1) What is the endocrine system?

The endocrine system, it influences almost every cell, organ function of our bodies.
The endocrine system plays a role in regulating mood, growth and development,
tissue function, metabolism, and sexual function and reproductive processes. In
general, this system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such as
cell growth.

2) Explain, how is the endocrine system organized?

The endocrine system is organized by three parts, the glands, the hormones and
the effector organs. The hormones are chemical messengers that have the function
of communicate cells with each other. The simple definition of a hormone as an
intercellular Messenger is much more inclusive than the original one, which limited
the hormones to substances produced by specialized multicellular organs, the
glands, and then the secreted hormones circulate in the blood until arrive and act
on distant target organs
3) What is a gland?
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off chemical. A
gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes
the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. Some types of
glands release their secretions in specific area are the exocrine glands and
endocrine glands.
4) What are exocrine glands? Give examples
Exocrine glands are glands that produce and secrete substances (hormones) onto
a epithelial surface by way of a duct. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat,
salivary, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal, sebaceous and mucous.
5) What are endocrine glands? Give examples
The endocrine gland secretes products (hormones) into bloodstream. Examples of
exocrine glands are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal. And other
organs secrete hormones as a second function, for example the hypothalamus,
thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin,
heart and placenta.

6) In a diagram, identify the main glands of a man and woman body and their
location

7) What are hormones?

Hormones are chemical messengers that secreted directly into the blood, which
carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their function. There are
many types of hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions and
processes. Some of these include:
-Development and growth
-Metabolism of food items
-Sexual function and reproductive growth and health
-Cognitive function and mood
-Maintenance of body temperature and thirst.
8) What are target or Diana cells and what are their function?
Is a term applied to any cell in which a hormone binds to its receptor, can be
determined or not by a biochemical or physiological response. Cells where
hormones exert their effect are capable and appropriate target cell; when this
happens, the hormone in the target cells fits like a key in a lock, and the cell is
driven to perform a specific action.
9) Which are the hormones functions?
Different hormones perform specific roles inside of your body. Some of these
hormones work quickly to start or stop a process, and some will continually work
over the course of a long period of time to perform their necessary jobs. Some of
the jobs include the bodys growth and development, metabolism (or production of
energy), sexual function and reproduction.
10) Name hormones according to its chemical nature and in which glands are
they produced?

Chemical nature

Hormone

Gland

Aminoacid

Melatonin

Pineal gland

Thyroxine

Thyroid gland

Insulin

pancreas

Protein

Growth hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Thryroid stimulating hormone
Fatty acid (eicosanoids)

Archinodic acid
lipoxins
prostaglandins

Steroids

Estradiol

Ovary, testes

Testosterone (cortisol)

testes

11) What are trophic hormones and where they are produced?
It is a hormone that acts upon non-endocrine organs and tissues for the purposes
of promoting cellular growth, differentiation, and survival. Often confused
with tropic hormones.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis (anterior lobe of pituitary gland) that s
timulate target organs.
12) Name the tropic hormones and indicate to what glands do they
stimulate?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or thyrotropin) stimulates the thyroid

gland increasing the size and number of cells. Is a pituitary hormone that
stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine (T4), and
then triiodothyronine (T3) which stimulates the metabolism of almost every tissue in
the body
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotropin) stimulates the adrenal
cortex increasing the size and number of cells, also known as corticotropin , is
a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland. It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and
is often produced in response to biological stress (along with its
precursor corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus).

13) What are no trophic glands? Where do they work? Where are they
produces?
They are hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects. This differs
from the tropic hormones, which act on another endocrine gland. Non-tropic
hormones are those that act directly on targeted tissues or cells, and not on
other endocrine gland to stimulate release of other hormones. Many hormones act
in a chain reaction The reaction begins in the hypothalamus with a release
of corticotropin-releasing hormone/factor (CRH/F; tropic). This stimulates the
anterior pituitary and causes it to release Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH;
tropic) to the adrenal glands
14) What does negative feedback consists in?
Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system, process,
or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the
output, whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances. A good
example of a negative feedback mechanism is a home thermostat (heating
system). The thermostat contains the receptor (thermometer) and control center. If
the heating system is set at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, the heat (effector) is turned on
if the temperature drops below 70 degrees Fahrenheit. After the heater heats the
house to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, it shuts off effectively maintaining the ideal
temperature.
15) What does positive feedback consists in?

