Sleepers

Introduction
Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. They have an important role
in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast. Several types of
sleepers are in use on Indian Railways. The characteristics of these sleepers and their
suitability with respect to load conditions are described in this chapter.
Functions and Requirements of Sleepers
The main functions of sleepers are as follows.
1. Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment
2. Giving a firm and even support to the rails
3. Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast
4. Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads
5. Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way
6. Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life.
7. To support the rails at proper level in straight tracks and at proper super elevation on
curves
Apart from performing these functions the ideal sleeper should normally fulfil the following
requirements.
1. The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.
2. The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.
3. The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix
and remove the rails easily.
4. The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not
crushed.
5. The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge
properly.
6. The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
damaged during packing.
7. The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.
8. The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the
passage of fast moving trains.
9. The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft features.
10. Fittings of the sleepers should be such that they can be easily adjusted during
maintenance operations such as easy lifting, packing, removal and replacement.
Sleeper Density and Spacing of Sleepers
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as M + x or N + x,
where M or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that varies according to
factors such as (a) axle load and speed, (b) type and section of rails, (c) type and strength of
the sleepers, (d) type of ballast and ballast cushion, and (e) nature of formation. If the sleeper
density is M + 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it means that 13 + 7
= 20 sleepers will be used per rail on that route. The number of sleepers in a track can also be
specified by indicating the number of sleepers per kilometre of the track. For example, 1540
sleepers/km. This specification becomes more relevant particularly in cases where rails are
welded and the length of the rail does not have much bearing on the number of sleepers
required. This system of specifying the number of sleepers per kilometre exists in many
foreign countries and is now being adopted by Indian Railways as well. The spacing of

sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing is not kept uniform throughout
the rail length. It is closer near the joints because of the weakness of the joints and impact of
moving loads on them. There is, however, a limitation to the close spacing of the sleepers, as
enough space is required for working the beaters that are used to pack the joint sleepers.
Types of sleepers
1. Wooden sleepers
2. Metal sleepers
a. Cast iron sleepers
b. Steel Sleepers
3. Concrete sleepers
a. Reinforced concrete sleepers
b. Prestressed concrete sleepers
Timber or wooden sleepers
Advantages
Easy to manufacture and handling.
They have long life of 10-12 years depending upon the climate, condition, rain,
intensity, nature of traffic, quality of wood etc
Good insulators and hence good for track circuited railway tracks
Suitable for salty regions and coastal areas
They are not badly damaged in case of derailment
They are not corroded
Suitable for track circuited area.
Can be used with or without ballast.
Suitable for bridges, Points/Crossings.
Suitable for gauntleted track.
Alignment can be easily corrected.
Disadvantages
1. Lesser life compared to other sleepers.
2. Liable to damage by beater packing.
3. Difficult to maintain the gauge.
4. Susceptible to fire hazards.
5. They do not resist creep
6. They are affected by dry and wet rot
7. Become expensive day by day
Steel Sleepers
About 27% of the track on Indian Railways is laid on steel sleepers. The increasing shortage
of timber in the country and other economical factors are mainly responsible for the use of
steel sleepers in India. Steel sleepers have the following main advantages/disadvantages over
wooden sleepers.
Advantages
Have a useful life of 20-25 years.
Free from decay and are not attacked by vermins
Connection between rail and sleeper is stronger

