Kos Botincan Dlesk

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...
Pomorstvo, god. 23, br. 2 (2009), str. 495-513
Tomislav Kos, Ph. D.

Maja Botinan, student
Ana Dlesk, univ. mag. ing.
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Computing
Unska 3
10000 Zagreb
Croatia
495
Preliminary communication
UDK:621.396.664
629.783
Received: 5th October 2009
Accepted: 2nd November 2009
MITIGATING GNSS POSITIONING ERRORS DUE TO

ATMOSPHERIC SIGNAL DELAYS
There are some fundamental limitations on positioning accuracy using satellite navigation technique. Several sources of errors limit the accuracy of GNSS
(Global Navigation Satellite System) positioning. The errors due to the earths atmosphere have the largest value and must be significantly reduced in order to
achieve more precise positioning results. The GNSS-based determination of the
position is based on the very accurate measurement of the satellite radio signal
propagation time between the satellite and the GNSS receiver aerials. GNSS signals change the propagation speed and direction as they pass through the atmosphere on their path from the satellite to the receiver, causing positioning errors.
The article deals with the methods for reducing positioning errors due to the satellite signal propagation through the earths atmosphere.
Key words: GNSS, positioning error, ionospheric delay, tropospheric delay, delay correction models.
1. INTRODUCTION
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is the standard term for all
satellite navigation systems that offer global coverage. GNSS includes the U.S.
GPS system, the Russian GLONASS system, the future European Galileo system, as well as the future Chinese Compass system. All GNSS systems operate
by the basic principle of calculating the users position by establishing the distance relative to the satellites with known positions. The distance is calculated
from the travel time of radio waves transmitted from the satellites. Satellites
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with a known position transmit regular time signals (ranging signals) at two
different frequencies in the L band. Assuming that radio waves travel at the
speed of light, the distances from satellites to the receiver are calculated by
multiplying the travel time by the speed of light. Almost 95% of the travel
time satellite signals pass through a vacuum with a constant speed. The last
5% of the path GNSS signals change the propagation speed as they pass
through the earths atmosphere. These signal delays through the atmosphere
should be corrected to avoid errors in the calculated distances (pseudoranges)
from the satellites to the receiver. The term pseudorange implies the measured raw range that should be corrected for different errors before calculating
the position. Pseudorange errors and positioning errors are of the same order.
GNSS systems can provide positioning accuracy which ranges from a few
millimetres to the tenth of meters, depending on the type of observables (code
or phase measurements) and positioning mode (stand alone receiver or in
augmented differential mode of operation). Most commercial GPS receivers
use only code measurements, obtaining position accuracy of the tenth of meters. For obtaining centimetre accuracy, RF carrier phase measurements of
GNSS signals are necessary as well as differential mode of operation. This is
used in RTF (Real Time Kinematic) surveying with application in geodesy,
cadastral, topographic and engineering survey. Millimetres accuracy is also
possible for precise static measurements applications, however not in realtime but using post-processing of the observables.
The positioning performance of GNSS systems is also affected by the geometry of the satellite positions in respect to the receiver, affecting all types of
measurements, which should also be considered. As the satellites move, the geometry varies with time. The DOP (Dilution of Precision) factor indicates the
quality of satellites geometry. DOP only depends on the positions of the satellites relative to the receiver location. With optimal satellite allocation in respect
to the receiver DOP factor is close to 1. While DOP factors of 2.5 are about the
worldwide average, this factor can range up to 10 or more with poor satellite
geometry. This means that the positioning error in the case of unfavourable satellite constellation would be 10 times higher than in optimal constellation. For
optimum constellation the volume of the space comprising the point of the receiver position and the points of satellites positions should be as large as possible. As the satellite positions can be calculated in advance, the quality of the
GPS position fix can also be calculated in advance, and precise positioning observations can be planned when the DOP is the most favourable.
The intention of this paper is to address the influence of the atmosphere
on the GNSS signal propagation and compare different mitigation techniques
to reduce or eliminate positioning errors due to the signal delay. Mitigation
techniques depend on the type of application considered and required positioning accuracy.

