.Sincethecausalsequenceistakingplacewithin
myownmind,Iamthuscapableofdirectlyexperiencingafeelingofcausalpowerornecessary
connectionwhenIwillfullyraisemyarm.ButHumerejectsthisaswell,sincewedonthaveaclear
experienceofhoworwheresuchwillfulbodilymotiontakesplace.Indeed,Idomentallyexperiencemy
willfuldecision(thecause)andIdoseeandfeelmyarmmove(theeffect),butIdontexperience
anythingthatlinksthem.Idontfeelaspecialelectricalshockoranythinguniquetothenecessary
connectionbyitself.
Intheabsenceofanappropriateoutwardorinwardimpression,wemustthenrejectthetraditional
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notionofnecessaryconnectionasanobjectiveforceorinvisibleexplosion.Hesuggestsanalternative,
though.Thereisamoremoderatenotionofnecessaryconnectionthatcomesfromaninwardfeelingof
expectationthatoccurswhenwerepeatedlyseeAfollowedbyB.Consideragaintheexampleofbilliard
balls:itisonlyafterrepeatedlyseeingballAmoveBthatourmindsfeelatransitionfromthecauseto
theeffect.Hewrites,

Thefirsttimeamansawthecommunicationofmotionbyimpulse,asbytheshockoftwobilliard
balls,hecouldnotpronouncethattheoneeventwasconnected:Butonlythatitwasconjoined
withtheother.Afterhehasobservedseveralinstancesofthisnature,hethenpronouncesthemto
beconnected.Whatalterationhashappenedtogiverisetothisnewideaofconnection?Nothing
butthathenowfeelstheseeventstobeconnectedinhisimagination,andcanreadilyforetellthe
existenceofonefromtheappearanceoftheother.[Ibid]

Intheend,Humedoesnotcompletelyrejecttheideaofnecessaryconnectionandcausality.Buthedoes
rejectthetraditionalideaofitbeingsomethinglikeaprimaryqualitywithinobjectsthemselves.Instead,
hesuggeststhatnecessaryconnectionislikeasecondaryqualitythatwespectatorsimposeontoAB
sequenceswhenwerepeatedlyseeAandBconjoined.Itsjustahabitofourminds,notarealityinthe
objectsthemselves.

