FIS Handbook

FIS HANDBOOK
VOLUME 5
METEOROLOGY FOR AVIATORS
INDEX
Chapter
Title
Page No.
1.
Met services for aviation
2.
Met Charts, Forecasts and Briefing
3.
Met observations and elements
17
4.
Structure of the Atmosphere
27
5.
Atmospheric Pressure
31
6.
Temperature
39
7.
Atmospheric obscurity
43
8.
Winds
51
9.
Lapse rate, Stability and Instability
57
10.
Clouds and Precipitation
67
11.
Thunderstorms
83
12.
Jet Streams
95
13.
Mountain Waves
103
14.
Clear Air Turbulence
109
15.
Ice Accretion
115
16.
Condensation Trails
127
17.
General Circulation over the globe
133
18.
Air Masses
141
19.
Fronts and Depressions of Middle latitudes
147
20.
Western Disturbances
155
21.
Tropical Discontinuities & Convergence zones
159
22.
Tropical Depressions
167
23.
Tropical Cyclones
171
24.
Microburst - Windshear
179
25.
The Monsoons
185
26.
Aviation Climatology of India
195
27
Surface Weather Charts
207
28
SPECI and Weather warning
217
29
Elements of weather forecasting
221
30
Pre-Flight, In-Flight and Post Flight Procedures
225
31
Meteorological requirements for aviation
231
CHAPTER 1
MET SERVICES FOR AVIATION

Introduction
1.
On seeing this book for the first time, you may ask yourself two questions: what is
Meteorology, and why must I learn something about it? By the time you have read this chapter, you
should be clear on these two points at least.
2.
Meteorology includes the study of all the changing atmospheric conditions, such as fog, snow,
rain, thunderstorms and wind, which go to make up our weather. It is the branch of science which
deals with the earth's atmosphere and the physical processes occurring in it.
3.
Why do you need to study Meteorology? Well, an explorer needs a map to show him the
features of the terrain over which he will travel. A mariner navigating the oceans must be familiar with
the ways of the sea. Your aircraft operates in the earth's atmosphere, therefore to operate efficiently,
you as aircrew must understand the behaviour of the ocean of air in which you fly.
Aim and Scope of the Book
4.
Some weather manifestations can be awe-inspiring as we feel uncertain when we encounter
phenomena that we cannot explain, but understanding breeds confidence. Moreover, the many and
varied facts we need to know about the behaviour of the atmosphere can be grasped more easily by
understanding the physical reasons underlying them. So this book sets out to do two things: to
explain weather phenomena of significance to aircrew in terms of simple physics, i.e. the laws of
motion, of heating and cooling, of condensation and evaporation, and so on, and to outline the
facilities that are available for obtaining weather information on the ground and in the air. The aim is
to help you to operate with maximum efficiency, safety, and confidence, in all types of weather.
Value of Weather Knowledge
5.
At one time pilots thought that it would be possible to get above the weather by flying at about
20,000'. Nowadays it is realised that even above 40,000' certain weather features are still important.
These include wind, temperature, density, condensation trails, and sometimes even thunderstorms or
icing. Winds at about 30,000' to 40,000' often exceed 100 knots in a narrow belt, and aircraft caught
unprepared may be swept off their intended track or have insufficient fuel to return to base.
6.
Aircraft with modern aids operate regularly in weather, which would once have been
considered too bad for flying. However, there are still minimum weather limits for safe flying. Some
FIS Book 5: Meteorology for Aviators
weather hazards, such as thunderstorms, may be readily negotiated by a fully trained pilot, but may
involve a less experienced pilot in difficulties. In adverse conditions, knowledge of the weather and its
forecast development is of the utmost value in helping inexperienced aircrew to avoid hazards and
experienced aircrew to negotiate them confidently.
7.
It is impossible to change the weather to suit your flight, except on a small scale, e.g. over
part of an aerodrome, fog may be dispersed by FIDO or similar heating equipment. However, it is
usually possible to plan your flight to suit the weather, by selection of route, altitude and time of
departure or arrival. A good example of the tactical use of weather operationally, was the escape of
the German cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau through the English Channel in 1942 under cover of
a slow moving belt of low clouds and bad weather. Another example was the Bomber Command raid
on Milan in October 1942, when British aircraft used weather cover to cross France by day.
8.
Your understanding of the significance of the various weather symbols will enable you to
recognise when a forecast is going wrong, and to decide on appropriate action based on your
appreciation of the weather situation obtained from the pre-flight weather briefing or forecast, and
from your own flight observations. In this connection you should remember that accurate weather
reports made during your flight are likely to be of value to other crews flying in the locality, particularly
if adverse conditions are unexpectedly met. Apart from helping the Meteorological Officer to check
his forecast, your reports may provide the first indication of unforeseen developments.
9.
One of the best ways of acquiring a fund of useful weather information is to pay frequent visits
to your local meteorological office.
By discussions with the forecaster you can clear up many
problems and also gain an insight into his difficulties.
10.
Various components, which make up the weather, may have widely different meanings and
importance for different people.
A pilot may be chiefly interested in the weather at base and
destination; the navigator may be more interested in winds and temperatures at various heights,
whereas the signaller is probably concerned with those areas where bad weather may interfere with
communications. The forecaster caters for all these varied requirements on request, but to use the
service efficiently you must know what facilities are available, as well as the limitations of the service,
and be able to understand weather charts and technical terms.
Importance of Meteorology in Aviation
11.
Meteorology is the study of weather processes in the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere is
the medium through which an aircraft is flown, it is essential for the pilot to know this subject so as to
enable him to fly the aircraft efficiently, economically and safely.
12.
Meteorological information is useful to aviation in the following ways:
Met Services for Aviation
(a)
It enables a proper selection of site for an airfield and correct orientation of runways.
(b)
It helps engineers to design aircraft properly by giving them data of pressure, wind
temperature and turbulence characteristics of the atmosphere at various levels.

(c)
It assists in accurate planning and correct execution of take-off, climb, cruise,
descent/diversion, approach and landing etc. of an aircraft.
World Meteorological Organisation
13.
Atmospheric processes occur on a large scale.
To understand them it is necessary to
observe the behaviour of the atmosphere simultaneously over a large part of the globe and transmit
these observations quickly to the users. This needs a well-knit organisation on an international scale.
14.
The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), which is a specialised agency of the United
Nations Organisation, co-ordinates and standardises meteorological practices all over the world. It
also helps in maintaining communication networks through which member countries exchange their
meteorological data quickly. Quick exchange is facilitated by using internationally agreed codes for
different types of messages. The WMO works in close collaboration with the Met division of the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) in matters connected with meteorological
requirements for aviation.
India Meteorological Department
15
India is a member country of the WMO. Meteorological requirements in India are looked after
by the India Meteorological Department (IMD). The IMD works in a close collaboration with the Civil
Aviation Department as well as the Indian Air Force in matters affecting civil and military flying.
Function of IMD
16.
The function of IMD in regard to aviation can be broadly classified as follows:

(a)
Maintenance of IMD observatories for taking observations of meteorological
elements.
(b)
Maintenance of IMD communications network to exchange meteorological data
quickly.
(c)
Maintenance of forecasting offices at civil airfields.
(d)
Collection and statistical analysis of meteorological data and their periodical
publication in the form of climatic summaries, tables and atlases.
Observatories
17.
The IMD maintains various types of observatories depending on the nature of meteorological
elements observed. The types of observatories which are of direct concern to aviation are:
(a)
Surface Observatories.
These observe meteorological elements from a ground
position at 0830 and 1730 hrs, every day. Some of the observatories take observation at
0230, 0530, 1130, 1430, 2030 and 2330 hrs also. All these observations and the coded
messages containing the data are known as SYNOP. The network of surface observatories
is fairly dense there being one or more such in almost every district.
(b)
Current Weather Observatories.
These are located at airfields and important
checkpoints on air routes. They take surface meteorological observations generally once in
an hour but their hours of watch may vary according to traffic requirements. The coded
messages from these observatories are known as METAR. These observatories also issue
special reports whenever meteorological elements deteriorate to certain specified minima,
which are considered hazardous for aviation. When the hazardous conditions cease, reports
of improvement are issued. Such special reports are known as SPECI".
(c)
Pilot Balloon Observatories.
These observe and report the direction and speed of
winds at different levels at 0530, 1730 and 2330 hrs daily while a few take observations at
1130 hrs also. The observations are made by visual methods. The reports from these
observatories are known as PILOT". In India, there are about 65 such observatories.
(d)
RAWIN Observatories.
These measure the upper winds by radio methods twice a
day, i.e. at 0530 and 1730 hrs. The coded messages are known as "RAWIN".
(e)
Radio Sonde Observatories.
These observe the pressure, temperature and
humidity at higher levels daily at 0530 hrs and 1730 hrs. The coded messages are known as
"TEMP". Generally, RAWIN and radio sonde observatories are combined at one location.
(f)
Weather Radar Observatories.
These are located at the major civil airfields. The
radar sets are specially designed to detect thunderstorms, their distance, vertical extent etc.
The coded messages from the radar observatories are known as "RAREP".
Ship and Aircraft Observations
18.
Apart from the static observatories mentioned above, the IMD has the benefit of
meteorological reports from ships and buoys in Indian waters. Most ships of the merchant navy take
meteorological observations at the standard hours of observation and transmit them to coastal radio
stations by wireless. They also transmit special reports whenever they are in the field of depressions
or cyclonic storms.
19.
Another important sources of meteorological observations are aircraft on routine or non-
routine flights. Reports from aircraft are known as "AIREP". They are of immense use in forecasting
for aviation purposes.
Rockets and Satellites
20.
Nowadays, data on the upper layers of the atmosphere can be had by means of rockets and
weather satellites. Weather satellites are especially useful in observing cloud coverage over ocean
and collection of data from sparse areas and can give invaluable assistance in locating incipient
storms. Satellite data is exchanged on international basis with the help of Data collection platforms
(DCPs), which are installed in inaccessible and inhospitable terrain. These DCPs are automatic
weather stations, which record observation and transmit through satellites.
Communication Networks
21.
Observatories transmit their reports to the nearest Regional Met Centre (RMC) by means of
telegrams bearing high precedence. There are six such centres located Delhi, Mumbai, Nagpur,
Guwahati, Kolkata and Chennai. These centres are connected to each other by landline teleprinter
through which the messages are exchanged. These centres are also connected to other aviation
forecasting offices by teleprinter channels.
22.
At Delhi, there is a broadcasting station known as the All Indian Met Broadcast centre
(AIMBC) which transmits Met messages by radio teleprinter (RTP). These broadcasts also contain a
selection of messages from neighbouring countries.
The broadcasts can be received by any
forecasting office, which has suitable equipment for reception. The AIMBC works on a 24-hour basis
and does almost continuous transmission of a very large volume of meteorological messages.
23.
METARS issued by current weather observatories at airfields are exchanged on the Fixed
Aeronautical Communication Service (FACS) maintained by the Civil Aviation department. They are
also transmitted on ground to air W/T and R/T channels for aircraft in flight.
Met Information Centre
24.
Aviation Met service is provided through forecasting offices. They are divided into different
categories on the basis of number of weather charts prepared, hours of forecasting, the type of watch
they keep and the extent to which they can issue route forecasts independently. These are:
(a)
Main Met Offices (MMO).
These maintain 24 hours-forecast watch, prepare
necessary charts at all synoptic hours and issue forecast upto any distance, including
destinations outside India.
(b)
Dependent Met Offices (DMO).
These keep restricted hours of forecasting watch,
prepare necessary charts to issue the forecasts and issue route forecast upto any distance in
India.
(c)
Subsidiary Met Offices (SMO).
These have no forecasting watch. No charts or
forecasts are issued independently. All forecasts are obtained from respective MMOs.
25.
Area Met Watch Offices.
In addition to the above offices, Area Watch Offices (AWMO) are
maintained at Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata to provide aircraft in flights advance notice of
actual or impending weather development or trends that are potentially hazardous for aviation. The
significant information, SIGMET INFORMATION, is issued for the occurrence or expected occurrence
of any one of the following phenomena within their jurisdiction by Met Watch Office.
(a)
Active thunderstorm area.
(b)
Severe line squall.
(c)
Heavy hail.
(d)
Severe turbulence.
(e)
Severe icing.
(f)
Marked mountain waves.
(g)
Widespread dust storm.
Climatic Data
26.
The IMD performs a very useful function in collection and statistical analysis of meteorological
data. It publishes these data periodically and also brings out climatic summary, tables and atlases.
These are of immense use in various planning tasks connected with aviation.
Met Organisation in the IAF
27.
The IAF has its own set up for catering to meteorological requirements at AF airfields. This
set-up is independent of the IMD, from the administrative as well as functional points of view.
However, due to the nature of work, the Met organisation in the IAF maintains close liaison with units
of the IMD.
28.
At every flying station, there is a Met section, which has facilities fairly similar to DMOs in the
IMD. The section is under the control of the Air Officer Commanding (AOC) / Station Commander
through the Chief Operations Officer (COO),. The technical aspects of Met Sections in the IAF are
looked after by the Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (ACAS) of Meteorology at Air Headquarters through
Command Met Officers at Command Headquarters and closely correspond to those followed in the
IMD.
29.
Met sections generally have three communication channels for receiving met messages.
(a)
Land Line Teleprinter.
This is connected to the nearest IMD Met Office which itself
is part of bigger network and has Duplex system.
(b)
RTT Reception Channel.
(c)
W/T Met Point to Point Channel.
This is for receiving broadcasts from AIMBC.
The exclusive channel serves to exchange
hourly METARS of Air Force airfields all over India.
30.
The other met data is received through modern met equipment like: -
(a)
SIRAVDS.
It stands for Satellite Imageries Reception and Video Display System.
This is a ground based equipment by which met section receives INSAT satellite imageries
every three hours.
(b)
DRS.
It stands for Direct Reception System, which provides satellite communication
for exchange of meteorological data.
(c)
MMHS.
It stands for Meteorological Message Handling System. It is a computer
based system, which handles data from various channels.
(d)
DMSS.
It stands for Distributed Message Switching System. It is a dedicated net
work of IAF (Met), which is based on propagation of electromagnetic radiation's in

troposphere hence commonly referred to as 'Tropo network'.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
Expand the following:

(a)
WMO.
(b)
RMC.
(c)
AIMBC.
(d)
RTP.
2.
(e)
SIRAVDS.
(f)
MMHS.
(g)
DRS.
(h)
RAWIN.
(j)
FACS.
(k)
DCP.
Choose the correct answer:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
IAF Met works under:

(i)
IMD.
(iii)
Air HQ.
(ii)
ICAO.
IAF Met follows generally conventions laid down by

(i)
WMO.
(ii)
Air HQ.
(iii)
Guidelines are from WMO but specific requirements of IAF.
Type of Met section depends upon

(i)
Rank of S Met O.
(iii)
Duration of forecasting watch.
(ii)
No of D Met O.
Air Force Met section have their own equipment's for receiving
(i)
Satellite pictures.
(iii)
Temperature in upper air.
(ii)
Radar reports.
CHAPTER 2
MET CHARTS, FORECASTS AND BRIEFING

Introduction
1.
Simultaneous observations of the atmosphere are made at a large number of meteorological
stations.
These observations are transcribed into coded messages, which are collected at the
respective MMOs and disseminated by the aid of radio or other means of telecommunication for
national and international use. These reports are received in large numbers at forecasting offices and
before they can be comprehensively viewed by the forecaster, they are required to be plotted on
suitable charts.
Weather Charts and Information
2.
3.
The following types of charts are used in plotting meteorological observations:

(a)
Surface Weather Charts.
(b)
Upper wind Charts.
(c)
Constant Pressure Charts.
(d)
Auxiliary Charts.
Surface Weather Chart.
On this chart, the position
of each reporting station is marked by a small circle with its

three-letter station name code alongside. The coded message
is represented by entries in and around the appropriate station
circle, some in figures, some in symbols, but in a standard form
which is agreed internationally in order that charts may be
interpreted with equal facility by any nation. An inland station
Fig 2-1: Inland Station Model
model is shown in the Fig 2-1.
4.
Upper Wind Chart.
One of the factors in air navigation is wind at flight altitude. The
observed winds for selected levels (viz. 1,000 ft, 2,000 ft, 3,000 ft, 5,000 ft and so on) are plotted on
separate upper wind charts using a system commonly referred to as the "Barb and Pennant" system.
Upper wind charts are useful in representing the general wind flow over an area at various levels.
They also show the flow of moisture and vertical and horizontal shear in the wind, which cause
atmospheric turbulence and bumpiness.
5.
No study of the weather situation can be complete unless it is
three-dimensional. The surface charts do take some account of this aspect of the problem since the
10
plotted reports include features of weather e.g. cloud and rain which originate far above the surface
layers but a detailed analysis of observations of pressure, temperature, humidity and wind in the
upper air is an essential part of the diagnosis of any synoptic situation.
6.
The most practical way of displaying the patterns of circulations in the free atmosphere is by
construction of contour charts for selected pressure levels.
Data collected from radiosonde
observations are used to prepare constant pressure charts.
7.
Auxiliary Charts.
Elements of surface observations, which are not plotted on the main
synoptic charts and are plotted on separate charts, are called auxiliary charts.
Functions of Met Section
8.
The principal functions of a Met Section are:

(a)
To keep observational watch on the airfield for hours of watch and issue hourly
METAR and SPECI to ATC during watch hour.
(b)
To receive METAR and SPECI of other airfields for smooth air operation.
(c)
Reception and plotting of SYNOP, PILOT & TEMP messages as per requirement.
(d)
Preparing charts of various types based on messages pertaining to surface and
upper air meteorological condition.
(e)
Analysing these charts and issuing forecasts and adverse weather warnings on a
routine and non-routine basis during the hours of forecasting watch.
(f)
Briefing aircrew on present state and anticipated trends in weather in relation to flying
activities.
Met Codes for Surface and Upper Air Reports
9.
Following is a brief description of the met codes used for transmitting surface and upper air
reports:
(a)
SYNOP Code.
(b)
PILOT Code.
A surface observation reported in a form known as "SYNOP".
Upper winds observed by usual method are passed in a coded
message known as "PILOT". It consists of four parts namely A, B, C and D.
11
(c)
TEMP Code.
The code form used for transmission of radio sonde / RAWIN
observations of pressure, temperature, humidity and wind in the upper air is known as
"TEMP".
Met Codes for Current Weather and Forecasts
10.
(a)
METAR.
Current weather recorded at hourly or half-hourly intervals at CWOs is
transmitted in a code known as METAR.
(b)
SPECI/SPECIAL.
This code form is used for messages indicating sudden
deterioration in any element and its subsequent improvement, as per laid down criteria.
(c)
TAF.
A forecast of terminal weather conditions is encoded in a form known as TAF
(Terminal Aerodrome Forecast).
(d)
ROFOR.
A weather forecast for a specified route is written on T-3/T-4 form is
known as ROFOR (Route Forecast).