497
Concerning the earth atmosphere, there are two layers affecting the radio
propagation - the ionosphere and the troposphere, both having different properties, which will be described below. The propagation delay through these
layers differs in several important aspects. During active space and tropospheric weather conditions, the refractivity of the ionosphere and troposphere
can change drastically in time and space, causing significant degradation of
the positioning accuracy under these conditions for any GNSS satellite navigation system. Describing and proper modelling of atmospheric signal delays under virtually all conditions should allow correcting the signal delay, and reducing the positioning error.
There are also other parameters degrading the positioning performance
of any GNSS system. The error budget for the GNSS pseudorange observation can be expressed with:
P = R + c (Ts - tr) + ion + trop + mult + nr
(1)
where:
P - measured pseudorange,
R - geometrical range to the satellite,
c - speed of light in a vacuum,
Ts and tr - errors in the satellite and receiver clocks,
ion and trop - ionospheric and tropospheric signal delays,
mult - errors introduced by the multipath propagation, and
nr - receiver noise.
The GNSS positioning accuracy depends on how well all of the sources of
error can be measured, estimated or eliminated [1, 2, 3]. In this article the
ionospheric and tropospheric influences will be explained in more details.
Fig. 1 shows the structure of the atmosphere with ionospheric and tropospheric layers. Three different signal paths from satellites at low elevation to
satellites in the zenith direction are shown. The values of the delay depend on
the elevation angle to the satellite, as the length of the travelling path (slant
path) is different for these cases. For the ionosphere the variation of the delay
between the satellites with the elevation angle from 5 to the zenith direction
is by the factor of about 3, and for the troposphere by the factor greater than
10 [1]. This is due to fact that the troposphere begins at the earths surface,
and the ionosphere at the height of about 50 km.

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Figure 1. Different slant paths through the atmosphere from low elevation satellites
to the zenith path direction
Source: Author
GPS offers two services for different categories of the users. PPS (Precise
Positioning Service), offering better positioning performance, is intended for
authorised users and SPS (Standard Positioning Service) is intended for all
other GPS users. According to the SPS positioning and timing accuracy standard, the global average positioning domain accuracy horizontal error is 13 m
for 95% of time, and vertical error 22 m for 95% of time if all satellites available are visible [15]. This does not imply that positioning error cannot be lower or higher in some percentage of time.
2. IONOSPHERIC INFLUENCE ON GNSS SIGNALS

The ionosphere is the space within the Earths atmosphere, characterized by
the increased number of ionized particles. The ionosphere is extending in various layers from about 50 km height to more than 1500 km above the earth surface. The GNSS ionospheric delay is originated by a complex dynamics of the

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space weather. Space weather is a common name for physical and chemical
processes taking place in the space between the Sun and the Earth. The ionospheric delay of the satellite signal is caused by numerous processes both in the
ionosphere and within the Sun-Earth system. Particles and radiations expelled
from the Sun form the solar wind, which can cause disruption of the Earths
magnetic (geomagnetic) field and disturbance of the vertical distribution of ionised particles in the ionosphere. Stronger disturbances are expressed as ionospheric storms. Radiation from the Sun provokes ionization of the gas molecules, which releases free electrons. GNSS signals propagating through an
ionized medium are affected by nonlinear dispersion characteristics of the medium.
The ionospheric delay is proportional to the total amount of free electrons
- total electron content (TEC) encountered by the signal travelling from the
GNSS satellite to the GNSS receiver. The TEC value directly determines the
GNSS ionospheric delay, and delay d (usually expressed in metres) is described as:
d=
40.3 TEC
f2
(2)
where f is radio frequency (for single-frequency GPS receiver L1= 1575.42

