PHARMACEUTICAL BULLETIN

Pharmaceutical Bulletin 23
Edition: May 31, 2011
Previous Editions: August 15, 2005 / October 29, 2008

Bioadhesion
Carbopol* polymers have been used worldwide for many years to thicken, modify flow characteristics,
emulsify, and suspend insoluble ingredients. Recently, interest in their mucoadhesive properties has
grown dramatically. Today, Lubrizol Advanced Materials, Inc. polymers are the industry standard for
bioadhesive applications. Noveon* polycarbophil, Carbopol polymers, and Pemulen* polymeric
emulsifiers offer innovative opportunities in novel drug delivery systems where mucous membranes are
targeted, including ophthalmic, buccal, nasal, intestinal, vaginal and rectal applications.

Benefits of Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in

Bioadhesive Formulations
Many commercial oral and topical products available today have been formulated with Lubrizol
pharmaceutical polymers, as they have numerous features which provide key benefits in bioadhesive
formulations. Lubrizol pharmaceutical polymers:

Are safe and effective in oral and topical applications.

Are bioadhesive, enabling increased bioavailability of ophthalmic, nasal, buccal, intestinal,
rectal and vaginal formulations.
May protect proteins and peptides from degradation by proteolytic enzymes, enabling increased
bioavailability of protein or peptide-based formulations.
Are approved by many of the worlds pharmacopoeias, facilitating regulatory approvals
worldwide.
Formulations based on Lubrizol pharmaceutical polymers are stable to repeated freezing and
thawing, as well as autoclaving.

Lubrizol Advanced Materials, Inc. / 9911 Brecksville Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44141-3247 / TEL: 800.379.5389 or 216.447.5000
The information contained herein is believed to be
reliable, but no representations, guarantees or
warranties of any kind are made as to its accuracy,
suitability for particular applications or the results to be
obtained therefrom.
The information is based on
laboratory work with small-scale equipment and does
not necessarily indicate end product performance.
Because of the variations in methods, conditions and

equipment used commercially in processing these

materials, no warranties or guarantees are made as to
the suitability of the products for the application
disclosed.
Full-scale testing and end product
performance are the responsibility of the user. Lubrizol
Advanced Materials, Inc. shall not be liable for and the
customer assumes all risk and liability of any use of
handling of any material beyond Lubrizol Advanced

Materials, Inc.s direct control. THE SELLER MAKES NO

WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING,
BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Nothing contained herein is
to be considered as permission, recommendation, nor
as an inducement to practice any patented invention
without permission of the patent owner.

For further information, please visit www.pharma.lubrizol.com

Lubrizol Advanced Materials, Inc. is a wholly owned subsidiary of The Lubrizol Corporation
* Trademark owned by The Lubrizol Corporation
Copyright 2011 / The Lubrizol Corporation

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Introduction to Bioadhesion
Bioadhesion (or mucoadhesion) is generally understood to define the ability of a biological or synthetic
material to stick to a mucous membrane, resulting in adhesion of the material to the tissue for a
protracted period of time. This concept has received a significant degree of attention, due to potential
applications in drug delivery and enhanced drug bioavailability which results from the lengthened period of
time in which the bioadhesive dosage form is in contact with the absorbing tissue versus a standard
dosage form.
In order for a material to be bioadhesive, it must interact with mucus, which is a highly hydrated, viscous
anionic hydrogel layer protecting the mucosa. The mucin is composed largely of flexible glycoprotein
chains, which are crosslinked as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Schematic representation of mucus

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Measuring Bioadhesion
Bioadhesion is a difficult phenomenon to measure. Results of bioadhesion tests vary widely depending on
the factors considered when designing the test. Some of the more common causes of differences
between measurements include the test method itself and the specific property being measured.
For instance, while most tests measure stress-strain curves at low amplitudes, test results vary in
relationship to whether the force of adhesion or the work of adhesion is measured.
The force of
adhesion, or peak adhesion strength, refers to the peak height of the stress-strain curve, which represents
the force required to separate the probe from the substrate. Work of adhesion is the area under the
stress-strain curve. It incorporates information regarding the energy required to completely sever the
adhesive bond. Some tests also incorporate tangential shear.
There are many different models typically used to describe adhesion which range from the simple to the
complex. Biological systems tend to be more complicated, which makes in vitro modeling more difficult.
Specifically, pH conditions are important to the results of the study, as greatest bioadhesion tends to be
demonstrated under acidic conditions. In addition, factors such as the ionic strength of the test fluid
especially the presence of divalent ions such as calcium will also have an impact on the measurement of
bioadhesion as test materials and models vary.