 Connection between rail and sleeper is simple

More attention is not required after laying
Having better lateral rigidity
Good scrap value
Suitable for high speeds and load
Easy to handle
Good resistance against creep
Disadvantages
Liable to corrosion by moisture and should not because in salty regions
Bad insulators and hence cannot be used in track circuited regions
Should not be laid with all types of Ballast
Very costly
Can be badly damaged under derailments
The rail seat is weaker
Not a good shock absorber as there is no cushion between rail foot and ballast
Cast iron Sleepers
Advantages
1. Less corrosion
2. Less probability of cracking at rail seat
3. Easy to manufacture
4. Higher scrap value
5. Long life upto 50-60 years- High scrape value as they can be remolded
6. Can be manufactured locally - Provided sufficient bearing area
7. Much stronger at the rail seat - Prevent and check creep of rail
8. They are not attacked by vermin
Disadvantages
1. Gauge maintenance is difficult as tie bars get bent
2. Provides less lateral stability
3. Unsuitable for track-circuited lines
4. Not very suitable for mechanical maintenance and/or MSP because of rounded bottom
5. Susceptible to breakage
6. They are prone to corrosion and cannot be used in salty formations and coastal areas Not suitable for track circuited portions of railways
7. Can badly damage under derailment
8. Require a large number of fastening materials - Difficult to handle and may be easily
damaged - Lack of good shock absorber - They are expensive
9. Not suitable for high speed route.
10. Not fit for track circuited area.

Concrete Sleepers
These types of sleepers were promoted because of shortage of good wooden sleepers and
need for better design and economy of sleepers on sustainable basis.
These sleepers are mainly of two types
1. Reinforced cement concrete sleepers
2. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers

Experiments have shown that concrete sleepers are idela material for sleeper for the
following reasons
1. They are made of a strong homogeneous material, impervious to effect of moisture
and is unaffected by the chemical attack of atmospheric gases or sub soil salts
2. It is easily moulded to size and shape required by scientific investigation, to withstand
the stresses produced by fast and heavy traffic
Advantages and disadvantages
Concrete sleepers have the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
Durable with life range from 40-50 years
They can be produced on large quantities locally by installing a plant
Heavier than all other types thus giving better lateral stability to the track
Good insulators and thus suitable for use in track circuited lines
Efficient in controlling creep - They are not attacked by corrosion
Free from attacks of vermin and decay, suitable for all types of soils
Most suitable for welded tracks- Prevent buckling more efficiently
Initial cost is high but proves to be economical in long run
Effectively and strongly hold the track to gauge
Inflammable and fire resistant
Disadvantages
(a) Handling and laying concrete sleepers is difficult due to their large weights.
Mechanical methods, which involve considerable initial expenditure, have to be adopted for
handling them.
(b) Concrete sleepers are heavily damaged at the time of derailment.
(c) Concrete sleepers have no scrap value.
(d) Concrete sleepers are not suitable for beater packing.
(f) Concrete sleepers should preferably be maintained by heavy on track tampers.
CST-9 sleepers
The CST-9 (Central Standard Trial No 9) sleeper is a standard sleeper and is being most
extensively used on Indian Railways (IR). It is called CST-9 produced by the Central
Standard Of a combination of pot, plate, and box sleepers. It consists of two triangular
inverted pots on either side of the rail seat, a central plate with a projected keel, and a box on
top of the plate. The two CI plates are connected by a tie bar with the help of four cotters. The
rails are held to the sleeper by two-way keys provided at each rail seat on the side of the
gauge face. The gauge is adjusted to a value of 5 mm by altering the relative positions of
the four cotters. The rail seat of a CST-9 sleeper is 115 mm wide along the length, and this
narrow bearing tends to reduce the rocking of the sleeper under the wave motion of the rail.
The sleeper is designed to provide a firm support to the rail and provides fairly good lateral
and longitudinal stability to the rails. The sleeper provides a bearing area approximately equal
to the effective bearing area of a standard BG wooden sleeper i.e., 5 sq. ft, for both the plates.
CST-9 plates are also available with reverse jaws (T-443 type) to serve as an anti-sabotage
measure; a few of these are provided in each rail length. Normally, three reverse jaw CST-9
sleepers are provided per rail to serve anti-sabotage purposes. The weight of a CST-9 sleeper
assembly along with fastenings for BG is 102 kg and for MG is 58 kg. The CST-9 sleeper is
one of the most popular sleepers on Indian Railways at present. The sleeper has, however,
certain limitations when combined with the modern track as mentioned in the following.
CST-9 Sleeper has got following features