MHz) and TEC is the Total Electron Content.
The total electron content between the satellite and the receiver can be
expressed as:
receiver
TEC
N (h)dh
(3)
satellite
where N(h) is free electron density at the height h above the Earths surface
(the vertical profile of the ionosphere).
The TEC is the key parameter for the mitigation of the ionospheric error.
The ionospheric delay causes ranging errors in the zenith direction that vary
typically from 1-3 m at night to 5-15 m in the mid-afternoon [1, 2, 3, 11, 13].
For the satellites at low elevations the maximum delay can be even more than
100 m, depending mostly on the solar activity. The influence of the ionospheric layers on radio signal propagation is frequency dependent, and different
frequencies have different signal delays, what is obvious from the equation (2).
This characteristic of the ionosphere can be efficiently used to mitigate the
signal delay.
GPS signals for the PPS service are transmitted at two different frequencies, to allow considerably reduction of the ionospheric delay error. Unfortunately, this service is not provided for commercial non-authorised users. All
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single frequency GNSS receivers need the real time mitigation of ionospheric
delay effects for reducing the positioning error.
Ionospheric Errors Correction
Three different strategies can be used to correct the ionospheric delay:
Measuring the difference of the GNSS signal delay at two transmitted
frequencies and calculating the delay in real time
Using mathematical models for the calculation of the GNSS signal delay
Using additional information provided by ground and space-based augmentations - differential GPS/GNSS
1) As the ionospheric delay is frequency dependent, dual-frequency transmission allows eliminating the most of the ionospheric effects. The pseudorange
P corrected for the ionospheric delay can be expressed with the equation:
2
P2 f1 P1
f2
P
2
f
1 1
f
2
(4)
where P1 and P2 are measured pseudoranges at two transmission frequencies f1

and f2 respectively [2, 3, 12]. Dual-frequency receivers are in this way capable
of calculating the ionospheric delay in real time, significantly reducing the positioning error.
Commercial civil GPS receivers are typical single frequency units not capable of correcting the ionospheric delay with the dual-frequency technique.
2) The GPS system uses the broadcast ionospheric correction algorithm designed to correct the ionospheric delay. This is the standard correction used by
almost all single-frequency GPS receivers. This model is usually named after its
inventor John Klobuchar [2, 3], although it is a simplified version of the earlier
more complex Bent model. The Klobuchar model provides two components in
modelling the diurnal GPS ionospheric delay distribution - a constant component representing the night value, and a variable component expressed by cosine
function representing the daily change of the GPS ionospheric error.
According to this simple analytical model the vertical ionospheric delay t
for the zenith direction at L1 frequency is expressed by the equation:
2P t A3
$t A1 A2 cos
A4
(5)
where A1=5 x 10-9seconds is a night-time DC value; A2 = 1+ 2+ 32+ 43

is amplitude; A3=14:00 (local time) is phase; t is local time;

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A4 = 1+ 2+ 32+ 43 is period; is geomagnetic latitude; and represent eight ionospheric parameters transmitted to the users [2]. To estimate the
actual ionospheric delay for any satellite elevation angle we must scale t by
the obliquity factor.
GPS satellites send the values of these eight parameters of the Klobuchar
model in the navigation message, so that single frequency receivers can compensate the ionospheric delay to a certain extent. These values are global ionospheric parameters and do not take into account possible regional ionospheric disturbances.
The Klobuchar model was a compromise between computational complexity and corrections accuracy, and provides successful correction of up to 60%
of the positioning error caused by the ionospheric delay during stable ionospheric conditions [2]. This model responds very slowly to fast changing of the
space weather condition and the ionospheric disturbances, which affects the
overall GPS positioning performance considerably. Severe ionospheric disturbances reshape the daily ionospheric delay distribution significantly, making a
destructive impact on the performance of the Klobuchar model and degrading
the positioning performance of the single frequency GPS receivers. During severe space weather, geomagnetic and ionospheric disturbances, the Klobuchar
model provides poor performance, even increasing the GPS ionospheric delay
error instead of correcting it.
The availability of dual-frequency GPS pseudorange observations at the
Dubrovnik site and the GPS satellite data (ephemeris and broadcast model
parameter) for the time period in question provided the opportunity for analysing the performance of the standard Klobuchar model. Taken from our previous research paper [5] fig. 2 presents the curves for the measured and modelled ionospheric delay in the zenith direction using the Klobuchar model for
a typical 24 hour period. The cosine shape of the modelled variable component is noticeably.
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Figure 2. Daily distribution of the zenith path ionospheric delay over