Bioadhesion Models
Here are adhesion models for biological systems listed in order of increasing complexity:

Model 1 Viscoelastic adhesive / smooth, inflexible, impermeable substrate(s).

Model 2 Viscoelastic adhesive / rough or flexible or permeable or anisotropic substrate, or adhesive
has specific chemical interactions with substrate.
Model 3 Viscoelastic adhesive / rough or flexible or permeable or anisotropic substrate, or adhesive
has specific chemical interactions with substrate; with mass transfer between phases
(adhesive & substrate).
Model 4 Anisotropic adhesive; rough or flexible or permeable or anisotropic substrate, or adhesive has
specific chemical interactions with substrate.
Model 5 Anisotropic adhesive which changes with time / rough or flexible or permeable or anisotropic
substrate, or adhesive has specific chemical interactions with substrate.
Model 6 Anisotropic adhesive which changes with time / rough or flexible or permeable or anisotropic
substrate, or adhesive has specific chemical interactions with substrate; with mass transfer
between phases.
Model 7 Anisotropic adhesive which changes with time / rough and/or flexible and/or permeable and/or
anisotropic substrate, and/or adhesive has specific chemical interactions with substrate; with
mass transfer between phases.
Model 8 Anisotropic adhesive which changes with time / rough and flexible and permeable or
anisotropic substrate, and adhesive has specific chemical interactions with substrate; with
mass transfer between phases; substrate also changes with time.
Model 1 is used to predict bioadhesion by Lubrizol Advanced Materials, Inc. Model 8 is typical of a real tablet dosage form
with bioadhesive activity, while Model 3 is fairly typical of a syrup, ocular or oral suspension dosage model in vivo.
Isotropic = the same in all directions

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To further complicate in vitro / in vivo correlations, the rate of mucus turnover will have an impact on in
vivo tests. Therefore, predictions of adhesion are very difficult, even in a simple system consisting of
adhesive and flat impermeable substrate.
The graphs shown later in this Bulletin demonstrate test differences seen for Carbopol polymers. In most
in vitro models, the question is whether adhesion to the substrate or cohesion of the material to itself is
actually being measured.
One method of measuring bioadhesion is by the use of a Texture Analyzer. These are versatile instruments
capable of measuring forces in compression or extension, and can be programmed with various hold times,
and output data through a computer interface. Many probes and test jigs are available from the
manufacturers, but custom ones may be easily fabricated in any machine shop. Examples of equipment
available from two manufacturers, and their capabilities, may be seen at the following websites:
http://www.texturetechnologies.com/TAXTPlus Texture Analyzer.html
http://www.textureanalysis.com/.

Adhesion Test Procedure (Results Figures 6-15)

1. Dry the polymer at 80C in a vacuum oven overnight.
2. Slowly add 6.0g of polymer to 484g of distilled water under rapid agitation.
3. Mix until all of the polymer has been added and the dispersion is smooth. No
lumps should be apparent.

4. Add small amounts of Tris Amino to the dispersion while mixing at 800-1,000
rpm until the pH measures 4.5.
5. Add an additional 10g of distilled water to the mixture to bring the total weight to
500g. The resulting gel is now 1.2% polymer.
6. Measure the viscosity with a Brookfield Viscometer, which has been equipped
with a suitable spindle rotating at 20 rpm.
7. Take two samples of the gel, place in test tubes and centrifuge.
8. Place the sample on a brass mount piece, and screw the mount onto the
platform.
9. Level the sample with a spatula and ensure no air bubbles are present.
10. The Texture Analyzer is then used to measure the peak adhesion force and the
work of adhesion.

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Introduction to Carbopol Polymers, Pemulen Polymeric

Emulsifiers and Noveon Polycarbophil As Bioadhesives
A review of the literature indicates the strong interest and potential for bioadhesive polyacrylic acid
polymers in the delivery of active ingredients to various mucous membranes.
Noveon AA-1 USP

polycarbophil and Carbopol polymers are in clinical trials worldwide for bioadhesive drug delivery
systems, while formulations utilizing Pemulen polymeric emulsifiers are under development. Figure 2
shows a comparison of Carbopol polymer versus several other bioadhesive materials.