1. The tie bar is fastened to the plate by means of four standard cotters. Small variation
in gauge can be corrected by these four cotters
2. The shape of cast iron support is such as to give a stable base for the rail, and high
lateral and longitudinal stability to the track
3. The sleeper may be used in sections of track in corrosive conditions such as saline
soil, industrial waste etc
4. The bearing area is approximately equal to the effective bearing area of a wooden
sleeper
5. This sleeper forms the rigid track subjected to vibrations under moving loads without
any damage or absorption
6. The cantilever ends of the rails are long which lead to battering, and ultimately
hogging of the rail end and deterioration of ballast under the joint which finally need
the replacement of sleeper.
7. This type of sleeper is suitable for speeds upto 110 KMPH
8. If used for tracks above speed of 110 kmph, due to the shallow depth of the bowl,
packing becomes loose under vibrations at high speed
As the sleeper does not have a flat bottom, it is not quite suitable for mechanical maintenance
with tie tamers.
1. The suitability of a CST-9 sleeper on Long Welded Rails (LWRs), particularly on the
breathing lengths, is doubtful because of rigid fastenings and the inability of the
fastenings to hold the rail with a constant toe load.
2. The rail seat wears out quickly causing the keys to come loose.
3. The sleeper has only limited longitudinal and lateral strength to hold LWRs
particularly in the breathing length.
4. Due to the use of less metal under rail seat, the shocks and vibrations are directly
transmitted to the ballast, resulting in poor retention of packing (loose packing) and
hence an increased frequency of attention.

Track Fittings and Fastenings

Introduction
The purpose of providing fittings and fastenings in railway tracks is to hold the rails in their
proper position in order to ensure the smooth running of trains. These fittings and fastenings
are used for joining rails together as well as fixing them to the sleepers, and they serve their
purpose so well that the level, alignment, and gauge of the railway track are maintained

within permissible limits even during the passage of trains. The important fittings commonly
used in a permanent way are the following
1. Fish plates
2. Spikes
3. Bolts
4. Chairs
5. Blocks
6. Keys
7. Plates
Fish Plates
is a metal bar that is bolted to the ends of two rails to join them together in a
track. The top and bottom edges are tapered inwards so the device wedges itself
between the top and bottom of the rail when it is bolted into place. The name fish

plate derives from the fish-shaped section of this fitting. The function of a fish plate is to
hold two rails together in both the horizontal and vertical planes.
Requirements of fish plates
1. They must support the underside of the rail and top of the foot
2. They should allow a free movement of rails for expansion and contraction for this
purpose, they should not touch web of the rail
3. They must be of such a section as to bear the stresses due to lateral and vertical
bending moments without getting distorted and must absorb the shock caused by the
jumping of wheel over the gap
4. They should hold the end of rail both laterally in line and vertically in level
5. They should be provided against the wear of fish plate due to impact expansion and
contraction
6. Strength should be atleast 58 to 67 kg/cm2
7. Minimum Elongation required is 20%
8. Sectional area of fish plate and rail section should be same
9. Strength should approximately be of 55% of rail strength

Failure of fish plates

1. Abrasion on top of fish plate, especially along central half length
2. Reversal of stresses due to large length of fish plates results into cracking along
section
3. Cracking develops along the section and this may even extend upto top or bottom of
fish plate.