Dubrovnik on 22nd September 2005 [5]
As the Klobuchar model does not take into account local ionospheric conditions that significantly contribute to the general GPS ionospheric delay,
many research activities conducted worldwide are analysing the observed GPS
ionospheric delay dynamics and the relation to local ionosphere conditions. In
our recent research we analysed daily GPS ionospheric delay dynamics observed along the Croatian coastal area of northern Adriatic in the periods of
quiet space weather in 2007, and suggested some modifications of the Klobuchar model [6].
There are also some other versions of ionospheric delay models under research, performing much better than the mentioned Klobuchar model. A better correction of the ionospheric range delay can be obtained using a more sophisticated model requiring hundreds of coefficients. In the framework of the
European positioning system Galileo, a quick-run empirical model NeQuick
was chosen. NeQuick is a three-dimensional and time dependent ionospheric
electron density model [6]. This global model provides monthly median electron density profiles for the given time, location and solar flux. It allows calculation of the electron concentration at any given location in the ionosphere.
The total electron content can be computed by electron density integration
along the satellite signal travelling paths. NeQuick is based on monthly median maps of ionosonde parameters.
3) The differential GPS offers the ability to reduce or eliminate many GPS
measurement errors [2, 3, 14]. It involves the use of two receivers, one stationary
at a reference station, and the other roving in the vicinity of the reference station. These receivers simultaneously track GPS signals from the same satellites.

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By knowing the exact coordinates of the reference station, errors in the GPS
measurements taken at the reference receiver can be estimated. The reference
station estimates the error component of each satellite range measurement, and
forms a correction for each satellite in view. As both the reference and the remote receivers track the same satellites, the errors estimated at the reference
station can be used as real-time differential corrections for the measurements
taken at the remote receivers locations. These corrections can be distributed to
the users in many different ways, as radio signals and even through the internet.
The positioning performance of the remote receivers in differential mode is
more accurate than in the case of a single-point stand-alone positioning. The
satellite clock error is totally eliminated, and ionospheric, tropospheric and orbital errors are also greatly reduced in differential mode of operation [2, 3, 14].
However, multipath and receiver noise are neither eliminated nor reduced with
the DGPS corrections. Multipath is not receiver or satellite dependent, and receiver noise is not site-dependent. Over longer distances, DGPS corrections become less accurate causing degradation in the resulting positioning accuracy,
because of the spatially decorrelation of errors. The expected accuracies with
the DGPS corrections range from 1 to 5 m [2].
With the growing demand for an accurate and reliable worldwide differential GPS positioning, there has been a significant move towards the use of real-time GPS augmentation systems with wide area differential positioning capabilities. The U.S. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and the
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay system (EGNOS) are good examples of such a move. The EGNOS is a satellite based augmentation system
(SBAS) intended to supplement the GPS, GLONASS and Galileo systems. It
consists of three geostationary satellites and a network of ground reference
stations. Using corrections transmitted from these geostationary satellites the
horizontal position accuracy can be at the metre level.
In the modernisation of the GPS system dual frequency transmission for
civil users is planned, and in the near future the first method of mitigating the
error will be available for them. To fully exploit the benefits of the modernised
GPS system, a new generation of dual frequency receivers should be provided.
This will solve the problem of ionospheric delay affecting positioning performance of a GPS system. But even after the modernisation of the GPS system,
there will still be billions of GPS users all over the world having their old single frequency receivers, using the Klobuchar ionospheric model implemented
in the receiver. They will benefit from using the DGPS differential corrections
to achieve better positioning accuracy, within a few metres range.
The new European Galileo system will provide a wide range of improved
and more reliable services to the users. Several types of signals will be provided, from one free to anyone signals for specific users such as safety of life and
governmental users. Galileo satellites will transmit signals at several frequencies, to allow efficient mitigation of ionospheric errors in real time for several
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categories of users. Galileo will deliver positioning accuracy in the metre range
with unrivalled integrity.
3. TROPOSPHERIC INFLUENCE ON GNSS SIGNALS