BeliefinMiracles
OneofHumeslifelonggoalswastohelpridtheworldofreligioussuperstitionandfanaticism,and
nowhereisthisbetterseenthanwithhisattackonthebeliefinmiracles.Toproperlyunderstandexactly
whatHumeiscriticizing,threethingsneedtobeclarified.First,Humeasinmindaveryprecisenotion
ofthetermmiracle,whichisthatitisaviolationofalawofnature.Itisnotsimplyanunusualevent
thatoccursatjusttherightmoment,suchasifImsavedfromdrowningbygrabbingontoavinethatjust
happenstobehangingfromatreewithinmyreach.Rather,itmustbreaksomelawofnature,suchasif
myarmgetschoppedoffandanewoneinstantlyappears.Second,Humefocusesspecificallyonreports
ofmiraclesstoriesaboutmiraclesthatwehearaboutfromotherpeopleorreadaboutinbookssuchas
theBible.Hedoesnotconsidermiraclesthatwemightdirectlywitnessourselves.Third,Humefocuses
onwhetheritisreasonableforustobelievereportsofmiracles,notwhetherthemiraculousevent
actuallytookplace.Itisimpossibleforustogobackintimeandprovewithabsolutecertaintywhether
anyreportedmiraclewasgenuine.Thebestwecandoisconsiderwhethertheevidenceinsupportofa
miraclereportiscompellingenoughforustobelievethereport.Humespreciseposition,then,isthatit
isneverreasonabletobelievereportsofviolationsoflawsofnature.
Humeoffersaseriesofargumentsagainstbeliefinmiracles,buthismainoneisthis:itisnever
reasonabletobelieveinreportsofmiraclessincethosereportswillalwaysbeoutweighedbystronger
evidenceforconsistentlawsofnature.Suppose,forexample,thattheMayorandallthecityofficialssay
thattheywitnessedagenuinemiracle.Astheyreport,acarrammedintocityhall,causingthewallto
collapse,butsecondslaterallthesmashedpiecesofthewallfloatedintotheair,andreassembled
themselvesjustastheywerebefore.Shouldwebelievetheirreport?
AccordingtoHume,ourfirststepistoweightheevidenceforandagainstthismiracle,sortof
likewewereplacingtheevidenceinthepansofabalancescale.Ontheoneside,theevidencethatwe
haveinfavorofthemiracleisthecredibilityofthewitnesses.Theyarereportingwhattheyveseenwith
theireyes,andweknowfrompastexperiencethattheyarepeopleoftheirword.Ontheotherside,the
evidenceagainstthemiracleconsistsoftheaccumulatedexperiencethatwehaveinfavorofuniform
lawsofnature.Thenaturalworldbehavesinanorderlywaybasedtonaturallaws.Wecountonthis
everymomentofthedayaswhen,forexample,Iopenadoorandexpectittoswingonahinge,rather
thandosomethingliketransformintoabirdandflyaway.AccordingtoHume,theevidencethatwehave
infavorofconsistentlawsofnatureisoverwhelming,andwillalwaysoutweigheventhebestevidence
infavorofareportedmiraculousviolationofalawofnature.Hewrites,
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Amiracleisaviolationofthelawsofnatureandasafirmandunalterableexperiencehas
establishedtheselaws,theproofagainstamiracle,fromtheverynatureofthefact,isasentireas
anyargumentfromexperiencecanpossiblybeimagined....Theremust,therefore,beauniform
experienceagainsteverymiraculousevent,otherwisetheeventwouldnotmeritthatappellation
[i.e.,thattitle].Andasauniformexperienceamountstoaproof,thereishereadirectandfull
prooffromthenatureofthefactagainsttheexistenceofanymiracle....[Enquiry,10]

ForHume,sincemiraclesaredefinedasviolationsoflawsofnature,anyallegedmiraclereportis
instantlyoutweighedbyoverwhelmingevidencethatwehaveofconsistentlawsofnature.Thewise
thingtodo,Humesays,istoproportionourbelieftotheevidence.WiththeaboveCityHallexample,we
shouldthusdisbelievethereportthatthewallmiraculouslyreassembleditselfsincetheevidenceis
overwhelminglyinfavorofconsistentlawsofnature.
Inadditiontothismainargumentagainstbeliefinmiracles,Humeoffersfouradditional
criticisms.First,hesays,thewitnesseswhoreportmiraclestypicallylackcredibility.Sometimesthey
lacksufficienteducationandgoodsense,whichmakesthemgullible.Othertimestheyareconsciously
deceptive.EvenintheaboveexampleoftheCityHallmiracle,ourfirstreactionwouldbetosuspectthat
theMayorandthecityofficialsconcoctedthestorytohidesomethingpoliticallysensitive.Second,
Humearguesthathumanbeingsarepredisposedtoenjoyhearingsensationalstories,andthiscreatesan
instantaudienceforaccountsofmiraculousevents.Inrecenttimes,weseethisinthesuccessoftabloid
publicationssuchastheNationalEnquirerthatspecializeinstoriesaboutalienabductions,monsters
suchasBigfoot,andeverypossibletypeofmiracle.Thisvulnerabilitywithinhumannatureitselfcasts
doubtonthetruthofsuchsensationalclaims.Third,Humestatesthatreportsofmiraclestypicallycome
fromprescientificandprimitivecountrieswhoseculturesareobsessedwiththesupernatural.Themost
ordinarynaturaleventsareascribedtosupernaturalcauses,andrelianceonomensandoraclesisthe
norm.Theverylocationofsuchmiraclereportscountsagainsttheircredibility.Fourth,Humearguesthat
reportsofmiraclessupportrivalreligioussystems,andthusnullifyeachother.Therearereportsof
miracleswithinvirtuallyeveryreligioustraditionaroundtheworld.Christianmiraclessupportthe
Christianplanofsalvation.MuslimmiraclessupporttheMuslimplanofsalvation,andsoon.The
problemisthatthesereligionsarerivalstoeachotherandtypicallydiscredittheotherslegitimacy.
Takenasawhole,then,rivalmiraclereportsaremutuallyundermining.
HumerecognizesthattheChristianreligioustraditionnotonlycontainsreportsofmiracles,butis
infactfoundedonmiraculouscircumstancesinthelivesoftheBiblicalcharacters.Nevertheless,Hume
argues,thereasonablethingtodoevenhereistodisbelievethesereports.Infact,beliefinsuchmiracle
storiesissoirrationalthatitwouldtakeanactofGodtomakeanotherwisereasonablepersonsuspend
alltheprinciplesofhisunderstandingandmakehimbelieveamiraclestorythatismostcontraryto
customandexperience(ibid).

