Materials Selection

Introduction
Purpose is to identify key factors influencing
material selection for pipeline systems
The aim of performing materials selection is to
assess the feasibility of different candidate
materials (including CRAs) to meet functional
requirements for linepipe and for other
components of a pipeline system.

Materials Selection Considerations

System Compatibility
Operational Parameters
Environmental Conditions
Corrosion Resistance
Linepipe Fabrication
Constructability

System Compatibility
Interface and Scope Break
Process equipment
Riser and landfall tie-in
Linepipe
Material constituents
Welding procedures
Corrosion control systems
Coatings
Components
Bends, fittings, wyes, tees
Expansion loops
Flanges, valves
Anchor flanges, supports

Operational Parameters
Fluid Composition
Product constituents
Time variation
Temperature
Steady state
Weld over- & under-match
Depressurization
Low temperature
fracture control

Environmental Conditions
Ambient Temperature
Installation
Riser tie-in
Soil Conditions

Corrosion Resistance
Internal Corrosion Factors
Fluid Composition
Sweet (CO2)
Sour (H2S)
Water (H2O, O2 and Cl)
Bacteria

Corrosion Resistance (cont.)

Internal Corrosion Mechanisms
Wall thickness reduction
Uniform
Pits
Grooves
Stress corrosion cracking
Pressure and loads
Internal Corrosion Significance
Leak
Rupture

Corrosion Resistance (cont.)

Internal Corrosion Mechanisms
Wall thickness reduction
Uniform
Pits
Grooves
Stress corrosion cracking
Pressure and loads
Internal Corrosion Significance
Leak
Rupture

Linepipe Fabrication Specification

Dimensions
Variation, Fit-up, Structural integrity

Strength
Elastic modulus, Yield strength, Variation

Ductility
Ultimate to yield strength ratio, Elongation
Index Parameters
Hardness, Fracture toughness

Constructability
Coatings, Welding, Installation demand

Linepipe Standards and Specifications

General Philosophy
Two specification levels
Standard (normal design conditions)
Stringent (more severe design conditions)

Onshore and offshore requirements

Guidance Documents
API Specification 5L
CSA Z245.1
DNV OS-F101
ISO 3183

Pipe specification
When the dimensions and service of the
pipeline are defined, the pipe material
specification can be defined.
This will require the pipe to conform to
requirements of the American Petroleum
Institute (API) 5L (or other standard, as
discussed later) with additional clauses to
ensure that the material will be fit for the
specific purpose.

 The material specification, quantities needed,

and delivery dates are sent to selected pipe
suppliers, who will review the specification
and open negotiations prior to giving a price
for supply.
The supplier will generally request
concessions, because their particular
fabrication procedures may not allow them to
meet all the requirements; the concessions
requested are usually reasonable but do not
have to be given.

 Over specification of the pipe material should

be avoided because it generally results in
extended negotiation with the suppliers.
Concessions given to one supplier normally
have to be extended to the others, and if
there are many concessions, this can result in
delay in supply.

Manufacturing procedure specification

Every kilometer length of a pipeline requires
82 pipe joints, each joint being about 12.2 m
long.
It is impractical to examine every pipe joint in
detail.
To ensure adequate quality, the manufacturer
is required to provide a manufacturing
procedure specification (MPS) for the pipe

In the MPS the complete details of pipe

fabrication are listed and quantified, including
the production of the steel,
the addition and check on alloying elements,
the casting of the steel,
the rolling to form plate or strip,
the fabrication of the pipe and welding
procedures used,
the post fabrication treatments, and
the testing and examination that will be done
to ensure adequate quality.

Manufacturing procedure qualification

Once the supplier is nominated, the first few
pipe joints are fabricated to the agreed MPS.
These joints are rigorously tested, including
extensive destructive testing, to check that
the pipe is fit for purpose.
Typical tests include the dimensional and
compositional checks, yield and tensile tests
on parent material and welds, and impact and
tear tests.

 Subject to these initial pipes passing the tests,

the supplier may then proceed to produce the
complete order to the MPS, which must be
strictly enforced.

Production testing
Despite everyones best efforts, it is possible for
the fabrication procedures to drift and produce
pipe that may not be fit for the purpose.
To avoid this risk, regular production testing is
done on a statistical sample of the produced
pipe.
Usually the testing is restricted to one pipe in
each heat or, for large heats, one pipe in every
50.
A heat is a single batch of cast steel, and the
volume varies widely among steel mills.