The troposphere is a lower part of the neutral atmosphere, extending from
the earths surface up to an altitude of approximately 16 km at the equator
and 8 km at the poles, composed of dry gases and water vapour. The propagation speed of all radio signals below 30 GHz travelling through the neutral atmosphere is lower than in the free space, so all GNSS signals, regardless of
frequency, are slowed equally. Since tropospheric delay is not frequency dependent, it cannot be estimated directly like the ionospheric delay, but must
be modelled. Water vapour and dry gases found in the neutral atmosphere influence not only the propagation speed of the radio signal, but cause also
bending the signal travelling path. The magnitude of the tropospheric delay
depends on the refractive index of the atmosphere along the propagation path,
which depends mainly on the atmospheric pressure, temperature and relative
humidity (water vapour pressure).
3.1. Tropospheric Errors Correction
We can use several strategies to correct the errors caused by the tropospheric effects:
1) Ignore the tropospheric delay
2) Presume and use a constant value of the zenith path delay
3) Estimate the delay from the surface meteorological observation data
4) Predict the delay from empirically-derived climatologically data
5) Use additional information provided by a differential GPS station
1) The simplest strategy could be to ignore the tropospheric delay. This
would cause an error in the calculated distance to the satellite varying between
2 m to more than 20 m [11, 14], depending on the elevation angle to the satellite. In the zenith direction the delay has the lowest magnitude, as the signal
travelling path through the troposphere is the shortest. In the zenith direction
there is no signal path bending, but for other elevation angles path bending
causes additional ranging error.
2) As the tropospheric delay is rather constant, with the value for average
tropospheric delay typically varying about 5% from monthly average conditions, and by less than 20% over the entire earth, we can take an average value
of the zenith path delay during all seasons and use it for reducing the ranging
error. For mapping the zenith delay to other elevation angles a mapping function should be used.

505
3) The effect of the tropospheric delay on the GPS signal can be modelled
using surface meteorological parameters, such as temperature, pressure and
relative humidity. The tropospheric delay of the GPS satellite signal is caused
by the refractivity gradients in the low atmosphere. The refractivity of the
troposphere can be divided into hydrostatic and wet components. The refractive index can be expressed as the sum of the hydrostatic or dry (ZHD) and
non-hydrostatic or wet refractivity (ZWD). The hydrostatic component contributes to approximately 90% of the total tropospheric delay, and can be
modelled very accurately. A typically hydrostatic delay varies from 2m to 20m
and represents about 90 percent of the total delay. The variation of water vapour in the atmosphere varies greatly with time and location, and the wet component is much more difficult to model efficiently. The wet component delay
varies from 0.2m to 2m. Minimal values are obtained for the zenith path direction, and maximal values for low elevation signals when the satellite is near
the horizon. For most GNSS applications accepting positioning error of several meters, the influence of the wet component to the total tropospheric delay
is irrelevant, but for high precision positioning it is essential to calculate with
both the tropospheric components. To estimate the combined tropospheric
delay, a model of the standard atmosphere is usually used to determine the
zenith path delay, and a mapping function should be used to determine the
tropospheric delay for other satellite elevation angles. Mapping functions are
usually not accurate for elevations <5, which should not be a problem [11].
Low elevation satellites are not generally used for positioning, as in real environment obstacles like buildings, trees, vehicles, mountains and others can
block signals from low elevation satellites.
A lot of researchers have examined the performance of currently available
tropospheric delay models used in geodesy (Hopfield, Saastamoinen) and indicated that the zenith delay model of Saastamoinen is in general better than
the others [8-12].
The total tropospheric delay ZTD using the Saastamoinen model comprising both the dry and the wet components, with incorporated mapping function
[12] can be computed as:
ZTDSaas
0.002277
1255
p
0.05 e B tan 2
cos z
T
z DR
(6)
where p is the atmospheric pressure in hPa, e is the partial pressure of water

vapor in hPa, T is the temperature in Kelvin, z is the zenith angle, and B is the
correction term for the refined Saastamoinen model with values from the table (values are between 1.156 for the height 0 m and 1.079 for 500 m). R is
the correction term for the northern latitudes over 60.
4) The strategy that does not require real-time meteorological input provides an estimate of the zenith tropospheric delay depending on the receivers

506
height and empirical estimates of meteorological parameters pressure, temperature, water vapor pressure, temperature lapse rate and water vapour lapse
rate [8-12]. The values of each of these five meteorological parameters are computed from a table, using only the receiver height, latitude and day of the year as
input. The values in the table are estimates of the yearly averages of the climatologic parameters and their associated seasonal variations, derived primarily from
the North American meteorological data. The representative of this navigation-type model is the RTCA MOPS (Minimum Operational Performance
Standard) or WAAS/EGNOS (Wide Area Augmentation System/European
Geo-stationary Navigation Overlay System). The MOPS/WAAS/EGNOS model
presumes constant values for all parameters in the region of 15 around the
equator, and symmetry between the northern and southern hemisphere. Each
meteorological parameter is computed using the following equation:
2P D Dmin
X F , D X 0 F $X F cos
365.25
(7)
where Dmin= 28 for northern latitudes, Dmin= 211 for southern latitudes, 0 is
the average value and seasonal variation for a particular parameter at the
receiver latitude (obtained through linear interpolation). and D are the receiver latitude and day of year.
The zenith delay at a particular height H over the sea level is computed by
summing up the hydrostatic and wet components given in equations (8) and
(9):
g
d hyd
6
BH Rd B 10 k1 Rd p
1