Morality:Reasonvs.Sentiment
Throughoutthehistoryofphilosophy,thetraditionalconceptionofmoralitywasthatitconsistsof
objectiveuniversaltruthsthatcanbediscoveredthroughhumanreason.Platosviewoftheformsisthe
clearestexampleofthis.ForPlato,moralstandardssuchasjusticeandgoodnessexistindependentlyof
humansocietyinthehigherspiritrealmoftheforms.And,forPlato,ittakesamentalactofreasonto
graspmoraltruths,inmuchthewayittakesanactofreasontograspmathematicaltruthswhichalso
resideintherealmoftheforms.ThisislargelytheviewofmoralitythatmoralphilosophersinHumes
dayheld:wediscoverobjectiveuniversalmoralprinciplesthroughreason.Humerejectsthisview:
moralityisnotgroundedinanobjectivefeatureoftheexternalworld,butratheroninternalmental
feelingsofpleasureandpain.
Humesmainargumentforhispositionisthat,ashardaswemaytry,wecanneverdiscoverany
specialfactaboutanactionthatmakesiteithermoralorimmoraleitherwithinthephysicalactitselfor
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inanyallegedhigherrealmofmoraltruths.Allthatwewillfindisafeelingofpleasureorpainin
reactiontotheaction.Hewrites,

Takeanyactionallowedtobeviciouswillfulmurder,forinstance.Examineitinalllights,and
seeifyoucanfindthatmatteroffact,orrealexistence,whichyoucallvice.Inwhicheverway
youtakeit,youfindonlycertainpassions,motives,volitions,andthoughts.Thereisnoother
matteroffactinthecase.Theviceentirelyescapesyou,aslongasyouconsidertheobject.You
nevercanfindit,tillyouturnyourreflectionintoyourownbreast,andfindasentimentof
disapprobation,whicharisesinyou,towardsthisaction.Hereisamatteroffactbutitisthe
objectoffeeling,notofreason.Itliesinyourself,notintheobject.Sothatwhenyoupronounce
anyactionorcharactertobevicious,youmeannothing,butthatfromtheconstitutionofyour
natureyouhaveafeelingorsentimentofblamefromthecontemplationofit.[Treatise,3.1.1]