Figure 2 Mucoadhesive force range of various tested polymers

Physical and Chemical Properties of Pharmaceutical Polymers from Lubrizol

Carbopol polymers, Pemulen polymeric emulsifiers and Noveon polycarbophil are very high molecular
weight polymers of acrylic acid, crosslinked with polyalkenyl ethers or divinyl glycol. Carbopol polymers
as produced are flocculated powders of primary particles which average about 0.2 micron in diameter.
The flocculated powders average 2 to 7 microns as determined by Coulter Counter. Each primary particle
can be viewed as a network structure of polymer chains interconnected by crosslinks, which result in
polymers with molecular weights in the billions. Without the crosslinks, the primary particle would be a
collection of linear polymer chains, physically intertwined but not chemically bonded. These linear
polymers are soluble in a polar solvent, such as water or alcohol.
All pharmaceutical polymers from Lubrizol are crosslinked. The polymers swell up to 1,000 times their
original volume (and ten times their original diameter) in water to form a gel when exposed to a pH
environment above 4-6. Above their pKa of 60.5, the carboxylate groups on the polymer backbone
ionize, resulting in repulsion between the anions and further increasing the swelling of the polymer.
Crosslinked polymers do not dissolve in water, but form colloidal gel dispersions.
Molecular weights of Lubrizol pharmaceutical polymers are not possible to measure directly because they
are crosslinked. Molecular weights of linear polymers may be determined by appropriate physical
measurements on very dilute solutions. The more commonly practiced methods are gel permeation
chromatography (GPC) and intrinsic viscosity. Light scattering, ultracentrifugation and osmometry are
also used in the determination of molecular weight of polymers. All of these methods, however, require

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the solubility of the polymer, and therefore cannot be used to determine the molecular weight of an
insoluble crosslinked polymer such as Carbopol polymers or Noveon polycarbophil. We calculate
stoichiometrically and theoretically that their molecular weights could be as high as 3.5 billion due to the
interlinkage of many polymer chains.
Please see TDS-222, Molecular Weight of Carbopol and Pemulen Polymers, for more information.

Mucoadhesive Mechanism
The bioadhesive material must come into close contact with the tissue in order for bioadhesion to occur.
Polyacrylic acid polymers, such as Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil, Carbopol polymers and Pemulen
polymeric emulsifiers, may make excellent bioadhesives for many reasons. Due to their chemical nature,
these high-molecular-weight polymers readily swell in water, providing a large adhesive surface for
maximum contact with the mucin (the glycoprotein predominant in the mucous layer). Generally,
polyacrylic acid polymers are understood to interact with the mucin, resulting in adhesion of the polymer to
the mucin, although the exact mechanism is not yet fully understood.
Three models of real biological application systems are presented in Figure 3, arranged in order of
decreasing complexity. Model C represents the typical test performed using a mechanical tack tester and
metal plates, and does not incorporate mucus into the system. In Model B a separate phase of
intermixed Carbopol polymer and mucus between the mucus layer and the swollen Carbopol polymer
phase is formed. Studies performed on this type of system have shown that there is a marked increase in
mucus viscosity with Carbopol polymers. L.J. Kerr, et al25 describe this increase in the mucus viscosity
and microviscosity as well.
Figure 3 Models for in vivo bioadhesion

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The bioadhesive tablet (Model A) represents the most complex case of the three. In this case, there
remains a reservoir of drug entrapped in the solid polymer core of the tablet, which will diffuse slowly as
the outer layer of the tablet is hydrated. This gel layer will also interact with the mucin on the contact
surface.
Overall delivery (bioavailability) of the active may be increased solely by localization of the tablet or
Carbopol polymer gel near the biowall. These phenomena have been explained in the literature, and are
thought to be the result of hydrogen bonding, chain entanglement of the two hydrogels, and/or surface
effects. Whatever the mechanism, once adhered, the Carbopol polymer based vehicle is highly resistant
to being washed away.