T
gm
d wet
BH
1
L 1 g 1
Rd B
10 6 k 2 Rd
e
g m L 1 BRd T
(8)
(9)
where p, T, e are pressure (in mbar), temperature (in Kelvin) and vapour pressure at mean sea level (in mbar), and water vapour lapse rate (dimensionless) and temperature lapse rate (in K/m) at the given latitude, g = 9.80665 m/
s2 and k1, k2, Rd, and gm are constant coefficients.
Modifications of this kind of models are referred to as blind tropospheric
correction models. Modifications include modelling of meteorological parameters by harmonically functions representing diurnal and seasonal variations.
The coefficients of these harmonically functions can be derived by leastsquares adjustment over a period of several years using world-wide numerical
weather field data. This new correction approach is intended for the European

507
satellite navigation system Galileo, and should offer a global accuracy improvement of about 25% in average in comparison to the MOPS/EGNOS
model [13]. The advantage of this strategy is that no real-time measurements
are needed, which is cost-effective and practical for a lot of applications.
5) In the differential mode of operation the GPS receiver can reduce or
eliminate many GPS measurement errors, as mentioned in the previous chapter. Ionospheric, tropospheric and orbital errors are greatly reduced in the differential mode of operation [2, 3, 14].
Different strategies presented in this paper can be used for different applications, providing different positioning accuracy. Positioning accuracy is not
the only criterion for selecting an error mitigation strategy. In order to check
the efficiency of different types of tropospheric delay models, we compared it
in our research.
3.2. Evaluation of Tropospheric Models Performance
As the thickness of the tropospheric layer is different from the equatorial
region (up to 16 km) to the polar region (approximately 8 km), we selected
three locations at different latitudes for our research:
Sodankyla, Finland at 6725 N, 2635 E, Altitude 179 m;
Zagreb, Croatia at 4550 N, 1559 E, Altitude 123 m and
Fortaleza, Brazil at 377 S, 3857 E, Altitude 19 m, as shown on the world
map on fig. 3.
Figure 3. Locations of the measuring stations at a different latitude.

Source: Author

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This allows analysing the variation of tropospheric delay values at a different latitude. For these stations we calculated the zenith tropospheric delay using the Saastamoinen and MOPS/EGNOS model and compared the results
with other strategies for correcting the tropospheric delay. In our previous research work [8, 9] the Saastamoinen model showed very good agreement with
the measured zenith path tropospheric delay at different locations, with the
largest differences of the measured and the calculated tropospheric delay values of less then 45 mm, and the mean value varying between 8 and 20 mm.
After successfully proofing the accuracy of the Saastamoinen model, our
decision was to use it as a reference in our study, and compare it to other
methods of mitigating the tropospheric delay. For the Saastamoinen model we
used the archive of the measured meteorological parameters for particular locations available at the web site http://www.weatheronline.co.uk [16, 17]. Here
are the results of our evaluation.
Figure 4. Zenith tropospheric delay for Sodankyla, Finland, for the 12 month period
Source: Author
Figure 5. Zenith tropospheric delay for Zagreb, Croatia, for the 12 month period
Source: Author

509
Figure 6. Zenith tropospheric delay for Fortaleza, Brazil, for the 12 month period
Source: Author
For the middle latitudes region the MOPS/EGNOS model presumes the
seasonal variation of the zenith tropospheric delay of 110 mm. For higher latitudes like Sodankyla, Finland (6725 N), the seasonal variation is about 99
mm. In the equatorial region there is no seasonal variation according to the
MOPS/EGNOS model.
As the used archive has available data for minimum and maximum daily
temperatures, we calculated the total variations of the zenith tropospheric delay for every day using the Saastamoinen model. Taking into account the significant daily variation of the temperature, the Saastamoinen model shows
considerably greater variation of the zenith tropospheric delay. For the year
2006, at the equatorial region the zenith tropospheric delay (ZTD) varied between 2515 and 2665 mm, at middle latitudes from 2280 to 2640 mm, and at
higher latitudes from 2220 to 2480 mm over the whole year.
For the station Fortaleza, the maximal deviation between the MOPS/EGNOS and Saastamoinen model is 117.6 mm, and the mean value is 40.73 mm.
For the station Sodankyla, the maximal deviation between these models is
104.8 mm, and the mean value is 40.70 mm. For Zagreb, the maximal deviation is 184.6 mm, and the mean value is 49.02 mm.
Table 1. shows the ranging errors due to the tropospheric delay for different mitigation scenarios.