A positive feedback mechanism is the exact opposite of a negative feedback

mechanism. With negative feedback, the output reduces the original effect of the
stimulus. In a positive feedback system, the output enhances the original stimulus.
A good example of a positive feedback system is child birth. During labor, a
hormone called oxytocin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions.
The increase in contractions causes more oxytocin to be released and the cycle
goes on until the baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the
positive feedback mechanism.
16) What is hypothalamus?
The hypothalamus is a section of the brain responsible for the production of many
of the bodys essential hormones, chemical substances that help control different
cells and organs. The hormones from the hypothalamus govern physiologic
functions such as temperature regulation, thirst, hunger, sleep, mood, sex drive,
and the release of other hormones within the body. This area of the brain houses
the pituitary gland and other glands in the body.
17) Number hypothalamus functions
The hypothalamus has a central neuroendocrine function, most notably by its
control of the anterior pituitary, which in turn regulates various endocrine glands
and organs. Releasing hormones (also called releasing factors) are produced in
hypothalamic nuclei then transported along axons to either the median
eminence or the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and released as needed.
18) Name the hormones that comes from hypothalamus and which are their
functions
Anterior pituitary

Secreted hormone

Abbreviation

Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone
(Prolactin-releasing
hormone)

TRH, TRF, or
PRH

Effect

Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone

(TSH) release from anterior pituitary (primarily)
Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary

Corticotropinreleasing hormone

CRH or CRF

Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH) release from anterior pituitary

Dopamine
(Prolactin-inhibiting

DA or PIH

Inhibit prolactin release from anterior pituitary

hormone)

Growth-hormonereleasing hormone

GHRH

Stimulate growth-hormone (GH) release

from anterior pituitary

Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) release

Gonadotropinreleasing hormone

GnRH or

from anterior pituitary

LHRH

Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release

from anterior pituitary

Inhibit growth-hormone (GH) release from anterior

Somatostatin[13]
(growth-hormoneinhibiting hormone)

SS, GHIH, or

pituitary

SRIF

Inhibit (moderately) thyroid-stimulating hormone

(TSH) release from anterior pituitary

Posterior pituitary

Secreted

Abbreviatio

hormone

Effect

Oxytocin

Vasopressin
(antidiuretic
hormone)

OXY or

Uterine contraction

OXT

Lactation (letdown reflex)

ADH or
AVP

Increase in the permeability to water of the cells of distal

tubule and collecting duct in the kidney and thus allows
water reabsorption and excretion of concentrated urine

19) What is hypophysis? How is it formed?

The pituitary gland is a small gland located in the middle of the base of the brain. It
consists of two parts, the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and the posterior
pituitary (neurohypophysis), and is not only connected to but also functionally
related to the hypothalamus. These two organs work together and regulate almost
all metabolic processes in the body by means of various hormones and other
chemical messengers. Many of them have a direct influence on the heart, liver and
kidneys, whilst others regulate the hormone production in other glands, e.g.
the thyroid.
20) Draw the hypophysis and label its three parts.

21) number the hormones produced by adenohypophysis.

Six hormones are produced by the adenohypophysis. These are:
1 .Somatotrophic hormone (STH) or Growth hormone (GH)
2. Adenocarticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

4. Prolactin or Lactogenic hormone (LTH)
5. Gonadotropic hormone (GTH)
a. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
b. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

22) number the hormones produced by the neurohypophysis.

1.-Oxytocin (OT)
2.-Vassopresin (VP)
23) name the hormone produced by the intermediate hypophysis.
1.-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
24) what is the function, origin and location of the following hormones.
Thyroxine is the main hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid
gland. Thyroid hormones play vital roles in regulating the bodys metabolic rate,
heart and digestive functions, muscle control, brain development and maintenance
of bones.
Insulin is a hormone made by an organ located behind the stomach called
the pancreas. Insulin is released from the pancreas into the bloodstream. It is a
hormone essential for us to live and has many effects on the whole body, mainly in
controlling how the body uses carbohydrate and fat found in food. Insulin allows
cells in the muscles, liver and fat (adipose tissue) to take up sugar (glucose) that
has been absorbed into the bloodstream from food.
Glucagon is secreted to maintain glucose levels in the bloodstream when fasting
and to raise very low glucose levels. it acts on the liver in several ways:
glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis and reduces glucose consumption by the liver so
that as much glucose as possible can be secreted into the bloodstream to maintain
blood glucose levels. Glucagon also acts on adipose tissue to stimulate the
breakdown of fat stores into the bloodstream.
Adrenaline is a hormone released from the adrenal glands and its major action,
together with noradrenaline, is to prepare the body for fight or flight, response in
times of stress, ie, for vigorous and/or sudden action. It is produced in the medulla
of the adrenal glands and in some neurons of the central nervous system.