Hydrogen Bonding
If hydrogen bonding is indeed a key part of the mechanism, the presence of a great number of carboxylic
groups which provide the ability to form hydrogen bonds is a critical characteristic that is found in all
Carbopol polymers. From an experimental design viewpoint, pH effects are then very important, as the
polymer may adhere better at acidic pH levels where they are in a highly protonated condition.
At low pH (5.0 or less), less than 10% of the Carbopol acid groups will be ionized, resulting in relatively
little stiffening by electrostatic charge repulsion, and relatively little swelling compared to fully neutralized
Carbopol polymer systems. In this regime, hydrogen bonding to polysaccharides or directly to proteins is
probably the major mechanism for bioadhesion. The pKa of Carbopol polymers is 6.00.5. Above that
point, the carboxylic acid groups are ionized to a great extent, thus reducing hydrogen bonding.
Under more alkaline conditions, the Carbopol gels are very highly swollen, and the chains are stiffened
by electrostatic repulsion of the anionic charges along the backbone. Specific adhesion is still possible,
however, because the polycarboxylate will interact with cationic (protonated or quaternary) bases and with
polyvalent ions. Calcium, magnesium and other polyvalent ions bound on proteins or polysaccharides will
offer such binding sites for Carbopol polymer gels.
Recent work by S.A Mortazavi42 suggests that hydrogen bonding is indeed part of the mechanism, as the
addition of the hydrogen-bond breaking agents urea and potassium thiocyanate to a homogenized mixture
of mucus and Carbopol 934P NF polymer at pH 6.2 resulted in a reduction in the storage modulus (G')
and the loss modulus (G") of the mixture. This work also suggests that chain interpenetration is key in the
mucoadhesive mechanism.

Surface Energy and Contact Angles

Some scientists are also investigating the role of surface energy thermodynamics in mucoadhesion by
measuring contact angle (). High contact angles ( = 90) indicate that the substrate is very hydrophobic.
In these cases, water will remain in droplet form and not spread on the surface. Conversely, if the contact
angle is low ( = 0), the substrate is very hydrophilic, and the water phase will spread and wet the
substrate surface. Lehr and his group have studied Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil on pig intestinal
mucosa28, and found that the surface energies of the two hydrogels are quite different. The surface
energy parameters of the swollen polyacrylic acid gel were found to be, predictably, quite hydrophilic. Pig
mucosal tissue was found to possess an appreciable hydrophobicity. These studies may indicate that
hydrophobically-modified polymers such as Carbopol 1342 NF polymer and Pemulen TR-1 NF and
TR-2 NF polymers might be worth investigating.

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Chain Interpenetration
Other researchers have suggested that chain
flexibility is critical. They believe that chain interpenetration, diffusion and entanglement with the
mucin accounts for bioadhesion at less than
optimum pH levels. Figure 4 shows the theoretical
interpenetration of a Carbopol polymer with the
mucin during bioadhesion.

Figure 4 Chain interpenetration during

bioadhesion of polymer (A) with mucus (B)

This theory is quite popular, however, some theories

support it,42 while others do not, such as the work
reported by C.M. Lehr, et al31 in Visualization
Studies of the Mucoadhesive Interface.

Swelling Rate of Polymer Interacting with the Mucin

Another theory postulates that the rate at which the polymer takes up water and swells is critical to
bioadhesive properties. Theoretically, if a polymer swells very quickly, it will also quickly interact with the
mucin and thereby ensure good adhesion. The swelling rates of several Carbopol polymers and
Pemulen polymeric emulsifiers were tested by forming tablets of 100% polymer. These tablets were put
it in a mesh cage, and immersed in a variety of fluids, such as Simulated Gastric Fluid (SGF),
demineralized water and Simulated Intestinal Fluid (SIF) to determine how much the tablet weight
increased over time. Test results are shown in Figures 5 A and B. Carbopol 971P NF polymer, which is
a lightly crosslinked polymer, swells at a faster rate and achieves greater overall swelling than either
Carbopol 974P NF or Carbopol 934P NF polymers, which are more highly crosslinked. The swelling
rate theory would suggest that the bioadhesion characteristics of Carbopol 971P NF polymer are the
greatest of the four polymers shown.
Figure 5 Mean rate of swell for Carbopol polymers (95% confidence level)

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Efficacy and Safety of Carbopol Polymers in

Bioadhesive Applications
Lubrizol pharmaceutical polymers have been used safely and effectively in commercial oral and topical
products throughout the world for over forty years. They are also supported by extensive toxicology
studies.
For more information, please consult Pharmaceutical Bulletin 2: Toxicology Studies and TDS-93:
Toxicity of the Carbopol Polymers As A Class.

Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Various Bioadhesive Applications

Commercial applications using Noveon AA-1 polycarbophil USP have recently been marketed for vaginal
use in moisturizers, spermicides and hormone replacements, while various Carbopol and Noveon
polymers have been used for many years in ophthalmic and rectal products. A significant amount of
investigation is underway in other areas, such as nasal, buccal and intestinal applications. There are a
variety of literature references supporting the use of Carbopol and Noveon polymers in bioadhesive
applications. A partial listing has been provided for your reference later in this Bulletin.
Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Ophthalmic Bioadhesive Applications

Carbopol polymers and Noveon polycarbophil have been used for many years in ocular applications to
provide bioadhesive effects. These benefits have been studied widely by several universities, and
privately within major companies conducting ophthalmic research.

Park and Robinson44 showed that polyacrylic acid solutions bind to cultured human conjunctival epithelial
cells as measured by a fluorescent probe technique. Ho-Wah Hui and Robinson21 tested the delivery of
14

C-labeled progesterone in a Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil based gel to the precorneal pockets of
rabbits. Results showed a prolonged presence of the drug, and higher tissue concentrations versus the
control. In this study, when the force of adhesion was measured using a modified precision balance, it
was found that the bioadhesion was one-fourth that found in the stomach. Hui and Robinson hypothesized that this is due to the significantly lower amount of mucin in the eye.
Davies et al9 performed a similar study with pilocarpine with several bioadhesive materials, and found that
Carbopol 934P NF polymer was more bioadhesive than polyvinyl alcohol, which was more bioadhesive
than the phosphate buffer. The same relationship was observed when the bioavailability of the drug was
measured in the rabbit model.
Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Nasal Bioadhesive Applications

Carbopol polymers and Noveon polycarbophil have attributes that make them ideal for nasal delivery.
In addition to their bioadhesive character, these polymers are shear thinning, which means that a very
viscous gel (greater than 50,000 centipoises) can be formulated, which will then mist when sprayed in the
nose. The field of nasal bioadhesion is still under exploration, but exciting work has already been done.
Nagai et al43 showed that a freeze-dried powder using Carbopol 934P NF polymer gave enhanced insulin
bioavailability when delivered nasally. Chu et al7 demonstrated that propranolol delivered in a hydrogel
based on Carbopol 934P NF polymer had increased bioavailability compared to saline solution in animal
studies.