510
Table 1. Tropospheric delay for the zenith direction and for low elevation satellites
Strategy
ignore the delay
use a constant value of 2.3 m
use the Saastamoinen model
use the MOPS/EGNOS model
use the differential GPS
Max. ZTD
ranging error
2.6 m
0.3 m
0.05 m
0.18 m
0.2 m
Average ZTD
ranging error
2.4 m
0.1 m
0.02 m
0.05 m
0.1 m
Low elevation
ranging error (5)
26 m
3m
0.5 m
1.8 m
>0.2 m
Source: Author
Analyzing the table 1 we can see different values of the ZTD ranging errors, from a few centimetres to a few meters.
If we ignore the tropospheric delay, we have a ranging error near the equatorial plane from 2.6 to 26 m depending on the elevation to the satellite. In the
polar region the tropospheric delay is a little smaller. Such an error is not acceptable, and the tropospheric delay usually shouldnt be ignored.
Using the constant value of the zenith tropospheric delay could be the
simplest acceptable solution. This method has the maximum ranging error of
3 m for low elevation satellites, which could be adequate for most applications.
Using the tropospheric model with available real-time, local meteorological parameters could be the best solution for users who require a top positioning performance. The ranging error is about 5 cm for the zenith direction, and
less then 0.5 m for low elevation satellites. This should be adequate for most
applications needing precise positioning with less than one meter error.
The use of the MOPS/EGNOS model, based on average meteorological
conditions, has definitely the advantage that it does not require real-time meteorological measurements. It offers fairly satisfactory accuracy of less than 20
cm error for the zenith direction. The maximal error for low elevation satellites of less than 2 m in all seasons is also very acceptable.
Differential corrections offer the best positioning performance, but if the
reference station and the user are at significantly different altitudes, variations
in the tropospheric delay could be large. For low elevation satellites residual
ranging error can be 2-7 mm per meter of altitude difference [4]. This method
also requires transmission of real-time corrections.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The GNSS signal propagation velocity is affected by the Earths atmosphere. The change of the signal travelling time through the atmospheric layers
causes ranging errors. This article analyzes different strategies for mitigating

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GNSS positioning errors due to atmospheric signal delays. Due to the ionospheric delay, the ranging error can vary from 5 to 15 m in the zenith direction, and up to 100 m for low elevation satellites. The ionospheric delay has
high diurnal, seasonal and solar cycle variability, and must be corrected to
achieve a better positioning performance. A permanent monitoring of the
structure and dynamics of the ionosphere is necessary to reduce problems associated with the ionospheric impact on the GNSS performance. The ionospheric delay can be very efficiently mitigated using dual frequency measurements, but for civil users this technique is not available yet. For single
frequency receivers GPS uses the Klobuchar ionospheric correction model for
increasing the positioning accuracy of the system, allowing the reduction of errors by 60%. The values of the parameters for the Klobuchar model are specified in the navigation message broadcasted by GPS satellites. There are also
other more sophisticated ionospheric delay models under research, performing much better than the Klobuchar model. One of them is the NeQuick model, adopted for single-frequency positioning applications in the European Galileo project.
The differential mode of operation allows the removal of a variety of positioning errors, and achieves positioning accuracy within a meter range. It is
very efficient for the removal of ionospheric as well as tropospheric delay errors.
The tropospheric delay, although with a much lower seasonal variability,
should also be considered to improve the positioning performance. The ranging error due to the tropospheric delay could vary from 2 m in the zenith direction to more than 25 m for low elevation satellites. Depending on the used
method of mitigating the error, expected errors can be reduced to a few centimetres in the zenith direction and a few meters for low elevation satellites.
Our experimental research analysing the efficiency of the MOPS/EGNOS
model over a one year period at three different latitudes, showed a very acceptable performance of this model for most users applications, with the
greatest advantage that it does not require real-time meteorological measurements.
Mitigating the ionospheric as well as the tropospheric delay is essential for
high precision positioning in geodesy, cadastral, topographic and engineering
survey. Using efficient ionospheric delay mitigation and tropospheric delay
models with real-time meteorological data, allows the most precise measurements and is unavoidable for getting centimetres level of precision.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was conducted under the research project:
Environment for Satellite Positioning (036-0361630-1634), supported by the
Ministry of Science, Education and Sport of the Republic of Croatia.
512