Spikes
The requirements of a good spike are
1. First of all, the spike should be strong enough to hold the rail in position and it should
have enough resistance against motion to retain its original position so that it does not
lead to creep
2. The spike should be as deep as possible, for better holding power
3. The spike should be easy in fixing and removal from the sleepers
4. The spike should be cheap in cost
5. It should be capable of maintaining the gauge
Dog spikes
For holding the F.F. Rails to a wooden sleeper, dog spikes are commonly used. These are
simply stout nails to hold rail flanges with timber sleepers. The shape of head of spike
resembles with ear of the dog and hence its nomenclature as dog spike. The section of the
spike is square-shape and bottom part is either pointed,blunt or chisel shaped. They are
cheapest, easy in fixing and removing from sleepers and maintain a better gauge than scre
spikes.
Screw spikes
These are tapered screws with V threads used to fasten the rails with timber sleepers. The
head is circular with square projection
Screw spike has double the holding power as that of dog spike an can also resist lateral thrust
in a better way as compared to dog spikes. However, the screw spikes are costly and with that
their use, the gauge maintenance become difficult
Round spikes
Round spikes with a head either cylindrical or hemispherical are used for fixing chairs of
B.H. Rails to wooden sleepers for fixing slide chairs of points and crossings. These have a
blunt end and limited use
Standard spikes
These are used for cast iron chairs only to fix them with timber sleepers
Elastic spikes
Actually the main disadvantage with the dog head spikes is that due to wave motion the spike
comes out hence the fastening will get loose. To over come this disadvantage elastic spikes
are introduced which will absorb the wave motion without getting loose
Dog Spikes
It is used to hold flat footed rails to a wooden sleeper.
The shape of the top head resembles that of a dog, hence the name.
The section of the spike is square shaped and the bottom part is either pointed, blunted
or chisel shaped.

They are cheap and easy to install, but they move out of place due to wave motion,
resulting in creep.

SCREW SPIKE
These are tapered screws with V threads used to fasten rails with timber sleepers.
The head is circular with a square projection.
Screw spikes have more than double the holding power of dog spikes but they are
costly and maintenance is more difficult.

Bolts
1. Dog bolts, where sleepers rest directly on a girder, they are fastened to the top flange
of the girder by bolts called dog bolts
2. Fish bolt: the fish bolts have to undergo shear due to heavy transverse stresses, fish
bolts are made of medium or high carbon steel. Usually a bolt of 2.5 cm dia and 12.7
cm length is used. Generally the length of the bolt depends on the type of plate used.
CI Chairs
Chairs are used for holding Double Headed and Bull Headed rails.
The rails are placed between the two jaws of a chair and pressed against the inner jaw
by inserting tapered keys.
B.H. rails are supported on Cast Iron Chairs fixed to the sleepers by round spikes.
In case of cast iron sleepers, the chairs are casted together with the sleepers.
In case of steel sleepers, the chairs are welded to the steel sleepers.

Blocks
When two rails run very close as in case of check rails, etc. small blocks are inserted in
between the two rails and bolted to maintain the required distance or spacing.
Bearing Plates
Bearing Plates are rectangular plates of Mild Steel or Cast Iron that are used below Flat
Footed rails to distribute the load on a larger area of the sleepers.
Advantages of Bearing Plates
They distribute the load coming from the rails to the sleepers over a larger area.
They prevent the destruction of sleepers due to rubbing action of the rail.
No adzing(tilting) of sleepers is required since the bearing surfaces are canted at 1 in
20.
They help in firm holding of spikes to the sleepers, which in turn prevents the shifting
of rails.
Better maintenance of gauge, if bearing plates are used, is possible
Disadvantages of Bearing Plates
The plates rattle when loose.
When a spike is damaged, a new hole is to be created for it, which required new holes
for all the other spikes. This reduces the holding strength of the spikes.
When the bearing plates are loose, they admit moisture, which results in increase of
mechanical wear of the sleepers.
Traction and tractive resistance
There are a number of forces which resist the movement and speed of a train. The tractive
force employed by a locomotive should be adequate enough to overcome the resistance
offered by the locomotive, trailer load and other agencies against its movement.
Resistances can be classified as
1. Train resistance
2. Resistance due to track profile
3. Resistance due to starting and acceleration
4. Wind resistance
Train resistance
Train resistance can be classified into following categories
1. Resistance independent of speed
2. Resistance dependent of speed
3. Atmospheric resistances
Resistances independent of speed:
This resistance is due to the following reasons
Resistance due to friction is the resistance offered by the friction between the internal parts of
locomotives and wagons as well as between the metal surface of the rail and the wheel to a
train moving at a constant speed. This resistance is independent of speed and can be further
broken down into the following parts.
Journal friction This is dependent on the type of bearing, the lubricant used, the temperature
and condition of the bearing, etc
Internal resistance This resistance is consequential to the movement of the various parts of
the locomotive and wagons.
Rolling resistance This occurs due to rail-wheel interaction on account of the movement of
steel wheels on a steel rail. The total frictional resistance is given by the empirical formula
Rt1= 0.0016W
Resistance Dependent of speed