Thus,moralitydoesnotinvolvemakingarationaljudgmentaboutsomeobjectivemoralfacts.Instead,
moralassessmentsarejustemotionalreactions.IfIseesomeonerobbingabankanddeterminethat
actiontobemorallywrong,Iamnotmakingarationaljudgmentaboutsomeobjectivemoraltruthor
factrather,Iamexperiencingafeelingofemotionalpain,andthatfeelingconstitutesmynegative
assessmentoftherobber.Usingtheterminologyofprimaryandsecondaryqualities,Humespointisthat
moralityisnotaprimaryqualitythatspartofexternalthings,butisinsteadlikeasecondaryqualitythat
spectatorsimposeontoactions.Hewrites,Viceandvirtue,therefore,maybecomparedtosounds,
colors,heat,andcold,which,accordingtomodernphilosophy,arenot[primary]qualitiesinobjects,but
perceptionsinthemind(ibid).
AsobviousasthisallseemstoHume,henotesthatmostmoraltheoriesinsistonlinkingmoral
assessmentswithsomefactualjudgmentofreason.Theybeginbylistingsomekindoffact,suchasafact
aboutmoralForms,moraltruths,divinecommandsfromthesefacts,then,theyimmediatelyjumpto
somemoralstatement,suchasStealingiswrong.Hemakesthispointhere:

IneverysystemofmoralitywhichIhavehithertometwith,Ihavealwaysremarked,thatthe
authorproceedsforsometimeintheordinarywayofreasoning,andestablishesthebeingofa
God,ormakesobservationsconcerninghumanaffairswhenofasuddenIamsurprisedtofind,
thatinsteadoftheusualcopulationsofpropositions,is,andisnot,Imeetwithnopropositionthat
isnotconnectedwithanought,oranoughtnot.

Theproblem,forHume,isthatyoujustcantrationallydeduceastatementofmoralobligationfroma
statementoffactstatedmoresuccinctly,youcannotderiveoughtfromis.Rather,theobligationcomes
fromfeeling,notfromdeductionoffacts.WhenIseeabankrobberandstatethatTherobbersactof
stealingiswrong,IamexpressingthepainfulfeelingsthatIamexperiencing.Thus,statementsofmoral
obligationareintroducedthroughanemotionalreaction,notthrougharationaldeduction.

RadicalSkepticismandNaturalBelief
Humewasachronicallyskepticalphilosopher,andwevealreadyseenseveralexpressionsofthis.He
beganwithatheoryofmeaningthatruthlesslydismembersanyconceptthatisnotgroundedinan
outwardorinwardimpression,andthefirstvictimsweretraditionalnotionsofpersonalidentityand
causality.Hequestionedthelegitimacyofbeliefinmiraclesand,inessence,calledintodoubtanything
supernatural.Finally,heattackedthetraditionalnotionofrationallyperceivedmoraltruths,andreduced
moralassessmentstoemotionalreactions.ButthereisanevenmoreradicalskepticismwithinHumes
philosophythatgoesbeyondtheseparticularissues.AccordingtoHume,theunderlyingstructureof
humanreasonitselfisinherentlyflawed,andthuscompletelyuntrustworthy.Specifically,thehuman
reasoningprocess,evenatitsverybest,isonacollisioncoursewithitselfandregularlycontradictsitself.
IfwefollowonerationaltrainofthoughtwereachconclusionAifwefollowadifferentrationaltrainof
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thoughtwereachaconflictingconclusionnotA.Itslikeacomputerthatisrunningtwoincompatible
programsthateventuallycausethecomputertocrash.Humedescribesthiscollisioncoursehere:

Theintenseviewofthesemanifoldcontradictionsandimperfectionsinhumanreasonhasso
wroughtuponme,andheatedmybrain,thatIamreadytorejectallbeliefandreasoning,andcan
lookuponnoopinionevenasmoreprobableorlikelythananother.WhereamI,orwhat?From
whatcausesdoIderivemyexistence,andtowhatconditionshallIreturn?WhosefavorshallI
court,andwhoseangermustIdread?Whatbeingssurroundme?andonwhomhaveIany
influence,orwhohaveanyinfluenceonme?Iamconfoundedwithallthesequestions,andbegin
tofancymyselfinthemostdeplorableconditionimaginable,environedwiththedeepest
darkness,andutterlydeprivedoftheuseofeverymemberandfaculty.[Treatise,1.4.7]