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Klobuchar, J. A., J. M. Kunches, Comparative range delay and variability of the
earths troposphere and the ionosphere. GPS solutions 7, Eye on the Ionosphere,
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[2] Parkinson, B. W., J. J. Spilker Jr, Global Positioning System: Theory and applications, Washington, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.,
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[3] Kaplan, E. D., Understanding GPS. Principles and Applications, Artech House,
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[4] Misra, P., P. Enge, Global Positioning System - Signals, measurements and performance, Ganga-Jamuna Press 2001, 2004.
[5] Filjar, R., T. Kos, I. Markezic, GPS Ionospheric Error Correction Models, Proceedings of 48th International Symposium Elmar-2006, Zadar, Croatia, 2006.,
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[6] Filjar, R., T. Kos, S. Kos, Klobuchar-Like Local Model of Quiet Space Weather
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T=euro&UP=0&R=150
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T=samk&UP=0&R=150

513
Saetak
SMANJIVANJE POGREAKA ODREIVANJA POZICIJE
USLIJED ATMOSFERSKOG KANJENJA RADIOSIGNALA
Postoje temeljna ogranienja tonosti odreivanja poloaja koritenjem sustava satelitske navigacije. Razliiti uzroci pogreaka smanjuju tonost pozicioniranja GNSS (engl. Global Navigation Satellite System) sustava. Pogreke
izazvane prolaskom radiosignala kroz Zemljinu atmosferu imaju najvei utjecaj
te se moraju znaajno umanjiti ako se eli ostvariti preciznije utvrivanje pozicije.
Odreivanje poloaja koritenjem GNSS sustava temelji se u osnovi na vrlo preciznom mjerenju vremena rasprostiranja radiosignala od satelita do GNSS prijamnika. Nailaskom na Zemljinu atmosferu GNSS radiosignali mijenjaju i brzinu rasprostiranja i smjer irenja, to ima kao posljedicu pogreku u izraunavanju
poloaja. lanak obrauje razliite metode koje se koriste za smanjivanje pogreke
u odreivanju pozicije izazvane utjecajem Zemljine atmosfere na rasprostiranje
radiosignala sa satelita.
Kljune rijei: GNSS, pogreke pozicije, ionosfersko kanjenje, troposfersko
kanjenje, modeli za korekciju kanjenja
Dr. sc. Tomislav Kos

Maja Botinan, student
Ana Dlesk, mag. ing.
Sveuilite u Zagrebu
Fakultet elektrotehnike i raunarstva
Unska 3
10000 Zagreb

Kos Botincan Dlesk

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T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

Pomorstvo, god. 23, br. 2 (2009), str. 495-513

Tomislav Kos, Ph. D.

MITIGATING GNSS POSITIONING ERRORS DUE TO

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

2. IONOSPHERIC INFLUENCE ON GNSS SIGNALS

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

where f is radio frequency (for single-frequency GPS receiver L1= 1575.42

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

where P1 and P2 are measured pseudoranges at two transmission frequencies f1

where A1=5 x 10-9seconds is a night-time DC value; A2 = 1+ 2+ 32+ 43

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

Figure 2. Daily distribution of the zenith path ionospheric delay over

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

3. TROPOSPHERIC INFLUENCE ON GNSS SIGNALS

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

where p is the atmospheric pressure in hPa, e is the partial pressure of water

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

Figure 3. Locations of the measuring stations at a different latitude.

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

T. KOS, M. BOTINAN, A. DLESK: Mitigating GNSS Positioning Errors...

Dr. sc. Tomislav Kos

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