INTRODUCTION

Semiconductors:Mostofthesolidscanbeplacedinoneofthetwo
classes:Metalsandinsulators. Metalsarethosethroughwhichelectric
chargecaneasilyflow,whileinsulatorsarethosethroughwhichelectric
chargeisdifficulttoflow. Thisdistinctionbetweenthemetalsandthe
insulatorscanbeexplainedonthebasisofthenumberoffreeelectronsin
them.Metalshavealargenumberoffreeelectronswhichactascharge
carriers, while insulators have practically no free electrons.

There are however, certain solids whose electrical conductivity is

intermediate between metals and insulators. They are called
Semiconductors.Carbon,siliconandgermaniumareexamplesofsemi
conductors. Insemiconductorstheoutermostelectronsareneitherso
rigidlyboundwiththeatomasinaninsulator,norsolooselyboundasin
metal.Atabsolutezeroasemiconductorbecomesanidealinsulator.

semiconductors - Theory and Definition

Semiconductorsarethematerialswhoseelectricalconductivityliesin
between metals and insulator. The energy band structure of the
semiconductorsissimilartotheinsulatorsbutintheircase,thesizeofthe
forbiddenenergygapismuchsmallerthanthatoftheinsulator. Inthis
classofcrystals,theforbiddengapisoftheorderofabout1ev,andthe
twoenergybandsaredistinctlyseparatewithnooverlapping.Atabsolute
o0,noelectronhasanyenergyeventojumptheforbiddengapandreach
theconductionband.Thereforethesubstanceisaninsulator.Butwhen
weheatthecrystalandthusprovidesomeenergytotheatomsandtheir
electrons,itbecomesaneasymatterforsomeelectronstojumpthesmall
( 1 ev) energy gap and go to conduction band. Thus at higher
temperatures, the crystal becomes a conductors. This is the specific
propertyofthecrystalwhichisknownasasemiconductor

Effect of temperature on conductivity of

Semiconductor
At0K,allsemiconductorsareinsulators.Thevalencebandatabsolute
zeroiscompletelyfilledandtherearenofreeelectronsinconduction
band. Atroomtemperaturetheelectronsjumptotheconductionband
due to the thermal energy. When the temperature increases, a large
numberofelectronscrossovertheforbiddengapandjumpfromvalence
toconductionband.Henceconductivityofsemiconductorincreaseswith
temperature.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors. In a pure
semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence
shell and therefore the entire material behaves as an insulator at low
temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake off the
valence electron. This energy becomes available to it even at room
temperature. Due to thermal agitation of crystal structure, electrons from
a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from which electron is freed, a
vacancy is created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is called a
hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond. As an
electron from covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in
the covalent bond from which the electron has moved. Since the direction
of movement of the hole is opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole
behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room temperature, a pure
semiconductor will have electrons and holes wandering in random
directions. These electrons and holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal to the
number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron
number density in conduction band, nh the hole number density in valence
band and ni the number density or concentration of charge carriers, then
ne=nh=ni

extrinsic semiconductors
Astheconductivityofintrinsicsemiconductorsispoor,sointrinsicsemi
conductorsareoflittlepracticalimportance. Theconductivityofpure
semiconductor can, however be enormously increased by addition of
somepentavalentoratrivalentimpurityinaverysmallamount(about1
to106partsofthesemiconductor).Theprocessofaddinganimpurityto
apuresemiconductorsoastoimproveitsconductivityiscalleddoping.
Such semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic
semiconductorsareoftwotypes:
i)

ntypesemiconductor

ii)ptypesemiconductor

n-type semiconductor
WhenanimpurityatombelongingtogroupVoftheperiodictablelike
Arsenicisaddedtothepuresemiconductor,thenfourofthefiveimpurity
electronsformcovalentbondsbysharingoneelectronwitheachofthe
fournearestsiliconatoms,andfifthelectronfromeachimpurityatomis
almostfreetoconductelectricity. Asthepentavalentimpurityincreases
thenumberoffreeelectrons,itiscalleddonorimpurity.Theelectronsso
setfreeinthesiliconcrystalarecalledextrinsiccarriersandthentype
Sicrystaliscalledntypeextrinsicsemiconductor. ThereforentypeSi
crystalwillhavealargenumberoffreeelectrons(majoritycarriers)and
haveasmallnumberofholes(minoritycarriers).

In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such
electronscreateadonorenergyleveljustbelowtheconductionbandas
showninfigure. Astheenergygapbetweendonorenergylevelandthe
conductionbandisverysmall,theelectronscaneasilyraisethemselvesto
conductionbandevenatroomtemperature.Hence,theconductivityofn
typeextrinsicsemiconductorismarkedlyincreased.