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Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Buccal Bioadhesive Applications
The buccal cavity is of interest in the delivery of certain drugs which are sensitive to pH or enzyme attack,
or are highly metabolized in the liver. In these types of situations, sublingual or other buccal delivery
systems which are fixed in place are of great value. A number of studies have been performed at 3M
Pharmaceuticals.
One 3M report, written by R.A. Scherrer et al48 describes a study in which digoxin, theophylline,
nitroglycerine, estradiol and morphine were formulated into bioadhesive buccal tablets. This group found
that the strength of the tablet adhesion and the rate of drug release were proportional to the concentration
of the Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil, as well as to the initial hydration level of the polycarbophil. In
their tablet, the optimum polycarbophil concentration was 60% and the minimum initial hydration level 2%.
Therapeutically effective blood levels were found in caged and fed dogs. Bens et al3 tested lipophilic,
nonionized indole derivatives with molecular weights of less than 500 in a system similar to Scherrers.
They found that the tablet stayed six hours on the human gum, and that the human pharmacokinetics
correlated well with those determined in the dog model.
Jian-Hwa Guo16, also with 3M Pharmaceuticals, worked with another system like Scherrers, using
Carbopol 934P NF polymer instead of polycarbophil. In this study, Guo found that Carbopol polymer
has average peel strength superior to hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, chitosan or acacia in in vitro testing.
In addition, Guo found that increasing the patch thickness increased the patch adhesion. In another
study, Guo17 determined that the strongest peel strength was found in buccal patches with a Carbopol
polymer:polyisobutylene:polyisoprene ratio of 50:43:6.25.
R.L. McQuinn, et al37 performed studies regarding the effectiveness of such a system in humans using the
opiate buprenorphine as a model drug. McQuinn reported no safety problems, and that comfort and taste
were acceptable. Pharmacologically relevant serum concentrations were attained 1-3 hours after
application, and were sustained for 12-24 hours after dosing.
Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Vaginal Bioadhesive Applications
There are several products on the market that address the issues of drug delivery to the vagina, where it
is important that the drug be delivered locally to its absorption site. Vaginal moisturizers, as well as
hormone replacement therapies, long-lasting spermicides, fungicides and antibiotics are all ideal
candidates for bioadhesive systems. Several patents deal with some of these formulations.
Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Rectal Bioadhesive Applications
In rectal applications, the drug is often intended for systemic delivery, therefore it is important to target the
delivery system to the lower part of the rectum where the greatest contact with the bloodstream occurs.
Carbopol polymers have been used for many years in delivering drugs rectally. Work by E.A. Hosny and
A.A. Al-Angary20 to determine the effect of varying the concentration of Noveon AA-1 polycarbophil USP
on the bioavailability and blood levels of indomethacin from polyethylene glycol suppositories in dogs
showed that as the polycarbophil concentration rose from 0-5%, plasma levels and bioavailability
improved significantly.
Lubrizol Pharmaceutical Polymers in Gastrointestinal Bioadhesive Applications
For drugs which are absorbed in the stomach or upper intestine, gastric retention systems are very
desirable, but difficult to achieve due to the peristaltic wave that flushes many systems, and the drugs they
contain, from the stomach. A number of studies show that using bioadhesive materials, such as those
supplied by Lubrizol, may increase the GI transit time by attaching to the mucin lining of the gut.

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Gastric retention - S.H.S. Leung et al33 showed that Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil gels may provide a
gastric retention system by swelling in the stomach and inducing a pseudofed state, thereby reducing
peristaltic contractions. This phenomenon is dependent on viscosity: the higher the viscosity, the fewer
the contractions. For instance, H.S. Chng et al7 found that Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil labeled with
51
Cr was retained for 17 hours in rabbit stomach versus a control of 8 hours. Crosslinked polyacrylic acid
tagged with 14C was studied in vivo in rats by R.F. Riley et al.54 By hour 6, it had passed through the small
intestine and resided primarily in the first half of the large intestine.
Another study by M.A. Longer et al34 showed that the bioavailability of chlorothiazide delivered in a mixture
of 3:7 albumin beads to Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil was 1.95 times higher in the rat than the
control.
Additional in vitro work by Y. Akiyama et al1 demonstrated that polyglycerol ester of fatty acid-based
microspheres, which were coated or dispersed with Carbopol 934P NF showed prolonged lag time
through the stomach, and then transit through the small intestine with zero-order release kinetics in fasted
rats, as compared to the microspheres that contained no Carbopol 934P NF polymer.
Protein and peptide protection a significant amount of work has shown that polyacrylic acid based
materials show superior protection capability for protein and peptide drugs. Much of this work has been
done at the University of Leiden under the direction and guidance of Dr. Junginger.27,28,35,36 The focus of
this research has been on Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil and Carbopol 934P NF polymer. These
polymers have been shown to inhibit proteolytic degradation of proteins and peptides by mucosal
enzymes, as well as trypsin activity, probably by chelation of the calcium ion which activates the trypsin.
Intestinal absorption of peptide improved in vitro, in situ in a perfused intestinal loop and in vivo in the rat.
The action of these polymers was also shown to be limited by the rate of mucous turnover. In addition, a
study by D.A. Hutton et al22 demonstrated that Carbopol 934P NF polymer inhibits colonic mucolytic
activity of luminal proteinase.