1. Track irregularities: if the track is not properly maintained due to irregularities,

additional resistance has to be overcome
2. Due to vertical movements: Due to improper joints and poor maintenance of track,
vertical movements of wheels on rails occurs creating resistance
Atmospheric resistance
This is resistance which is developed on the ends and sides of the train when wind velocity is
considered to be zero. It is low at lower speeds, but increases as the square of velocity as the
speed increases.
Rt3=0.0000006wv2

Resistance due to track profile

1. Resistance due to gradient
It may be noted here that when a train ascends a slope, extra effort is required to overcome
the resistance offered by the gradient.
Rg=w*slope
2. Resistance due to curves
When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to overcome the resistance
offered by the curvature of the track. Curve resistance is caused basically because of the
following reasons
(a) The vehicle cannot adapt itself to a curved track because of its rigid wheel base. This is
why the frame takes up a tangential position as vehicle tries to move in a longitudinal
direction along the curve. On account of this, the flange of the outer wheel of the leading axle
rubs against the inner face of the outer rail, giving rise to resistance to the movement of the
train
(b) Curve resistance can sometimes be the result of longitudinal slip, which causes the
forward motion of the wheels on a curved track. The outer wheel flange of the trailing axle
remains clear and tends to derail. The position worsens further if the wheel base is long and
the curve is sharp.
(c) Curve resistance is caused when a transverse slip occurs, which increases the friction
between the wheel flanges and the rails.
(d) Poor track maintenance, particularly bad alignment, worn out rails, and improper levels,
also increase resistance. Inadequate superelevation increases the pressure on the outer rail
and, similarly, excess superelevation puts greater pressure on the inner rails, and this also
contributes to an increase in resistance.
For B.G. Rc=0.0004wD
M.G. Rc=0.0003wD
N.G. Rc=0.0002wD
Resistance due to starting and Accelerating
Trains face these resistances at stations when they start, accelerate, and decelerate.
The values of these resistances are as follows:
Resistance on starting, Rs = 0.15W1+ 0.005W2
Resistance due to acceleration, Rac= 0.028aW
where W1 is the weight of the locomotive in tonnes, W2 is the weight of the vehicles in tonnes,
W is the total weight of the locomotive and vehicle in tonnes
Wind resistance

When a vehicle moves with speed, a certain resistance develops, as the vehicle has to move
forward against the wind. Wind resistance consists of side resistance, head resistance, and tail
resistance, but its exact magnitude depends upon the size and shape of the vehicle, its speed,
and wind direction as well as velocity. Wind resistance depends upon the exposed area of the
vehicle and the velocity and direction of the wind.
Rw= 0.000017AV
Ballast
The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular material placed
and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the
formation. It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.
Different types of ballast materials and their specifications are discussed in this chapter.
Functions of Ballast
The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.
3. Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.
4. Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
5. Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of theformation.
6. Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
7. Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateralstability.
8. Provides effective drainage to the track.
9. Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.
Requirements of a Good Ballast
Ballast material should possess the following properties.
1. It should be tough and wear resistant.
2. It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the moving loads.
3. It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
4. It should be non-porous and should not absorb waterIt should resist both attrition and
abrasion.
5. It should be durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under adverse
weather conditions.
6. It should allow for good drainage of water.
7. It should be cheap and economical.
Types of Ballast
The different types of ballast used on Indian Railways are described in the following.
Sand ballast
Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. It is also used with wooden and steel
trough sleepers in areas where traffic density is very low. Coarse sand is preferred in
comparison to fine sand. It has good drainage properties, but has the drawback of blowing off
because of being light. It also causes excessive wear of the rail top and the moving parts of
the rolling stock.
Moorum ballast
The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum. It is red, and sometimes
yellow, in colour. The moorum ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in new
constructions and also as sub-ballast. As it prevents water from percolating into the
formation, it is also used as a blanketing material for black cotton soil.
Coal ash or cinder