Material Properties
Strength requirement
A pipeline steel must have high strength while
retaining
ductility,
fracture
toughness, and
weldability.

 There is some conflict among these

properties.
Strength is the ability of the pipe steel (and
associated welds) to resist the longitudinal
and transverse tensile forces imposed on the
pipe in service and during installation.

Ductility is the ability of the pipe to absorb

overstressing by deformation.

 Toughness is the ability of the pipe material to

withstand impacts or shock loads and for the
material to tolerate the presence of defects,
for example, cracks and pits.
Weldability is the ability and ease of
production of a quality weld and heat-affected
zone (HAZ) of adequate strength and
toughness.
Most metals can be welded, but not all have
good weldability.

 For example, the parts of an aluminum alloy

airplane are held together with bolts, rivets,
and adhesive, rather than by welding.
For submarine pipelines, the prime factor
driving the need for good weldability is
economic.

The largest percentage cost of a submarine

pipeline is the installation, because of the high
cost of operating the lay barge.

 The balance of properties (strength, ductility,

toughness, and weldability) required depends
on the intended use of the pipeline.
An example of a severe service pipeline would
be a high-pressure sour gas/condensate
pipeline in Arctic conditions.

 Such a pipe would require heavy wall

thickness with high toughness at low
temperatures, while having resistance to
sulfide stress cracking and weldability.
The heavy wall thickness would complicate
the welding process.
Obtaining both high strength and toughness
without sacrificing weldability requires limited
alloying combined with complex
thermomechanical treatment of the steel
combined with microalloying.

 Yield strength is a primary design parameter.

As the yield strength increases, the wall

thickness requirement decreases.
A thinner pipe wall reduces material costs,
transportation costs, load on the lay barge
stinger, and welding costs.

Weldability
Alloying elements affect the weldability of the
steel.
During the welding, some hydrogen gas will be
dissolved into the austenite and will attempt
to escape when the material converts to
ferrite.
If martensitic or bainitic material has been
formed, the escape attempt can lead to
hydrogen cracking.

 Empirical formulas have been developed to

provide guidance on the level of alloying that
can be accepted while maintaining weldability
and avoiding hydrogen cracking.
The two most important formulas are the
international formula (used in API
Specification 5L) and the Ito-Bessyo formula,
also known as the parameter of crack
measurement (PCM) formula.

 These equations use empirical factors to

adjust each alloying element to a carbon
equivalent (CE) so that a single relative
number is obtained.
The equations are as follows:
International equation:

Ito-Bessyo (PCM) equation:

Measurement of strength
Yield strength is used as a major criterion for
design of a pipeline.
The standard strengths of line pipe are given
in Table 31.
The value generally quoted is the specified
minimum yield strength (SMYS).
The most common method of measurement
of yield strength (YST) and ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) is by pulling shaped samples
uniaxially.

 There are standardized specimen dimensions

and test procedures.
A typical relation between stress and strain is
shown in figure 2.
Stress is defined as the ratio between the
tensile force applied to the specimen and its
initial cross-sectional area before the test
began.
Strain is elongation over a defined gauge
length divided by the original gauge length.

Fig 2:Relation between stress and strain in a

tensile test

 The yield stress is conventionally defined as

the stress at which the strain reaches 0.005
(0.5%).
This is not the strain at which the material
begins to deform inelastically, which is
somewhat lower, about 0.002.
Continued deformation after yield leads to an
increased stress because of strain hardening.
The ultimate tensile stress is reached at a
much larger strain, typically about 0.20.

Ductility
Ductility of steel inevitably reduces as the
strength is increased.
A correct blend of strengthening mechanisms
should ensure that strength is achieved
without sacrificing too much ductility.
Ductility is measured in a tensile testing
machine as the percentage elongation of a
sample of the material at a defined tensile
stress that is slightly above the nominal yield
strength.

Characteristic
Plastic deformation or strain to fracture
Typically ductility with strength

Minimum Elongation
20% to 40% depending on the tensile strength of the
steel
SMYS to SMTS Ratio
0.92-0.95 Longitudinal
0.90-0.93 Transverse

Bend Tests
Flattening
Surface cracking

Consequences
Tensile rupture not deformation
Buckling not bending

Toughness
Toughness is a measure of the resistance of
the pipe material to impact loading when an
artificial defect is present.
Resistance to Fracture
Yield with ductile flow (Pipeline steel good;
Gray cast iron poor)
Engineering Requirements
Absorbed energy
Fracture appearance and shear area
Low temperature transition
Engineering Tools etc