Increasing Bioavailability in Bioadhesive Formulations

While there is a great deal of debate regarding the mechanism of bioadhesion, most scientists agree that
bioadhesion is of interest because it increases the residence time of a dosage form at the absorption site,
and thereby may result in increased drug bioavailability.
In addition to the papers discussed in the preceding sections regarding the increase in drug bioavailability
observed using Carbopol polymers, one of the many papers written by Lehr and Junginger on the subject
of bioadhesion illustrates this point. C.M. Lehr, et al28 discuss the possible advantages of using Noveon
AA-1 USP polycarbophil as an oral bioadhesive in their paper entitled Oral Bioadhesive Drug Delivery
Systems Effects on G.I. Transit and Peptide Absorption. Certain research scientists have indicated
that they have successfully used Carbopol polymers in oral dosage forms, and have found a significant
increase in the bioavailability of their drugs. This may be due in part to bioadhesive properties of
Carbopol polymers.

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Choosing the Right Lubrizol Polymer for

Bioadhesive Applications
All of Lubrizols pharmaceutical polymers are chemically crosslinked polymers of acrylic acid. Because
these polymers are completely synthetic, they may perform more consistently than the semisynthetic
cellulose ether polymers and natural gums. During manufacturing, we control the structure of the
polymers by processing parameters, such as crosslinker level and the temperatures of the various
process steps. These processing parameters are tightly controlled to ensure that key performance
characteristics of the polymers are uniform.
In addition to Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil, Lubrizol currently has three Carbopol polymers designed
for oral applications, and many designed for topical applications. While Lubrizol recommends using an
oral grade for bioadhesive applications, some worldwide regulatory bodies may tend to view ophthalmic,
rectal and vaginal bioadhesive delivery forms as topical products.

Figures 6 through 15 in the following pages describe data generated on Carbopol polymers, Noveon
polycarbophil and Pemulen polymeric emulsifiers using the bioadhesion tester described previously.
Keep in mind that the results are organized to show the effects of viscosity on bioadhesion
measurements, with Carbopol 910 NF having the lowest viscosity, at 2,500 cPs, and Carbopol 940 NF
having the highest, at 68,500 cPs. The figures show the results of some very simple tests using 14
different Lubrizol polyacrylic acid gels at 1.2% solids in demineralized water, neutralized to a pH of 4.5
0.1. This pH was used to demonstrate the viscosity of these products under conditions favorable for
hydrogen bonding to polysaccharide oligomers such as are found in mucin and other biological materials.
Even in this simple system, with a simple viscoelastic adhesive mass and smooth rigid substrates of
simple geometry, complex results arose.
The contact pressure and time of contact affected both the peak adhesive strength and the work of
adhesion. At low contact force and time (2 psi for 2 seconds), the peak adhesive strength generally
decreased with a corresponding increase in gel viscosity. In all cases, increasing the contact increased
the adhesive strength slightly. (See Figures 6, 7, 8 and 9).
At high contact force, this relationship seems to reverse itself: the measured peak adhesive strength was
lower for low viscosity systems (and sometimes apparently lower than for the low contact force/ short time
data) and higher for the high viscosity systems. Again, longer impingement times tended to increase the
adhesion force, if only slightly. These data suggest that the contact pressure is the more important of the
two variables when measuring Carbopol polymers with this method.
In contrast to the peak adhesive strength, the total work of adhesion increased with adhesive viscosity for
all combinations of contact force and time. (See Figures 10, 11, 12 and 13.)

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Figure 6 Peak adhesive strength of Lubrizol polymers

(2 PSI impingement force, 2 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer
in DM water, pH 4.5 .1)

Figure 7 Peak adhesive strength of Lubrizol polymers

(2 PSI impingement force, 5 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer
in DM water, pH 4.5 .1)

Figure 8 Peak adhesive strength of Lubrizol polymers (10

PSI impingement force, 2 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer in
DM water, pH 4.5 .1)

Figure 9 Peak adhesive strength of Lubrizol polymers (10

PSI impingement force, 5 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer in
DM water, pH 4.5 .1)

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Figure 10 Work of adhesion of Lubrizol polymers

(2 PSI impingement force, 2 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer
in DM water, pH 4.5 .1)

Figure 11 Work of adhesion of Lubrizol polymers

(2 PSI impingement force, 5 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer
in DM water, pH 4.5 .1)

Figure 12 Work of adhesion of Lubrizol polymers (10 PSI

impingement force, 2 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer in DM
water, pH 4.5 .1)

Figure 13 Work of adhesion of Lubrizol polymers (10 PSI

impingement force,5 sec. contact time, 1.2% polymer in DM
water, pH 4.5 .1)

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Another perspective on this simple model can be gained by considering tack (work of adhesion) versus
peak adhesive strength. This number represents an estimate of the distance over which the adhesive
forces are acting. As shown in Figure 14, tack declines as peak adhesive strength increases at low
pressure, while Figure 15 demonstrates the reversal of this trend at higher pressures.