Inadopedorextrinsicsemiconductor,thenumberdensityofthe
conductionband(ne)andthenumberdensityofholesinthevalenceband
(nh)differfromthatinapuresemiconductor.Ifniisthenumberdensity
ofelectronsisconductionband,thenitisprovedthat
nenh=ni2

p-type semiconductor
Ifatrivalentimpuritylikeindiumisaddedinpuresemiconductor,the
impurityatomcanprovideonlythreevalenceelectronsforcovalentbond
formation.Thusagapisleftinoneofthecovalentbonds.Thegapacts
asaholethattendstoacceptelectrons.Asthetrivalentimpurityatoms
acceptelectronsfromthesiliconcrystal,itiscalledacceptorimpurity.
TheholessocreatedareextrinsiccarriersandtheptypeSicrystalso
obtainediscalledptypeextrinsicsemiconductor.Again,asthepureSi
crystalalsopossessesafewelectronsandholes,therefore,theptypesi
crystalwillhavealargenumberofholes(majoritycarriers)andasmall
numberofelectrons(minoritycarriers).

Ittermsofvalenceandconductionbandonecanthinkthatallsuchholes
createanaccepterenergyleveljustabovethetopofthevalancebandas
showninfigure.Theelectronsfromvalencebandcanraisethemselvesto
the accepter energy level by absorbing thermal energy at room
temperatureandinturncreateholesinthevalenceband.
Numberdensityofvalencebandholes(nh)inptypesemiconductoris
approximatelyequaltothatoftheacceptoratoms(Na)andisverylarge
ascomparedtothenumberdensityofconductionbandelectrons(ne).
Thus,
nhNa>>ne

lectrical resistivity of semiconductors

Considerablockofsemiconductoroflengthl1areaofcrosssectionAandhavingnumber
densityofelectronsandholesasn eandnhrespectively.Supposethatonapplyingapotential
difference,sayV,acurrentIflowsthroughitasshowninfigure.Theelectroncurrent(Ic)and
theholecurrent(Ih)constitutethecurrentIflowingthroughthesemiconductori.e.
I=Ie+Ih(i)
Itneisthenumberdensityofconductionbandelectronsinthesemiconductor
andve,thedriftvelocityofelectronsthen
Ie=eneAve
Similarly,theholecurrent,Ih=enhAvh
From(i)I=eneAve+enhAvh
I=eA(neve+nhvh)(ii)
Ifistheresistivityofthematerialofthesemiconductor,thentheresistance
offeredbythesemiconductortotheflowofcurrentisgivenby:
R=l/A(iii)
SinceV=RI,fromequation(ii)and(iii)wehave
V=RI=l/AeA(neve+nhvh)
V=le(neve+nhvh)(iv)
IfEistheelectricfieldsetupacrossthesemiconductor,then:
E=V/l(v)
fromequation(iv)and(v),wehave

E=e(neve+nhvh)
1/=e(neve/E+nhvh/E)

Onapplyingelectricfield,thedriftvelocityacquiredbytheelectrons(orholes)perunit
strengthofelectricfieldiscalledmobilityofelectrons(orholes).Therefore,
mobilityofelectronsandholesisgivenby:
e=ve/Eandh=vh/E
1/=e(nee+nhh)(vi)
Also,=1/iscalledconductivityofthematerialofsemiconductor
=e(nee+nhh)(vii)
Therelation(vi)and(vii)showthattheconductivityandresistivityofasemiconductordepend
upon the electron and hole number densities and their mobilities. As neand nhincreases with rise in
temperature, therefore,conductivity of semiconductor increases with rise in temperature and resistivity
decreaseswithriseintemperature

Semiconductor device applications

All transistor types can be used as the building blocks of logic gates,
which are fundamental in the design of digital circuits. In digital
circuits like microprocessors, transistors act as on-off switches; in
the MOSFET, for instance, the voltage applied to the gate determines
whether the switch is on or off.
Transistors used for analog circuits do not act as on-off switches;
rather, they respond to a continuous range of inputs with a continuous
range of outputs. Common analog circuits
include amplifiers and oscillators.
Circuits that interface or translate between digital circuits and analog
circuits are known as mixed-signal circuits.

Power semiconductor devices are discrete devices or integrated

circuits intended for high current or high voltage applications. Power
integrated circuits combine IC technology with power semiconductor
technology, these are sometimes referred to as "smart" power devices.
Several companies specialize in manufacturing power
semiconductors.

Reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device#Semiconductor_devi
ce_applications
http://www.wikinvest.com/industry/Foundry_Semiconductors

http://www.wisegeek.com/whatarethedifferenttypesofsemiconductor
applications.htm
http://www.renesas.eu/edge_ol/engineer/02/index.jsp