ForHume,then,themostcentralquestionsabouthumanexistenceareincapableofbeingadequately
answeredbecauseoftheinherentflawsinthehumanreasoningprocess.Whateverreasontellsusabout
thesematterscanneverbefullytrusted,andthusweslidedowntheslopeofphilosophicaldespair.
Amidstallthisskepticismanddespair,though,Humehasastrangelyoptimisticsolution.Human
naturehasembeddedwithinussomeveryconcretenaturalbeliefswhichenableustogetthroughtheday.
Natureforcesustobelieveinexternalobjects,causalrelationships,personalidentity,moralresponsibility
andahostofothernotionsthatarecrucialforournormalroutines.Thesearenotinnateideasperse,but
arenormalbeliefsabouttheworldthatemergethroughnaturalinclinations.Forexample,whenIlookat
achairandImnaturallyinclinedtothinkthatitexistsintheexternalworldexactlyasIperceiveit.The
factthatwehavethesenaturalbeliefsdoesntmeanthattheyareentirelytrue,andHumewarnsthat
manyarenot.However,theyarefunctionallyimportantforourlives.Also,theyserveasanatural
antidotetophilosophicaldespair.Whenradicalskepticismcausesustomentallycrash,allthatweneed
todoisbackofffromourphilosophicalinquiriesandletournaturalbeliefstakeover:Natureherself
sufficestothatpurpose,andcuresmeofthisphilosophicalmelancholyanddelirium(ibid).Humewarns
thatnaturalbeliefsarenoreplacementforphilosophicalinquiry,which,evenwithallitsskepticism,is
stillimportanttokeepusfromgivingintogullibilityandsuperstition.Asflawedashumanreasonis,itis
stillpreferabletosuperstitionofeverykindordenomination(ibid).

QuestionsforReview
Pleaseanswerallofthefollowingquestionsforreview.

1.WhatareLockesmainargumentsagainstinnateideas?
2.ExplainLockesdistinctionbetweenideasofsensationandideasofreflection.
3.Whatarethethreementalprocessesinvolvedinformingcomplexideas?
4.WhatisLockesdistinctionbetweenprimaryandsecondaryqualities?
5.ExplainLockesviewofnaturalrightsandthejustificationofrevolution.
6.ExplainBerkeleysidealismandGodsroleasthesourceofperceptions.
7.WhatareBerkeleysargumentsforidealismfromprimary/secondaryqualitiesandsimplicity.
8.WhatareBerkeleystwosolutionstotheproblemofGodandevil?
9.WhatisHumesviewoftheoriginofideasandtheassociationofideas?
10.ExplainHumesviewofpersonalidentity.
11.ExplainHumesviewofnecessaryconnection.
12.WhatisHumesmainargumentagainstmiracles?
13.ExplainHumesviewaboutemotionandmoraljudgment.
14.ExplainHumesviewofradicalskepticismandnaturalbelief.

QuestionsforAnalysis
Pleaseselectonlyonequestionforanalysisfromthosebelowandanswerit.
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1.LockearguedthatifideassuchasAristotleslawsofthoughtweretrulyinnate,thenchildrenand
retardedpeoplewouldhavesomeknowledgeofthem.Explainhisargumentandtrytorefuteit.
2.Berkeleyarguedthat,justassecondaryqualitiesdon'texistoutsideofthemind,primaryqualitiesdon't
either.Explainhisargumentandtrytorefuteit.
3.Humearguedthatallideasarecopiesofsomekindofimpression.Explainhisargumentandtryto
refuteit.
4.Humearguedthatwehavenoideaofacontinuousandunifiedself.Explainhisargumentandtryto
refuteit.
5.Humearguedthattheideaofnecessaryconnectionderivesfromafeelingofexpectationwhich
habituallyresultsfromobservingtwoconstantlyconjoinedevents.Explainhisargumentandtry
torefuteit.
6.WriteadialoguebetweenPlatoandHume,wherePlatodefendstheviewthatmoralassessmentsare
rationaljudgmentsaboutmoralForms,andHumeholdstheviewthatmoralassessmentsarejust
emotionalreactions.

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