Figure 14 Tack vs. peak adhesive strength (2 PSI, 2 seconds)

Figure 15 Tack vs. peak adhesive strength (10 PSI, 2 seconds)

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Oral Bioadhesive Grades

Lubrizols oral polymer grades are Noveon AA-1 USP, Carbopol 934P NF, Carbopol 974P NF, and
Carbopol 971P NF. Carbopol 934P NF polymer has been used in oral suspensions and tablets
worldwide since the mid 1960s. In the past ten years, Lubrizol has designed two new products
polymerized in ethyl acetate, as toxicologically preferred alternatives to Carbopol 934P NF polymer.
Carbopol 974P NF has similar rheological properties to Carbopol 934P NF: both are highly crosslinked
polymers which produce semisolid formulations with very short flow rheology. Short flow rheology can be
characterized as a gelled consistency similar to mayonnaise. Carbopol 971P NF is a lightly crosslinked
polymer, which provides very low viscosities and excellent yield values at low usage levels. Semisolid
dosage forms based on Carbopol 971P NF polymer have a longer rheology, and will flow like honey.
A significant amount of work has been done to try to define the bioadhesive potential of these polymers.
Some scientists29,51 have found that Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil has greater bioadhesive properties
than Carbopol 934P NF polymer, for instance. However, due to the controversy surrounding testing
methods in this area, there are no clear-cut rules. In some tests performed by Lubrizol, Carbopol 974P
NF provided a higher level of tack than Noveon AA-1 USP polycarbophil or Carbopol 934P NF, and
significantly more tack than Carbopol 971P NF. (See Figures 16 a, b, c and d.) These tests may simply
show polymer adhesion, rather than bioadhesion, and may not correlate well to in vivo tests. We
recommend that a series of polymers be tested to determine which works best in your application.

Figure 16a Effect of concentration on tack for

Carbopol 971P NF polymer

Figure 16b Effect of concentration on tack for

Carbopol 974P NF polymer

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Figure 16c Effect of concentration on tack for

Carbopol 934P NF polymer

Figure 16d Effect of concentration on tack for

Noveon AA-1 polycarbophil

Topical Bioadhesive Grades

Lubrizol currently promotes Carbopol polymers and Pemulen polymeric emulsifiers for topical
applications. The traditional Carbopol polymers, such as Carbopol 934 NF, 940 NF, 941 NF and 1342
NF have been used in topical applications worldwide since the early 1960s. In the mid 1980s, Lubrizol
designed a series of products, polymerized in cyclohexane and ethyl acetate, as toxicologically preferred
alternatives to the traditional polymers. Carbopol 980 NF and 981 NF polymers were designed to
replicate the performance of Carbopol 940 NF and 941 NF polymers respectively, and Carbopol 1382
was designed to replace Carbopol 1342 NF.
As is the case for the oral products, many papers have been written on the subject of characterizing the
bioadhesive capabilities of these Carbopol polymers. (Several papers have indicated that Carbopol 910
NF shows better bioadhesion than Carbopol 940 NF and Carbopol 934 NF.5,6) Carbopol 1342 NF has
also been studied and shown strong bioadhesion results.9 Each paper written uses a different testing
method, therefore comparison of results is not possible. In some tests that Lubrizol has performed, we
have found that Carbopol 1382 polymer and Pemulen TR-1 NF polymeric emulsifier provide a higher
level of tack than the other polymers. Again, these tests may simply show polymer adhesion, rather than
bioadhesion, and may not correlate well to in vivo tests. We are happy to recommend a series of
polymers for you to evaluate in order to select the best polymer for a given formulation.

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Bioadhesion and Mucoadhesion References

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Bouckaert, S. and Remon, J.P., In Vitro Bioadhesion of a Buccal Miconazole Slow- Release Tablet, J.Pharm.
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Chng, H.S., Park, H., Kelly, P. and Robinson, J.R., Bioadhesive Polymers as Platforms for Oral Controlled
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28

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30

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