RADIAN IAS ACADEMY (Hi-Tech Coaching and Training Academy)

LOGICAL REASONING
LOGIC is the science and art of reasoning correctly, the
science of the necessary laws of thought; Reasoning is the
minds power of drawing conclusions and deducting
inference from premises. And so, Logical Reasoning implies
the process of drawing logical conclusions from given facts
in conformity to what is fairly to be expected or called for. It
must be noted that logical conclusions means what is
derived by reasoning or logic and not the universal truth or
universal fact. The given statement may contradicts to the
existing common facts.
For Example.

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SYLLOGISM

FEB.2013

(III) HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION: Correspond to the

conditions, and the conditional part starts with words such
as if.
Example: If I am late, I will miss the train. Here also,
proposition has two parts.
I.
II.

antecedent if I am late, and

consequent I will miss the train

(IV) RELATIONAL PROPOSITION: Denote the relation

between the subject and the predicate. The relation can be
(I) symmetrical (II) non-symmetrical or (III) asymmetrical.

Example: I. She is as tall as Pinki

All Chairs are Tables.
II. Jai is wiser than Roy
Then you no need to consider this as a false statement.
III. Tim is brother of Ria.
The Chair and Table mentioned here are not necessarily
the furniture. Chair and Table may mean anything. They are
mere English words, for Example Elephant need not be an
For the validity of drawing inference in an argument the
animal at all.
propositions are also classified on the basis of quality;
PROPOSITION: The logical proposition is an expression or
as Affirmative (Positive) or Negative, and Quantity; as
Universal or Particular
a statement which affirms or denies something, so that it
can be characterised as true or false, valid or invalid. Like
any other grammatical sentence, a proposition has a
a) UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE A Proposition
subject, a predicate and a copula connecting the two.
Only subjective term is distributed:
Example: I. All men are strong.
Example: Philosophers are intelligent.
II. All Birds have beaks.
Here, Philosophers the subject, intelligent is predicate
In the above statements, subject is All , i.e. All men
and are is copula.
and All birds; syllogism
The propositions can be classified into 4 categories.
(I) CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION: Emphasises what is
and what is not, i.e., a subject is a predicate or is not
predicate.
Example: I. All cats are dogs.
II. No hens are ducks.
Logically speaking, all cats must be dogs irrespective of the
truth that cats can never be dogs. So, also in second
sentence, no hens are ducks leaves no argument that some
hens may be ducks.
(II) DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION: Leave every scope of
confusion as they have either -------- or --------- in then
Example: Either she is dancing or she is singing.
These type of propositions give two alternatives.
I.
Antecedent i.e. she is dancing and
II.
Consequent i.e. or she is singing
The inferences drawn on such statements are probably true
or probably false. The right inference often depends on
ones own ability to sense and analyse the validity of the
logic.

b) UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE E Proposition:

Both subjective and predicative terms are distributed
Example I. No man is perfect
II. No fools are wise
In the above statements, the distributed term is No,
No one. When no man is perfect, then one who is
perfect cannot be man. Similarly, when no fools are
wise, then one who is wise cannot be a fool.
c) PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE I Proposition:
Neither of the terms is distributed.
Example: I. Some children are very naughty
II. Some politicians are dishonest
In the above statements, the distributed term is not
particular, i.e. some. When some children are naughty,
then some of those who are naughty may be children.
Similarly, when some politicians are dishonest, then
some dishonest men may be politicians. There is no
defined certainty.
d) PARTICULAR NEGATIVE: O Propositions:
Here the predicative term is distributed. Some used
with a negative sign is a particular negative proposition.
Example: I. Some students are not intelligent
II. All animals are not pets.
In the statement All animals may mislead it to be a
Universal negative but All with not is a particular
negative. However, words such as some mostly all
but one etc. are particular Propositions.

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PREMISE is a proposition stated or assumed for afterreasoning especially one of the two propositions in a
syllogism, from which the conclusion is drawn. Of the two
statements, the first is major premise and the second is
minor premise.
Example : All dogs are hens. (Major premise)
All pups are dogs. (Minor premise)

IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

Some Cs are Bs
All As are Cs
Some As are Cs
Some Cs are As

2. TWO UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENTS

TYPE 2
a) All As are Bs
b) All As are Cs

Inference: All pups are hens.

Conclusion:
I.
Some As are Bs
Based on the two premises, the inference is drawn.
II.
Some Bs are As
III.
Some As are Cs
TERM is a word used in a specially understood or defined
IV.
Some Cs are As
source which may be subject or predicate of a proposition.
V.
Some Bs are Cs
The terms in the major premise are called major terms and
VI.
Some Cs are Bs
that in the minor premise are called minor terms. The
middle term occurs in both the premise.
3. UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT AND
PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT
In the above example, dogs, hens and pups are three terms
a) All As are Bs
used. Of these hens is the major term, pups; is the minor
b) Some As are Cs / Some Cs are As
term and dogs is the connecting or the middle term.
Conclusion
INFERENCE is the act of drawing a logical conclusion from I.
Some As are Bs
II.
Some Bs are As
given premise. This logical deduction follows necessarily
III.
Some Cs are As/Some As are Cs
from the reasoning of given premises and not of the truth.
IV.
Some Cs are Bs
V.
Some Bs are Cs
1. UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITION
All As are Bs
Conclusion
Some As are Bs.
Some Bs are As
2. UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE PROPOSITION
No A is B.
Conclusion
No B is A.
Some As are not Bs

4. UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT &

UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE STATEMENT
a) All As are Bs.
b) No B is C/ No C is B.
Conclusion
I.
Some As are Bs.
II.
Some Bs are As.
III.
No C is B/ No. B is C.
IV.
Some Bs are not Cs.
V.
Some Cs are not Bs.
VI.
No A is C.
VII.
No C is A.
VIII.
Some As are not Cs.
IX.
Some Cs are not As.

Some Bs are not As

3. PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITION
Some As are Bs
Conclusion
Some Bs are As.
4. PARTICULAR NEGATIVE PROPOSITION
Some As are not Bs
Conclusion:

No conclusion follows.

1. TWO UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENTS

TYPE 1
a) All As are Bs
b) All Bs are Cs
Conclusion
I.
Some As are Bs
II.
Some Bs are As
III.
Some Bs are Cs
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5. UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT &

PARTICULAR NEGATIVE STATEMENT
a) All As are Bs.
b) Some As are not Cs.
Conclusion
I.
Some As are Bs.
II.
Some Bs are As.
III.
Some Bs are not Cs.
6. PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE STATEMENT &
UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE STATEMENT
a) Some As are Bs / Some Bs are As
b) No A is C / No B is C
Conclusion:
I.
Some Bs are As / Some As are Bs.
II.
No C is A / No C is B.
III.
Some As are not Cs / Some Bs are not Cs.
IV.
Some Cs are not As / Some Cs are not Bs.
V.
Some Bs are not Cs / Some As are not Cs.
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