This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as the initial ballast in new
constructions since it is very cheap and easily available. It is harmful for steel sleepers and
fittings because of its corrosive action.
Broken stone ballast
This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. A good stone ballast is generally
procured from hard stones such as granite, quartzite, and hard trap. The quality of stone
should be such that neither is it porous nor does it flake off due to the vagaries of weather.
Good quality hard stone is normally used for high-speed tracks. This type of ballast works out
to be economical in the long run.
Other types of ballast
There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat ballast, gravel ballast, kankar stone
ballast, and even earth ballast. These types of ballast are used only in special circumstances.
Minimum depth of Ballast section

The load on the sleeper is transferred through the medium of the ballast to the
formation. The pressure distribution in the ballast section depends upon the size
and shape of the ballast and the degree of consolidation. Though the lines of
equal pressure are in the shape of a bulb, yet for simplicity, the dispersion of
load can be assumed to be roughly 45 to the vertical. In order to ensure that the
load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of the ballast should be
such that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other. For the even distribution
of load on the formation, the depth of the ballast is determined by the following
formula
Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 depth of ballast
If a BG track is laid with wooden sleepers with a sleeper density of N + 6, then
the sleeper spacing would be 68.4 cm. If the width of the sleeper is 25.4 cm,
then the depth of the ballast cushion would be

A minimum cushion of 1520 cm of ballast below the sleeper bed is normally

prescribed on Indian Railways

Advantages and disadvantages of different types of ballast

Type of ballast
Advantages
Disadvantages
Sand ballast
Good
drainage Causes excessive

properties
Cheap
No noise
produced on the

wear
Blows off easily
Poor retentively
of packing

Suitability

Suitable for CI
pot sleeper
tracks
Not suitable
for high-speed

Moorum
ballast

Coal ash or
cinder

track
Good packing
material for CI
sleepers

Track cannot be
maintained to high
standards

Cheap, if locally
available
Prevents water
from percolating
Provides
good
aesthetics

Very soft and turns

into dust
Maintenance of
track the difficult
Quality of track
average

Used as a subballast

Initial ballast
for new
construction

Easy availability

Harmful for steel

Normally used
in
yards and
sidings
Suitable for
repairs
of formations
floods and

on railways
Very

cheap
Good drainage

Broken stone
ballast

Hard and durable

when procured
from hard rocks
Good drainage
properties
Is stable, and
resilient to the
track
Economical in
the long run

sleepers
Corrodes rail
bottom and steel
sleepers
Soft and easily
pulverized
Maintenance is
difficult

Initial cost is high

Difficulties in
procurement
Angular shape may
injure wooden
sleepers

tracks

emergencies

Not fit for

high-speed
tracks

Suitable for
high speed
tracks

Problems
Calculate the maximum permissible load that a BG locomotive with three pairs of driving
wheels bearing an axle load of 22 t each can pull on a straight level track at a speed of 80
km/h. Also calculate the reduction in speed if the train has to run on a rising gradient of 1 in
200. What would be the further reduction in speed if the train has to negotiate a 4 curve on
the rising gradient? Assume the coefficient of friction to be 0.2
Hauling power of the locomotive = number of pairs of driving wheels wt exerted on
each pair coefficient of friction = 3 22 0.2 = 13.2 t
1. Maximum Permissible load
The total resistance negotiated by the train on a straight level track at a speed of 80 km/h:
R = Resistance independent of speed + resistance dependent on speed + resistance due to
wind
= 0.0016W + 0.00008WV + 0.0000006WV2
Substituting the value of V = 80 km/h