The codes mentioned in para 9, follow a pre-determined pattern and use symbols, which are
interpreted with the help of code tables approved by the WMO.
Synoptic Meteorology
11.
Study of weather over a large area by means of charts indicating various weather elements is
known as "synoptic meteorology". The various types of charts used in plotting weather are listed
below:
12.
(a)
(b)
Upper Wind Charts.
(c)
Tephigram.
(d)
(e)
Thickness Charts.
(f)
Other Special Charts (Auxillary charts).
The principal weather chart used by vast majority of aviators is
the 'Surface Chart', on which SYNOP messages are plotted. This is also known as Synoptic Chart.
It is usually prepared five times a day, corresponding to observation at 0000, 0300, 0600, 1200 and
1800 hrs UTC.
13.
The chart is prepared on a base map covering India and immediate neighbourhood. The size
of the map is 3' X 2 ' which has a scale of 1:10,000,000.
14.
12
The plotting of the surface chart is done according to a standard scheme involving of figures
as received in SYNOP message for elements like pressure, temperature etc. and of agreed standard
symbols such as type of cloud and kind of weather etc. The chart also shows Isobars, trough patterns,
lows & depressions.
15.
Upper Wind Charts.
While the surface chart is the principal chart from which the
information on the sea-level pressure as well as clouding and weather phenomena occurring over
different areas can be derived, the upper winds charts are used for wind speed, direction and upper
air pattern to arrive at the intensity of surface synoptic system and winds for navigation. The data is
collected by pilot balloon observations of various stations.
16.
Tephigram.
The term 'Tephigram' is given to the thermodynamic diagram in which height,
temperature and humidity are plotted against pressure in the atmosphere. The Tephigram indicates
the various stages of atmospheric stability (or instability), which helps a great deal in determining an
accurate forecast.
17.
Constant Pressure Chart.
We have seen in previous paragraph that the Tephigram gives
variation of height, temperature and humidity with pressure over a single station. However, due to
many reasons, at times it becomes necessary to know the distribution of these quantities at fixed
levels over a given number of stations for fixed height. The common practice is to prepare such
charts at fixed pressure levels instead of at fixed height.
18.
Thickness Charts & Other Auxiliary Charts.
These charts contain data, the details of
which are beyond the scope of this book.
Interpretation and Plotting of Various Symbols
19.
You have read earlier that the most commonly used chart by aviators is the surface chart
where plotting is done according to a standard scheme involving of figures as received in the SYNOP
message for such elements as pressure, temperature, visibility etc., and of agreed standard symbols
for elements such as kind of cloud and present weather. The arrangement of these symbols or
figures also follows a standard pattern.
Obtaining of Weather Forecast
20.
At all civil airfields where routine or non-routine traffic exists, meteorological forecasting
offices are established for providing weather service for aviation purposes. The scale of such offices
depends upon the traffic requirements. In case of IAF, all flying stations have a Met Section, for
providing weather service. The IAF Met sections function in close liaison with IMD to be able to make
full use of the facilities provided by them.
13
Types of forecasts
21.
Met sections issue different types of forecasts. The main types are:
(a)
Local Forecasts.
These are for an area of radius 50 kms around the airfield. They
are valid for 6-12 hours and may give an "Outlook" for a further period of 6 hours.
(b)
Route or Flight Forecasts.
These are issued for a specific flight over a given route
and are written on standard forms like T-3 & T-4.
(c)
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts.
These are forecasts for the required period in
respect of terminal or diversionary airfields. They are known as "TAFs" and written in T-10.
(d)
Area Forecasts.
These are forecasts covering specified area and these are issued
on request of such purpose as aerial survey, photoreconnaissance etc.
(e)
Trend Forecasts.
These are short-range local forecasts valid for 2 hours. They
specify only significant anticipated changes in the met conditions, and are appended to all
METARS. When no significant change is anticipated the word 'NOSIG' is appended.
(f)
Weather Warning & Cautionary Met Reports.
These are issued in anticipation of
imminent adverse weather for flying at the airfield or its neighbourhood. These are advisory
in nature and are issued with a notice of 1/2 hr to 1 hr.
Met Briefing
22.
The procedure by which a Met Officer conveys information to a pilot is known as Met
Briefing. For local flying of a flight(s) or Squadron(s), it is more convenient if a combined briefing is
done for all aircrew of the Flight or Squadron. This is known as "Mass Met Briefing". In a met briefing
the Met Officer gives the following information:
(a)
Salient features observed on latest Surface & Upper air charts.
(b)
Present state of weather at base and diversionary airfields with emphasis on
elements adverse for flying.
(c)
Local forecast for base and diversionary airfields for the next 6-12 hours with specific
mention of any weather warnings in force and comments on the likelihood of their further
extension.
23.
14
At the end of the briefing, aircrew may ask any relevant question either to clarify doubts or to
elicit supplementary information required.
24.
For cross-country flights, the met briefing is conducted in the Met Section. The briefing is
invariably supplemented by written forecasts on standard forms for the route as well as for terminal
and diversionary airfields. Flight planning is done only after obtaining proper met briefing.
25.
In this connection, it is well to remember the following points:

(a)
The Met Officer is authorised to provide current weather and forecast information for
flying. He is not authorised to comment on the feasibility or otherwise of undertaking specific

flight. Decisions on flights are taken by officers who are duly delegated this responsibility.
These decisions are no doubt, taken after due consideration of the met briefing. However,
many other considerations such as the limitations of the aircraft, capability of the pilot,
availability of navigational aids etc., play important role.
(b)
Weather forecasting is not an exact service and despite the best efforts, Met
forecasts issued for flight are likely to have deviations and inaccuracies. To derive maximum
benefit of Met section, an aviator must take Met briefing prior to departure in person and
should make an endeavour to understand the Met charts. In cases of delays etc. an update
must be obtained. It is his duty to report to ATC of any encounter with significant weather or
its existence in the reportable vicinity. He should inculcate the healthy habit of debriefing Met
Officer and flight commander for taking remedial actions.
26.
From the foregoing it will be clear that an elaborate organisation exists for feeding
meteorological information to a Met Section. The input and output of a normal Met Section are shown
schematically in Table 2-1. A pilot should make the best use of the organisation and the facilities
provided by it. In turn, he should contribute to its usefulness by rendering in flight and post flight
weather reports and by free and frank discussion with the Met Officer regarding weather experienced
by him.
Table 2-1: Input and Output from a Normal Met Section
15
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
Choose correct answer / answers.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
SYNOP is recorded every:

(i)
Hour.
(ii)
Three hours.
(ii)
Half an hour.
(ii)
Hour.
Metar is recorded every:

(i)
Half an hour.
(iii)
Half an hour during adverse weather period.
SPECI / SPECIAL are recorded every:

(i)
Half an hour.
(iii)
Any time.
(ii)
Hour.
CMR / Weather Warning are generally issued with a minimum notice of:
(i)
Half an hour.
(iii)
Two hours.
(ii)
Hour.
(ii)
3 hours.
Satellite pictures are received every:

(i)
1 hour.
(iii)
6 hours.
RAREPs are taken at every:

(i)
Half an hour.
(ii)
Hour.
(iii)
Any time.
(iv)
3 hrs in case of no echo and 1 hr in
case of echo.
(g)
(h)
(j)
TAFs are valid for usually:

(i)
6 hours.
(iii)
12 hours.
(ii)
9 hours.
Local/ Area forecasts are usually valid for:

(i)
6 hours.
(iii)
12 hours.
(ii)
9 hours.
If CMR is issued, it will be followed by weather warning:

(i)
Surely.
(iii)
May be.
(ii)
Not necessary.
(k)
16
Tephigram is used to asses:

(i)
Temperature.
(iii)
Instability.
(ii)
ALTICOR.
17
CHAPTER 3
MET OBSERVATIONS AND ELEMENTS