Cortisol is a steroid hormone which regulates a wide range of processes

throughout the body including metabolism and the immune response. It also has a
very important role in helping the body respond to stress. It is a steroid hormone,
known as a glucocorticoid, made in the cortex of the adrenal glands and then
released into the blood which transports it all round the body.
Aldosterone is a steroid hormone. Its main role is to regulate salt and water in the
body, thus having an effect on blood pressure. Hormone produced in the outer
section (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys.
Testosterone is a hormone which is responsible for many of the physical
characteristics specific to adult males.It plays a key role in reproduction and the
maintenance of bone and muscle strength. It is an androgen produced by the
gonads (by the Leydig cells in testes in men and by the ovaries in women),
although small quantities are also produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes.
Estrogens are hormones that are important for sexual and reproductive
development, mainly in women. They are also referred to as female sex
hormones. is produced mainly in the ovaries, but it is also produced by fat cells and
the adrenal gland. Estrogen is involved in the onset of puberty, playing a role in the
development of so-called secondary sex characteristics, such as breasts, and
pubic and armpit hair. Estrogen also helps regulate the menstrual cycle, controlling
the growth of the uterine lining during the first part of the cycle.
Progesterone is a hormone released by the corpus luteum in the ovary. It plays
important roles in the menstrual cycle and in maintaining the early stages of
pregnancy. It may also be involved in the growth of certain cancers. It is mainly
secreted by thecorpus luteum in the ovary during the second half of the menstrual
cycle.
Gastrin is a hormone that is produced by G cells in the lining of the stomach and
upper small intestine. During a meal, gastrin stimulates the stomach to release
gastric acid. This allows the stomach to break down proteins swallowed as food
and absorb certain vitamins. It also acts as a disinfectan. Gastrin also stimulates
growth of the stomach lining and increases the muscle contractions of the gut to
aid digestion.
Secretin
hormone, formed by the epithelial cells of the duodenum under the stimulus of acid
contents from the stomach, which incites secretion of pancreatic juice; used as a di
agnosticaid in the diagnosis of pancreatic exocrine disease and as an adjunt in obt
aining desquamated pancreatic cells for cytologic examination.

Cholecystokinin is a gut hormone released after a meal, which helps digestion

and reduces appetite. Cholecystokinin is produced by I-cells in the lining of the
duodenum and is also released by some neurons in the brain.
Triiodothyronine is a thyroid hormone that plays vital roles in the bodys metabolic
rate, heart and digestive functions, muscle control, brain development and the
maintenance of bones. Approximately 20% of triiodothyronine is secreted into the
bloodstream directly by the thyroid gland. The remaining 80% is produced from
conversion of thyroxine by organs such as the liver and kidneys.
25) Indicate the origin of the following diseases
-acromegaly, gigantism, dwarfism
Acromegaly is a condition that develops due to overproduction of growth hormone
usually caused by a benign tumor of the pituitary gland. It leads to an increase in
size of the hands and feet, and a change in the appearance of the face.
Gigantism is a rare condition of accelerated growth and increased height as a
result of too much growth hormone secretion during childhood or adolescence. It is
almost always the result of a growth hormone secreting pituitary tumor.
Dwarfism when an individual person or animal is short in stature resulting from a
medical condition caused by slow growth. Extreme shortness in humans with
proportional body parts usually has a hormonal cause, such as growth-hormone
deficiency, once called pituitary dwarfism.
-insipidus and mellitus diabetes
Diabetes insipidus (water diabetes) is caused by a reduction in, or failure to
respond to, anti-diuretic hormone. This results in passing too much dilute urine and
increased thirst.
Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body does not produce enough of the
hormone insulin, resulting in high levels of sugar in the bloodstream. There are
many different types of diabetes; the most common are type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
-goitre and cretinism
Goiter: The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland found in the neck. A normal
thyroid is usually not felt if finger pressure is applied to the neck. Any increase in
size of the thyroid gland is called goiter

Cretinism: Disease characterized by a permanent deficit in physical and mental

development and is accompanied by body deformities and stunted intelligence; It is
due to lack or destruction of the thyroid gland during the fetal stage.
-Disease of graves- basedow
The Graves' disease is an autoimmune thyroiditis, which stimulates the thyroid
gland and is the most common cause of thyrotoxicosis. It is characterized by
diffuse hyperplasia of the thyroid gland resulting in goitre and overactive gland or
hyperthyroidism.
-hypothyroidism is a common disorder of the endocrine system in which
the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone. too little iodine in the
diet is the most common cause of hypothyroidism. Less common causes include
the following: previous treatment with radioactive iodine, injury to
the hypothalamus or the anterior pituitary gland, certain medications, a lack of a
functioning thyroid at birth, or previous thyroid surgery.
-Cushing syndrome and Addisons disease
Cushings syndrome is the name of a disorder that occurs when the body is
exposed to an excess of steroids such as the hormone cortisol or similar synthetic
versions.
Addison's disease is caused by damage to the adrenal glands, which make
hormones to control the bodys response to stress, and balance body salt and
water. Treatment is with tablets and some lifestyle adaptations to ensure patients
remain well.
-hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism
Hyperparathyroidism is an excess of parathyroid hormone in the bloodstream
due to over activity of one or more of the body's four parathyroid glands. These
glands are about the size of a grain of rice and are located in your neck. Two types
of hyperparathyroidism exist, primary hyperparathyroidism and secondary
hyperparathyroidism.
Hypoparathyroidism is a rare condition in which not enough parathyroid hormone
is produced by the parathyroid glands resulting in low calcium levels in the
bloodstream. Hypoparathyroidism is caused by damage to parathyroid glands
during neck surgery. The commonest non-surgical cause is destruction of the
parathyroid glands by the bodys immune system. In very rare cases, the
parathyroid glands are destroyed by irradiation, usually as a result of treatment of a

tumor, or rare diseases that attack the parathyroid glands. Some people are born
with hypoparathyroidism (congenital) and sometimes the cause is unknown
(idiopathic).