= 0.0016W + 0.00008 X 80W + 0.0000006 X 802 W

R = 0.01184W
Assuming total resistance = hauling power,
W 0.01184 = 13.2 t
W= 1115 t
2. Reduction in speed if the train has to run on an up gradient of 1in 200
On a gradient of 1 in 200, there will be an additional resistance due to gradient
equal to W % of slope.
R = Resistance independent of speed + resistance dependent on speed + resistance due to
wind+ W % of slope.
= 0.0016W + 0.00008WV + 0.0000006WV+W x slope
Substituting the value of w = 1115 t and slope = 1/200
= 0.0016 X 1115 + 0.00008 X 1115 X V + 0.0000006 X 1115 X V2+W x 1/200
Since hauling power = total resistance,
13.2=0.0016 X 1115 + 0.00008 X 1115 X V + 0.0000006 X 1115 X V2+W x 1/200
V=48.13
Reduction in speed = 80 48.13 = 31.87 km/h = 32 km/h
3. Along with the gradient of 1in 200 if there is a curve of 4 the reduction in speed is
calculated as
On a curve of 4 on a rising gradient of 1 in 200, curve resistance will be equal to
R == 0.0016W + 0.00008WV + 0.0000006WV+W x slope +0.0004 degree of curve W
(B.G resistance due to curve is = 0.0004 degree of curve W)
= 0.0016 X 1115 + 0.00008 X 1115 X V + 0.0000006 X 1115 X V2+W x 1/200+ 0.0004 4
W = 0.0016W
Hauling power of locomotive = total resistance. Therefore,
13.2 = 0.0016W + 0.00008WV + 0.0000006WV2 + 0.005W + 0.0016W
By substituting the value of W = 1115t in the equation and solving further,
V = 43.68 km/h
Further reduction in speed = 48.13 43.68 = 4.45 km/h. Therefore,
Maximum permissible train load = 1115 t
Reduction in speed due to rising gradient = 31.87 t
Further reduction in speed due to curvature = 4.45 km/h
Compute the steepest gradient that a train of 20 wagons and a locomotive can negotiate given
the following data: weight of each wagon = 20 t, weight of locomotive = 150 t, tractive effort
of locomotive = 15 t, rolling resistance of locomotive = 3 kg/t, rolling resistance of wagon =
2.5 kg/t, speed of the train =60 km/h
Rolling resistance due to wagons = rolling resistance of wagon weight of
wagon number of wagons
= 2.5 20 20 = 1000 kg = 1 t
Rolling resistance due to locomotive
= rolling resistance of locomotive wt of locomotive
= 3 150 = 450 kg = 0.45 t
total rolling resistance = rolling resistance due to wagons + rolling resistance
due to locomotive = 1.00 + 0.45 t = 1.45 t
total weight of train = weight of all wagons + wt of locomotive

= 20 20 + 150 = 550
total train resistance = rolling resistance + resistance dependent on speed + resistance due to
wind + resistance due to gradient
= 1.45 + 0.00008WV + 0.0000006WV2 + W/g
= 1.45 + 0.00008 550 60 + 0.0000006 550 60+ (550/g)
= 1.45 + 2.64 + 1.19 + (550/g) = 5.28 + (550/g)
Where g is the gradient.
Tractive effort of locomotive = Total train resistance
15 = 5.28 + (550/g)
= 56.5
= 1/56 = 1 in 56
Therefore, the steepest gradient that the train will be able to negotiate is 1 in 56