Introduction
1.
Meteorological observations of many elements are made with the help of suitable
instruments. However, there are certain elements for the observation of which either no instruments
have been developed or the instruments are too complicated and expensive to be put into general
use. Such elements are observed visually by trained and experienced personnel. There are eight
elements of meteorological observations that are recorded viz. pressure, temperature, humidity, wind,
air density, clouds, precipitation & visibility.
2.
The weight of a column of air standing on unit square area and extending vertically to the
uppermost levels of the atmosphere is known as 'atmospheric pressure. Pressure can be expressed
in many ways e.g. hPa, Millibars, pounds per square inch, grams per square centimetre etc.
3.
The most accurate method of measuring pressure is by balancing the weight of the column of
air against a column of mercury in a glass tube, which has vacuum at the top. The instrument, which
utilises this principle, is known as a "mercury barometer". The readings of the length of the column of
the mercury, corrected for some factors are used to express the pressure. At mean sea level the
pressure is of the order of 760 mm or 29.92" of mercury. The unit of pressure in common use in
meteorology is the 'hectopascal'. The mean sea level pressure is of the order of 1000 hPa.
4.
The pressure in the atmosphere decreases with height. In order that the pressure at two
places at different elevations can be compared, it is necessary that the readings are reduced to a
common level. Reduction is generally done to mean sea level. For this some corrections are needed.
5.
The corrections referred to above are due to the fact that the weight of the column of mercury
is dependent on the temperature and on the acceleration due to gravity.
To make two readings at
different times or different places comparable, the readings are "reduced" to a common value of
temperature and gravity also.
6.
Mercury barometers are delicate instruments and are unsuitable for mobile units.
An
instrument, which is sturdy, compact and suitable for carrying from one place to another, is known as
an Aneroid barometer and is illustrated in Fig 3-1. It consists of a chamber made of two corrugated
lids; hermetically sealed after removing the air inside. As the atmospheric pressure changes the lids
are pressed closer together or are displaced away from each other. The movements is magnified and
18
transmitted to a needle which moves along a

graduated dial; giving readings of pressure.
The
aneroid barometer is initially adjusted by comparing it

with a mercury barometer.
7.
Aircraft
altimeters
are
actually
aneroid
barometers in which the dial graduations are in terms

of height in the atmosphere (feet or meters) instead of
Fig 3-1: Aneroid Barometer
units of pressure.
8.
Measurements of pressure in the upper air are made by releasing aneroid type barometers
along with hydrogen-filled balloons. The readings are transmitted by radio signalling arrangement,
which works automatically and has been previously calibrated in the laboratory.
9.
An aneroid barometer which gives a continuous and permanent record of pressure on a chart
is known as a "Barograph".
Temperature
10.
Temperature is a measure of the degree of warmth of a substance. It is generally determined
by means of a thermometer, which works on the principle of expansion of a liquid with increase of
temperature. For measuring air temperature, the thermometer is kept in a well ventilated louvered
wooden screen known as "Stevenson Screen" which shields the thermometer from the Sun's rays.
11.
Temperature can be expressed in terms of different scales.
The common scales are
Fahrenheit, Centigrade (or Celsius) and Absolute (or Kelvin). The relationship between these scales
is as follows:
12.
32
5
9
273
9
5
(F - 32)
C
Another method of measuring temperature is by utilising the principle of the expansion of a
strip of metal with increase of temperature. A bimetallic coil is generally used. The coil winds or
unwinds with changes in temperature. This movement is magnified and transmitted to a needle,
which moves across a graduated dial or chart. Measurement of temperatures in the upper air is done
by this method. The "thermograph" which gives a continuous and permanent record of temperature is
also based on this principle.
19
Met Observations and Elements
Air Density
13.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Density of air in the atmosphere is not measured
directly. It is calculated from the well known gas equation.

P
RT
Where P is pressure, is density, T is temperature and R is a constant known as "gas constant"

whose value is 287.0 Joules per kg K. This formula gives a density of 1225 grams per cubic metre for
dry air at ISA sea level pressure of 1013.2 mb and a temperature of 15 C (288.15 A).
Humidity
14.
Humidity is a general term used in regard to the water vapour content in the atmosphere. It
can be expressed in several ways. The more common ones used in aviation meteorology are given
below:
(a)
Relative Humidity.
Air at a given temperature can hold only a certain quantity of
water vapour and no more. The ratio of the actual amount of water vapour held to the
maximum it can hold at that temperature is known as "relative humidity".
expressed as a percentage.
It is usually
Air is said to have reached "saturation" when it holds the
maximum water vapour for that temperature, i.e. when the relative humidity is 100%.
(b)
Dew Point Temperature.
The amount of water vapour required to saturate air is
more at higher temperatures. Thus if air having water vapour is cooled, a stage will be
reached when the water vapour present is sufficient to saturate the air. Any further cooling
results in excess water condensing into water droplets (dew) on near by solid objects. The
temperature to which air has to be cooled to reach saturation is defined as dew point
temperature. A low dew-point temperature indicates low water vapour content.
(c)
Wet-Bulb Temperature.
This is the temperature attained by a thermometer bulb
from which free evaporation of water is taking place. The wet bulb temperature is intermediate
between the air temperature and dew point temperature, but all three are equal when the air
has reached saturation.
(d)
Humidity Mixing Ratio.
This is the mass of water vapour present in unit mass of
air. It is generally expressed as grams of water vapour in kilograms of (dry) air.
(e)
Vapour Pressure.
It is that part of atmospheric pressure, which is exerted by water
vapour. It is expressed in hPa.
15.
20
Humidity is generally measured by covering the bulb of a thermometer with wet muslin cloth
and measuring the wet bulb temperature. The difference between the air temperature and the wet
bulb temperature is noted and from this a calculation of relative humidity, dew-point temperature etc.
can be made with the aid of formula or tables.
16.
Humidity in the upper air is measured by winding muslin on a bimetallic coil and allowing the
ends of the muslin to dip in a can of water.
17.
The length of the human hair, which is completely de-greased, is sensitive to changes in
humidity. This principle is used in the "Hygrograph" which is an instrument giving continuous and
permanent record of relative humidity.
Wind
18.
Wind is air in a horizontal motion. Its direction is represented by the point from which it blows
and is specified either in one of the 16 points of compass or in degrees from true North reckoned in a
clockwise sense. At some airfields the ATC adopts a convention of expressing the wind direction as a
deviation from the orientation of the runway in use, the deviation being given in terms of the hour hand
of clock. Thus when runway '36' is in use, a wind blowing from East would be specified as "wind 3 O
clock" one from West as "wind 9 O clock" etc. This method of specifying wind direction enables a pilot
to make a quick assessment of the crosswind component.
19.
The direction of the wind is measured by a vane, which rotates freely on a spindle and
continuously aligns itself with the wind. Wind direction near a runway can be estimated by means of
windsocks. At landing grounds where ATC facilities do not exist smoke candles are used to give a
visual indication to the pilot.
20.
The speed of the wind is measured by an
instrument known as an "Anemometer". It consists of

an assembly of cups, which is mounted on a spindle
(Fig 3-2). The cups rotate with the wind. The speed of
rotation is proportional to the speed of the wind. The
speed is measured either by means of a counter or by
electrical methods in which case the reading can be
taken on a panel fixed in the Met Section or the ATC.
Wind speed is expressed in knot or kilometres per
Fig 3-2: Anemometer and Wind Vane
hour.
21.
Wind speed is rarely steady. The irregular oscillation in speed is known as "gustiness".
When there is unusual gustiness the mean speed as well as the peak speed in gusts are reported.
21
22.
Winds at higher levels are measured by letting off hydrogen filled balloons and tracking their
movement by means of optical or radio theodolites.
23.
An instrument which gives a continuous and permanent record of wind is known as an
"Anemograph".
24.
In the absence of an anemometer, wind speed can be estimated quite reliably by using what
is known as the "Beaufort Scale". The lower stages of this scale are given in table 3-1.
Effect of Wind
Speed Range (kts)
Smoke rises vertically
Less than 1
Slight deviation in rising smoke
1-3
Leaves rustle
4-6
Leaves and twigs in constant motion
7 - 10
Small branches in motion
11 - 16
Small trees begin to sway
17 - 21
Large branches in motion
22 - 27
Whole trees in motion
More than 27
Table 3-1: Beaufort scale
Clouds
25.
Observations of clouds consist of three different aspects:

(a)
Type of Cloud.
Clouds have been classified into different types each bearing a
name, identification of the type is done through experience.
(b)
Amount of Cloud.
The coverage of a particular kind of cloud or the total coverage
of all kinds of clouds is determined as a fraction of the sky. It is expressed in Okta i.e. in eight
parts of the sky. Thus when half the sky is covered, the amount is given as 4 Okta.
(c)
Height of Base of Cloud.
This is determined from estimation by trained observers
with reference to nearby hills or other high features. The height of base of clouds can be
measured also. During daytime a hydrogen filled balloon with a known rate of ascent is
released. The time it takes to enter into the lower portions of the clouds is noted and from this
the height of base calculated. At night a "cloud searchlight" may be used. The searchlight
throws a powerful vertical beam of light, which is intercepted, by the cloud. The vertical angle
of the patch of light on the cloud is measured from a point at a known distance from the
searchlight. By simple trigonometry, the height of base of cloud can be calculated.
"Ceilometer" is a cloud searchlight in which the patch of light on the cloud is located by
22
photoelectric method. Laser Range Finder (LRF) is used to estimate cloud base by focussing
a laser beam on clouds overhead.
Height of base of cloud in all SYNOP, METAR and SPECI reports refers to height above ground level
(AGL).
Visibility
26.
Visibility is a measure of the degree of transparency of the atmosphere. It is expressed in
terms of the distance in meters upto which objects are visible to the naked eye and can be recognised
as such.
27.
During daytime, visibility is estimated by using landmarks at known distance. At night the
method adopted is to estimate the equivalent daytime visibility by means of lights of standard candle
power at specified distances. If such lights are not available, existing lights are used for estimation.
Runway Visual Range
28.
Runway visual range (RVR) is reported on those airfields where Scopograph or
Transmissometer is installed. RVR is reported only when visibility is less than 2000 m.
Rainfall
29.
Rainfall is measured in terms of the depth of accumulation over level ground if run off is not
permitted. It is expressed in inches or millimetres. A rainguage is merely a container, which catches

the rain and keeps it stored until the next observation. The depth of water is measured by pouring the
water in a measuring glass, which is suitably graduated. Snowfall is measured by melting the snow
and measuring the rainfall equivalent.
Weather Phenomena
30.
Weather phenomena are identified and classified through experience by trained observers.
Apart from the kind of phenomenon, its character and intensity are also judged.
31.
The following main phenomena occur in different season:

(a)
Haze.
Atmospheric obscurity due to moisture, dust or smoke wherein visibility is
reduced to 2 to 5 km. It is called haze if humidity is > 75%. In case < 75% it is called Dust
haze or Smoke haze.
(b)
Mist.
Moist haze is said to exist when visibility ranges from 1km to less than 2km.
23
(c)
Dust raising Wind.
Strong and gusty surface winds of >20 kt which raise and carry
loose dust and reduce visibility to < 5 km over large areas. Humidity should be less than
75%.
(d)
Dust Devil.
A whirl of dust of small dimensions seen on hot summer afternoons,
moving at random and lasting for short periods.
(e)
Squall.
Sudden increase of wind speed to 22 kts or more, generally accompanied
by sharp fall of temperature and lasting for short periods (minimum of 1 minute).
(f)
Dust Storm.
A phenomenon in which enormous amount of dust is raised to great
heights over a limited area, reducing visibility to less than 1 km. It lasts for half to one hour. It
should be distinguished from dust raising winds, which affect larger areas and last much
longer.
(g)
Fog.
Moist haze wherein visibility is reduced to less than 1km.
(h)
Drizzle.
Precipitation from clouds consisting of minute droplets in the nature of
spray.
(j)
Rain.
Precipitation of medium size water drops falling from layer type of clouds.
(k)
Snow.
Frozen rain in the form of flakes of ice crystals.
(l)
Sleet.
Mixture of rain and snow.
(m)
Shower.
Precipitation in the form of large waters drops from clouds of vertical
development. It lasts for shorter periods than rain and falls over limited area at a time.
(n)
Thunderstorm.
A phenomenon in which thunder is heard and lightning may be
seen. It is generally accompanied by a squall and sharp shower.
(o)
32.
Hail.
Solid ice pellets which fall from a thunderstorm cloud.
The character of a weather phenomenon is specified to indicate whether it is intermittent
continuous, increasing or decreasing. The intensity is specified as light, moderate or heavy (severe).
33.
Accurate measurement or estimation of meteorological elements is essential for ensuring
efficient met service for aviation. The pilot should also learn to make correct visual observations while
in flight. He should inform the ATC if he finds that any observation on such elements as cloud height
24
or visibility reported by Met section is different from his observation in the air. On many occasions he
is in a better position to judge these elements than an observer on the ground, especially in case of
cloud height and location of Cb cells etc.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
Choose correct answer/answers.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Visibility in Haze is:

(i)
2 to 4 km.
(ii)
3 to 5km.
(iii)
4 to 5 km.
(iv)
2 to 5 km.
(ii)
1 to 2 km.
(ii)
Less than 1km.
Visibility in Mist is:

(i)
1 to < 2 km.
(iii)
2 to 3 km.
Fog means visibility is:

(i)
1 km or less.
(iii)
1to 2 km.
Squall can be reported if it lasts for minimum of:

(i)
1 minute.
(iii)
5 minutes.
(ii)
2 minutes.
(ii)
Lightening is seen.
Thunderstorm can be reported when:

(i)
Thunder is heard.
(iii)
Precipitation commences.
RVR is reported only when visibility is less than:

(i)
1 km.
(iii)
3 km.
(ii)
2 km.
(ii)
Barograph.
RVR is reported with the help of:

(i)
Scopograph.
(iii)
Anemograph.
In Dust raising winds (DRW) visibility is less than:

(i)
1 km.
(iii)
5 km.
(ii)
3 km.
25
(j)
(k)
Showers would be experienced from:

(i)
ST.
(iii)
CU.
(ii)
SC.
An AS cloud patch is likely to cause generally:

(i)
Drizzle.
(iii)
Shower.
(ii)
Rain.
26
27
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Composition of Air
1.
The atmosphere, in its dry state is a mixture of many gases of which nitrogen and oxygen are
by far the most abundant, accounting for almost 99% of its content. By weight there are nearly three
parts of nitrogen to one part of oxygen. This composition shows very little variation upto high levels.
The atmosphere also contains, in widely varying quantities, minute particles of dust, smoke and other
impurities, which cause obscurity of the atmosphere. This phenomenon is important from the point of
view of aviation. Certain layers of the atmosphere contain ozone. Ozone is responsible for absorption
of ultra-violet radiation from the sun. The atmosphere also contains traces of other gases like carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, helium etc.
2.
Actually the atmosphere is never dry. Water vapour in varying quantities is present, chiefly in
the lower layers. Water vapour also behaves as a gas; frequently, however, it condenses into liquid
or solid precipitation like rain or snow. From the point of meteorology, water vapour is thus a very
important constituent of air.
Layers in the Atmosphere
3.
The atmosphere can be conveniently divided into layers, which have different characteristics
in regard to variation of temperature with height. Although the vertical extent of these layers is not
constant, the variations are not too large and have been averaged by means of a large number of
observations. The main atmospheric layers are schematically represented in Fig 4-1.
Troposphere
4.
This is the layer closest to the surface of the earth. It is characterised, on an average, by a
fairly uniform fall of temperature with height. The fall continues regularly until it ceases more or less
abruptly at a height of several miles above the earth's surface. Practically all the water vapour
content of the atmosphere is contained in the troposphere and all weather phenomena are confined to
it.
Tropopause
5.
The upper boundary of the troposphere is known as the tropopause. Its mean height at the
equator is 16.5 km, above sea level, at the poles it is about half this value.
28
Fig 4-1: The Atmosphere

Stratosphere
6.
This extends from the tropopause upto a height of about 50 kms above mean sea level. In
the stratosphere the temperature is nearly constant with height or increases slowly. Clouding and
weather phenomena are practically absent.
Ozone
7.
Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms in a molecule instead of the usual two. If all the
ozone in the atmosphere were concentrated into a layer near sea level, its vertical depth would not
exceed 0.3 cm. Most of the ozone content is concentrated in the "ozone layer" which is partly in the
29
Structure of the Atmosphere
stratosphere and partly in the mesosphere. The importance of ozone lies in its strong absorbing
power for ultra-violet radiation from the sun, a property which accounts for the warm layer in the
mesosphere.
The amount of ozone shows slight variation from place to place and day to day.
Attempts are being made to correlate these changes with changing weather conditions.
Higher Layers
11.
The layers above the stratosphere are not of direct interest to aviators. A brief mention is,
however, made of the ionosphere. In this layer the temperature increases to high values. It is a
conductor of electricity. Short wave radio transmissions get reflected from it with the result that their
transmission over long distance is possible. The ionosphere extends upto about 1000 km above the
surface of the earth. Beyond this the air gets so rarefied that its existence can be neglected.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Weather is more or less confined to:

(i)
Stratosphere
(iii)
Ionosphere
(ii)
Troposphere
Temperature in stratosphere (with height):

(i)
Increases
(iii)
Remains same
(ii)
Decreases
Maximum Ozone concentration is found in:

(i)
Stratosphere
(iii)
Ionosphere
(ii)
Troposphere
Mean height of tropopause over Equator is:

(i)
16 km
(ii)
14 km
(iii)
12 km
(iv)
10 km
Mean height of Tropopause over poles is:

(i)
16 km
(ii)
14 km
(iii)
10 km
(iv)
8 km
30
31
CHAPTER 5
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Variation of Pressure
1.
Pressure is never steady, even at one location it changes continuously. At any given instant
the sea level pressure is different in different parts of the globe. This gives rise to high pressure areas
and low pressure areas which are important in weather processes. The movement of these systems
give rise to pressure changes at any station.
2.
Superimposed on these changes there are fairly regular oscillations of pressure on a daily as
well as annual scale. The daily oscillations are of a tidal nature and have two maxima (10 am and 10
pm, and two minima (4 am, and 4 pm). The range of oscillation is high in the tropics, being about 3-4
hPa in India. The seasonal oscillation gives a maximum of pressure in winter and a minimum in
summer.
3.
The change of pressure at a station during a given period is known as "pressure tendency". It
is useful in judging the movement of pressure systems. In the middle latitudes pressure tendency
refers to 3 hours preceding the time of observation. In India this is of little use because of the large
tidal oscillations which make the variation of pressure due to movements of pressure systems
insignificant. Pressure tendencies are, therefore, worked out for 24 hours preceding the time of
observation.
4.
It is common knowledge that pressure decreases progressively with height in the atmosphere.
The rate at which pressure decreases with height depends to some extent on the temperature and to
a smaller extent on the humidity. Knowledge of this rate provides us with a convenient tool for
determining heights in the atmosphere by means of pressure measurements. The altimeter used on
an aircraft employs this principle.
Altimeter
5.
The aircraft altimeter is an aneroid barometer in which the dial graduations are in units of
height instead of units of pressure. We saw earlier that pressure varies with time as well as space.
Further, the variation along the vertical depends on the temperature and humidity. Thus the readings
of an altimeter carried on one aircraft are not strictly comparable with those on another aircraft. Since
aircraft in flight should maintain proper height separation amongst themselves to avoid collision, it is
essential that the readings of altimeters carried on different aircraft are comparable. This can be
achieved in one of two ways:
(a)
32
Readings of the altimeter are corrected at every stage for the local value of pressure
and for air temperature and humidity to obtain true altitudes. This is a laborious procedure
and is impracticable in flight.
(b)
The scale of an altimeter is graduated according to some uniformly accepted
standard conditions of temperature and humidity in the atmosphere, and all altimeters on
aircraft flying in a given air space initially set the altimeter to a single value of pressure.
Although this procedure gives somewhat fictitious values of altitude, it ensures proper vertical
separation amongst aircraft, and is followed universally.
International Standard Atmosphere
6.
For the purpose of graduation of altimeter scales, a fictitious atmosphere known as the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) has been adopted. This is practically the same as the ICAN
atmosphere. This atmosphere has the following characteristics:
(a)
Sea level air density is 1225 gms/cubic meter.
(b)
Sea level pressure is 1013.25 hPa.
(c)
Sea level temperature is +15 C
(d)
Temperature decreases with height at a rate of 6.5C/km up to 11 km above which it
is constant at -56.5C.
(e)
7.
The atmosphere is completely dry.
Heights corresponding to various pressures in this atmosphere are used in graduating the
dials of altimeters. Thus when the sub-scale of an altimeter is set to the sea level pressure in the ISA
i.e. 1013.25 hPa, the altimeter will read 10,000 ft at a pressure of 696.8 hPa, 25,000 ft when the
pressure is 376.0 hPa etc. Since the actual atmosphere rarely corresponds exactly with the ISA, the
readings are not equal to true heights and may sometimes differ considerably from true heights.
Altimeter Settings
8.
To make altimeter readings comparable, all aircraft flying in a given area and height band at
any time should set the sub-scale of altimeter to a single pressure value. In the vicinity of an airfield
the most convenient value is what is known as the "altimeter setting" or QNH of the airfield. This is
the current value of pressure over the airfield reduced to mean sea level according to the standard
rate of variation of pressure with height in the ISA. An altimeter set to this value will read the elevation
of the airfield while on ground. While in flight in the vicinity of the airfield, altimeter set to this value will
indicate reasonably true altitudes. QNH setting thus enables aircraft to keep clear of obstructions of
known elevation in the vicinity of the airfield.
Current QNH values are invariably supplied with
METARs and are transmitted on R/T by ATC. Other types of settings in the vicinity of an airfield are:
33
(a)
QFE.
It is defined as the station level pressure reduced to Aerodrome reference
point (ARP) as per ISA conditions. If QFE is set while on ground the altimeter will read zero.
(b)
QNH.
It is defined as the station level pressure reduced to MSL as per ISA
condition. If QNH is set while on ground the altimeter will read station elevation.
(c)
QFF.
It is defined as the station level pressure reduced to MSL as per actual
conditions. It is used for plotting on surface charts.
9.
QNH or QFE settings are advantageous in the vicinity of an airfield because apart from
ensuring vertical separation amongst aircraft, they enable aircraft to keep clear of obstructions since
the altimeter readings give reasonably true altitudes or elevations above airfield level. These settings
are however, unsuitable for cross-country flight for the simple reason that the settings vary from point
to point and it is impracticable to obtain local values at every stage of the flight. Aircraft on crosscountry flight thus use what is known as "Standard Altimeter Setting", which is the mean sea-level
pressure in the ISA, viz. 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inch. QNE is the altitude indicated when 1013.25 hPa
is set on subscale.
10.
Altitudes indicated with this setting are known as "Pressure altitudes" or merely as "Indicated
altitudes" "Flight levels" allotted by ATC to aircraft on cross-country flight refer to pressure altitudes.
11.
Since the pressure at mean sea level as well as the temperature and humidity at various
levels rarely correspond to conditions in the ISA, indicated altitudes differ from true altitudes on most
occasions.
12.
Pressure Altitude.
Pressure altitude is the altitude in ISA, where the prevailing pressure at
station exists.
13.
Density Altitude.
Density altitude is the altitude in ISA at which air density is same as the
observed density. A higher density altitude means lower air density.
Altitude Correction (ALTICOR)
14.
The correction to be applied to the indicated altitude to obtain the true altitude is known as
altitude correction or in short as alticor.
This is frequently required by a pilot while flying in
mountainous terrain or in high-level bombing operations. The forecast alticor can be obtained from
Met Section for the required levels at any point on the route.
ALTICOR
Indicated Altitude
True Altitude.
(5.1)
15.
34
It is useful for a pilot to memorise the following thumb rules in connection with indicated
altitudes:
(a)
When an aircraft flies from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure, the
altimeter over-reads; caution is therefore, to be exercised.
(b)
Similarly pressure remaining unchanged, an altimeter over-reads when the aircraft
flies from warmer to colder air.

16.
While in flight a rough calculation of the alticor can be made if the value of mean sea level
pressure at the point, the air temperature at the flight level and tables of temperatures at different
heights in the ISA are available. MSL pressures are generally given in route forecasts for the different
sectors of the route. Most aircraft have OAT (outside air temp) gauges fitted. If there is no OAT
gauge the temperature given in the forecasts can be used. A pilot should carry with him an abridged
table of conditions in the ISA.
17.
The calculation is made in two stages and then the final result obtained. The stages are:
(a)
For obtaining the correction due to pressure differences, add 30 ft for every millibar
difference when the actual MSL pressure is higher than 1013.2 hPa and subtract 30 ft for
every millibar difference when the actual MSL pressure is lower than 1013.2 hPa.
(b)
For obtaining the correction due to temperature difference, add 1% of indicated
altitude for every difference of 3C when the actual temperature is higher than ISA
temperature at flight level and subtract 1% of indicated altitude for every difference of 3C
when the actual temperature is lower than ISA temperature at flight level.
Combine both these corrections algebraically to get the final result.
D Value
18.
D Value is defined as the difference between true altitude and Indicated altitude. It can be
represented as
D
(5.2)
Where D
D Value
True Altitude
Indicated Altitude.
D value is used by pilots flying very low level missions, when true altitude becomes critical due to low
terrain clearance and is obtained by:
35
(5.3)
On the other hand Alticor is used by aircrew for bombing ops, since they would like to know Indicated
altitude at which precisely the bomb is to be released.
Thus, if A is Alticor
T
+
(5.4)
Equation (5.3) & (5.4) clearly indicate that Alticor and D-Value are correction which differ only in -ve or
+ve sign, so that correction is additive in both the cases.
Sea Level Pressure Patterns
19.
It has been mentioned before that the distribution of pressure over a large area is not uniform.
When values of mean sea level pressure are plotted on a chart the pattern of distribution of pressure
can be best perceived by drawing lines of equal pressure. These lines are called, "isobars" and are
generally drawn at intervals of 2 hPa.
20.
Experience shows that isobars exhibit certain characteristic configuration whose locations
change on successive charts with some amount of continuity. You would already have noticed this is
the daily met briefing.
21.
The
main
types
of
configurations are given below

and are illustrated in Fig 5-1.
(a)
Low.
It is a
region of relatively low

pressure
circular
with
and
nearly
concentric
isobars around the centre
Fig 5-1: Types of Isobar Systems
where pressure is lowest. When it is intense it is known as a depression or a cyclone.
(b)
Secondary Low.
(c)
Trough of Low.
It is a shallow low within the area covered by a deeper one.
In this region the isobars extend outwards from an area of low
pressure so that pressure is lower in the trough than on both sides.
36
(d)
High or Anticyclone.
It is a region with relatively high pressure and more or less
circular isobars with highest pressure at the centre.
(e)
Ridge.
Isobars extending outwards from an area of high-pressure so that pressure
is higher in the ridge than on both sides.
(f)
Col.
The region of relatively flat distribution of pressure located between two highs
and two lows.
Static and Moving Pressure Systems
22.
The study of the development, movement and dissipation of pressure systems is a very
important branch of meteorology and is known as synoptic meteorology.
This subject will be
introduced in a later chapter. The reader should however be aware that, broadly speaking, there are
two categories of pressure systems:
(a)
Static of semi-permanent pressure systems which show little movement in any one
season.
(b)
Moving pressure systems whose horizontal dimensions are of a somewhat smaller
scale and appear as moving disturbances in the large-scale systems.
23.
As examples, the great Siberian anticyclone and the equatorial trough of low pressure belong
to the first category. Western disturbances and monsoon depression belong to the second category.
24.
If we make a broad generalisation, high-pressure areas are associated with settled and fair
weather, while low-pressure areas are associated with adverse weather phenomena like rain and
thunderstorm.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(b)
If QNH is set on subscale on ground the Altimeter will indicate:

(i)
Height.
(iii)
Elevation of Station.
(ii)
Altitude of Station.
If QFE is set on ground, the altimeter will indicate:

(i)
Elevation.
(iii)
ARP.
(ii)
Zero.
37
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
QNE in flight means:

(i)
True Altitude.
(ii)
Indicated Altitude.
(iii)
Stn Pressure reduced to MSL as per actual condition.
Alticor is used for:

(i)
Recee Missions.
(iii)
Interception.
(ii)
Bombing ops.
(ii)
Interdiction.
D-Value is used for:

(i)
Bombing.
(iii)
Ground attack ops.
When an aircraft flies from High pressure area to area of low pressure, altimeter will
(i)
Over read.
(iii)
Be same.
(ii)
Under read.
An aircraft flying from A to B expenses drift to starboard, the ac is going towards an
area of:
(h)
(j)
(k)
(i)
Low.
(iii)
Col region.
(ii)
High.
(ii)
Indicated Altitude.
Pressure Altitude means nothing but:

(i)
True Altitude.
(iii)
Actual value of Pressure corresponding to the altitude you are flying.
On a rainy day the length of Runway required in comparison to sunny day would be:
(i)
More.
(iii)
Same.
(ii)
Less.
Higher density altitude indicates the performance of the aircraft would be

(i)
Less efficient.
(ii)
More efficient.
(iii)
Does not indicate performance of aircraft.
38
39
CHAPTER 6
TEMPERATURE
1.
Temperature is the degree of warmth of a substance. There are various processes by which
heat is transferred from one body to another.
2.
Heat is a form of energy. As heat is extracted from a body, the molecules composing the
body lose energy and their random motions and vibrations decrease. The molecules get rearranged in
a more orderly fashion. As the heat is removed from the body, the molecular motions decrease
further. A stage is reached when the molecules are at complete rest and no further heat can be
removed from the body. The temperature at which this happens is the same for all matter. It is known
as the absolute zero as this is the lowest temperature that can possibly be attained. The zero of the
absolute scale of temperature is based on this principle. In terms of the Celsius scale, absolute zero is
reached at 273.15 O C.
Methods of Heat Transfer
3.
Heat can be transferred from one body to another by four ways:
(a)
Conduction.
The energy of molecular motions of a hotter body is physically
transferred to the molecules of an adjacent body. Conduction is an important process of heat

transfer very close to the ground.
(b)
Convection.
This process of heat transfer applies only to liquids and gasses. In
this process parcels of hot fluid from one part are bodily transferred to a colder part of the
fluid. This is an important process of heat transfer within the atmosphere.
(c)
Advection.
This is a process by which heat is transferred from one area to
another through horizontal wind motion i.e. bodily movement of air masses.
(d)
Radiation.
Unlike the above processes, radiation does not depend on any
medium for the transfer. Every body, whatever its temperature, emits energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves which travel through space at the same speed as radio waves, but are
of much shorter wave length. The amount of energy radiated depends on the temperature,
being proportional to the fourth power of the temperature. The radiant energy is absorbed by
a body, the amount of absorption depending on the nature of the substance.
40
Sources of Heat in the Atmosphere

4.
Although the interior of the earth is very hot and is in a molten state, the solid crust does not
permit appreciable penetration of heat to the surface. The main source of heat for the surface of the
earth and the atmosphere surrounding it is the radiation emitted by the Sun.
5.
The suns temperature is estimated to be about 6000O C at its surface. At this temperature it
emits an enormous amount of energy in the form of radiation. The radiation is mainly in the form of
visible light, although a part of it is in the form of invisible energy in the ultra violet and infra-red
regions. The Sun is able to keep up this constant supply of energy, because within its interior, energy
is being continuously produced by a process similar in principle to the thermonuclear fusion as in the
hydrogen bomb.
6.
The ability of any body to absorb radiation from another source depends upon the nature of
the body as well as the wavelength of the radiation. Except for ozone, the other constituents of air
cannot appreciably absorb the radiation received from the Sun. During daytime this radiation passes
through the atmosphere without heating it and reaches the surface of the earth where it is absorbed.
The earth re-radiates this energy in longer wavelengths. The atmosphere is capable of absorbing this
radiation in longer wavelengths. Thus, although the Sun is the primary source of heat, the source from
which the atmosphere gets heat is the earth. The earth being the secondary source of heat,
temperature in the lower atmosphere decreases with distance from earth, i.e. with height.
7.
The above is only a simplified explanation. In actual fact dry air is transparent even to the
longwave radiation from the earth. On the other hand, water vapour absorbs a part of this longwave
radiation. However, it is found that the actual rate of decrease of temperature with height in the
atmosphere is smaller than the one which would result from a process of heat transfer from the earth
by longwave radiation only. Other important methods of heat transfer from the earth to the
atmosphere are:
(a)
Convection.
(b)
Advection.
(c)
Latent heat of condensation of water vapour, which has been transported upwards.
Surface Temperature
8.
The primary influences controlling the temperature of the ground and the air layers very close
to it are the incoming solar radiation and the outgoing longwave radiation from the earth, the nature of
the ground surface and the horizontal transference of heat by wind.
9.
reasons:
Maximum heating due to insolation takes place when the Sun is highest in the sky due to two
41
(a)
Temperature
The amount of radiation received on unit area is highest when the rays are incident
vertically.
(b)
Rays travel through the shortest path and hence suffer least loss by absorption or
reflection or scattering.
The broad features of the distribution of average temperature over the earths surface can be
explained on the basis of the varying elevations of the Sun - greatest in equatorial regions
and decreasing towards the poles. The seasonal variations, warm in summer and cold in
winter, may be explained similarly.
Diurnal Variation
10.
The temperature attained by the ground depends on the nature of the surface. The rise in
temperature by absorption is inversely proportional to the specific heat of the substance. Water having
the highest specific heat experiences relatively smaller temperature changes, while the solid materials
of the earths surface have a smaller specific heat and temperature changes are therefore greater on
land.
11.
During day, ground temperatures may be much higher than the air temperature, sometimes
by as much as 10 O C. Maximum temperature is reached about 2 hours after midday.
12.
At night the ground cools because the earth emits longwave radiation. At the time of the
minimum temperature, the ground is colder than the air close to it sometimes by about 5 O C when the
sky is clear and radiation effect is at its maximum. Minimum temperature is reached near about
sunrise time.
13.
The diurnal variation of air temperature near the ground is least over the oceans and highest
over the interior of continents. Other things being equal, diurnal variation is greatest when the sky is
clear and the wind is calm.
Effects of the Source of Air
14.
The temperature of air does not depend on these factors only: it varies widely according to
the source of supply of the air. Air coming from higher latitudes is usually colder than air from lower
latitudes.
Upper Air Temperature
15.
The Tropopause is highest over equatorial belt. The lowest temperatures are found in upper
troposphere over the equator. The tropopause is not continuous from the equator to poles. It has a
42
break at about Lat. 30O.The tropical tropopause is about 8 kilometers higher than the polar
tropopause.
Temperature and Aviation
16.
Apart from its importance in the generation of weather phenomena, temperature has a direct
bearing on aviation. Engine performance and cooling systems depend on the variation of temperature
in the atmosphere. The performance of an aircraft (both piston and jet type) is affected by the density
of air, which in turn is inversely proportional to the temperature at constant pressure. High
temperature implies lower density and so has an adverse effect on engine performance. This effect is
usually greatest during take off, but it should also be considered at other stages of flight, especially for
jet aircrafts.
Air field Reference Temperature

17.
In sighting a runway, its length should be planned not only in regard to the type of aircraft that
are likely to be operated, but in regard to the temperature and pressure that prevail in the locality. For
purposes of planning, a temperature referred as airfield reference temperature (ART).
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(b)
(d)
The source from which the atmosphere gets heat is:

(i)
Directly from Sun.
(iii)
Suns heat reflected from Earth.
(ii)
Earth.
During day, maximum temperature is reached at about:

(i)
Midday
(iii)
2 hour before midday.
(ii)
2 hours after midday
(ii)
Sunrise.
Minimum temperature is reached at near about:
(i)
Sunset
(iii)
At midnight.
43
CHAPTER 7
ATMOSPHERIC OBSCURITY
Importance of Visibility in Aviation
1.
Visibility is a measure of the degree of transparency of the atmosphere. In Meteorology it is
defined as the distance upto which prominent objects can be seen by naked eye and recognised as
such. An aviator's interest in visibility arises because he wants to know how far off he will be able to
see various things like landmarks, targets, obstructions, beacon lights, other aircraft, runways etc.,
while he is in flight or when he is about to make an approach and landing. Met reports of visibility
from ground stations therefore provide an aviator with vital information, which may prepare him
mentally for a difficult landing or a diversion.
2.
At some airfields, blind landing systems like ILS, GCA etc. are provided for guiding aircraft for
a take-off or landing under conditions of poor visibility. Even these systems have their limitations and
a large majority of airfields in India do not have even these aids. Thus, even for experienced aviators
poor visibility still remains a serious hazard.
Shortcoming of Visibility Reports
3.
It must be realised that visibility reported by a Met section is not fully representative. It has
the following shortcomings:

(a)
The report gives horizontal visibility at ground level. This may differ considerably form
vertical and slant visibility.
(b)
The report gives horizontal lowest visibility after scanning all directions. It is well
known that visibility can be substantially different in different directions.
(c)
Estimate of visibility depends on the illumination of the landmarks selected for
observation.
(d)
Visibility reported at night is actually an estimate of the equivalent daytime visibility.
This can be quite misleading at airfields, which have a system of electric lighting of variable
intensity on the runway. For example when the reported visibility is one km, a light of 20
candle power will be just visible at one km, but a light of 1,000,000 candle power (such as a
high intensity approach light) will be visible at over three km.
44
Runway Visual Range (RVR)
4.
To overcome these shortcomings and to determine as closely as possible the conditions that
would be experienced on landing or on take-off, at some airfields, observations are taken of the
runway visual range (RVR) which is the visual range of those objects or lights provided on the runway
for the guidance of the aircrew. These observations are made by the runway controller (or other
observer) positioned at one end of the runway. RVR is determined only when the visibility is marginal
for flying. When the visibility is more than about 2 km, the difference between conventional visibility
and RVR is not significant for aircraft operations. RVR is reported with the help of an instrument
called transmissometer or Scopograph. Since IAF airfields do not have these instruments, at most of
airfields, Runway visibility instead of RVR is reported by following the procedure outlined above.
Vertical and Slant Visibility
5.
When a shallow layer of haze or
fog is covering an airfield the horizontal

ground visibility is poor.
However, an
aviator flying over the airfield above the

haze layer may be able to see the airfield
clearly.
This is deceptive since, on
approach for landing, he would suddenly

encounter poor visibility. This is illustrated
Fig 7-1: Obscuring of an Aerodrome by Fog /
Haze as an Aircraft Descends to Land
in Fig 7-1.
6.
From the above it is evident that
horizontal visibility may differ considerably

form vertical visibility and slant visibility
(also known as oblique visibility). No fixed
relationship exists between these three
and each situation gives a different
relationship depending on the thickness of
the
haze
layer
and
vertical
density
distribution of particles constituting the

haze (Fig 7-2).
Fig 7-2: Oblique Visibility through Haze Layers
In-Flight Visibility
7.
Haze and fog layers are usually confined to a few thousand feet above ground level. Further
aloft the transparency of the atmosphere increases considerably except in cloud and precipitation.
Nevertheless the ability to locate distant aircraft while in flight depends on many factors:
45
Atmospheric Obscurity
(a)
Size, colour, illumination, background and speed of the remote aircraft.
(b)
Sight of the observer.
(c)
Bearing of line of sight relative to the sun or moon. Visibility is lower looking towards
the sun or moon than away from it.

(d)
8.
Transparency of the cockpit windows.
Theoretically visibility in the stratosphere should be excellent because of the absence of cloud
and haze particles. In practice, however, this is not the case due to two reasons:
(a)
There is greater dazzle in the stratosphere due to the fact that the apparent
brightness of the sun increases and that of the sky decreases.
(b)
Due to the absence of objects for sighting (viz. clouds), the eye adjusts itself to focus
midway between distant and near vision, with the result that an aircraft cannot be sighted
unless it comes fairly close.
9.
From the above it is evident that for in-flight conditions the transparency of the atmosphere is
not the same thing as visibility.
Cause of Poor Ground Visibility
10.
Poor visibility of layers near the ground may be caused due to the following phenomena:
(a)
Dust Haze.
Widespread dust may be held in suspension for a number of days due
to persistent strong winds caused by a steep pressure gradient, especially over desert areas
or large rivers like Brahmaputra in summers. Winds of this type are usually known as dustraising winds. The dust may be carried to great distances in the prevailing low-level wind
circulation. At times it is carried vertically to 10-15,000 ft. In extreme conditions ground
visibility may reduce to less than 1500 m. Vertical visibility is usually very poor. At night the
wind speed decreases and some of the dust settles down leading to slight improvement in
visibility. This type of dust haze is common over Northwest India in summer (May - June).
The haze extends even upto Northeast India but visibility progressively improves as one goes
further east from UP. Very infrequently this type of haze prevails in Northern India in the late
winter months. In this case the haze originates from the arid stretch of Iraq to Rajasthan.
Due to the widespread nature of the dust haze, diversions are difficult. Airfields to the south
of the dust-fetching areas are most suitable for diversions.
(b)
Moist Haze.
Due to the condensation of water vapour consequent to cooling of air
layers near the ground, moist haze, mist or fog may prevail. Moist haze usually occurs in the
early morning hours and dissipates due to heating of the sun. It is principally a winter hazard
46
because of clear skies and consequent greater cooling at night.
Mist and fog will be
discussed in greater detail in subsequent paragraphs.
(c)
Smoke Haze.
Smoke emitted from industrial or domestic source spreads as a haze
layer when the wind is calm or very light and a strong ground inversion exists. The wind
speed is then insufficient to cause undue horizontal diffusion, and the inversion (and
consequent stability of air) confines the smoke within the inversion layer, which may extend at
most to 3000 ft. Under extreme conditions ground visibility may reduce to 1500 m, but usually
it is 2-4 kms.
Smoke haze is principally a winter hazard because of stronger ground
inversions resulting from clear skies at night. The haze sets in before sunrise and usually
dissipates by 0930 hrs, because of the breakdown of the inversion and the freshening of the
wind. The prevalence of smoke and the prevailing wind direction as governed either by the
pressure pattern or minor local circulations.
(d)
Dust Storms.
The visibility in a duststorm may range from less than 10 m to 1000
m. Very poor visibility lasts for short duration of about half an hour, but after the duststorm
passes away, dust may remain suspended for many hours giving only partial improvement in
visibility. If the duststorm is followed by a light shower the improvement in visibility is rapid. It
must be remembered that duststorms occur in a season when the general visibility itself is not
good due to suspended dust. Improvement of visibility referred to here should, therefore, be
interpreted in this context.
(e)
Precipitation.
The visibility in rain depends both on the size of the drops as well as
their number in a given volume. Light rain has little effect, moderate rain is associated with
visibility 3-5 kms, while in heavy rain the visibility may temporarily reduce to less than 1 km.
In drizzle, the visibility may be as low as 3 km, but is usually 5-6 km. Drizzle is a hazard not
only because of poor visibility but also due to its association with very low stratus clouds. In
snow the visibility is mostly less than 2-3 kms, becoming less than 1 km in heavy snow.
Causes of Fog Formation
11.
Fog is composed of water droplets and may be described as a cloud resting on the ground.
Condensation in the great majority of fogs is produced as a result of relatively cold underlying surface.
Two distinct types come within this category:
(a)
Radiation Fog.
It is caused by cooling of the ground by loss of heat by radiation at
night.
(b)
Advection Fog.
cold ground.
It is caused by the transport of relatively warmer moist air over
47
12.
In addition there are two other types of fog, which are not found in India:
(a)
Steaming Fog.
It is also known as sea fog and is formed by evaporation of water
from a warm sea surface into cold overlying air.
(b)
Mixing Fog.
When warm and nearly saturated air is mixed with colder air, the
resultant mixture may be oversaturated and result in mixing fog. This type of fog develops as
a result of mixing between two distinct currents of air lying in close proximity side by side and
therefore defining a front.
Radiation Fog
13.
The formation of radiation fog depends on the cooling of the ground and the air layers near it
at night. It is essential that the air layers near the ground are cooled below the dew-point. If the wind
is calm or too light, the cooling by conduction extends to only a few feet above the ground. In such a
case the moisture from this very thin layer condenses to settle down as dew on the ground and no fog
formation takes place. On the other hand if a strong wind is blowing the cooling is spread by vigorous
turbulence to a very thick layer with the result that the dew - point is not reached at any level and no
fog forms. With a light wind the cooling of the ground may be transmitted by the turbulence to a
moderately deep layer within which the dew point may be reached at all levels and condensation
takes place. This is the ideal wind condition for formation of radiation fog.
14.
From the above it would be evident that, for radiation fog to form, a delicate balance is
required between the rate of cooling of the ground and the spreading of the cooling upwards by
turbulent mixing due to wind. This is the reason why under almost identical general meteorological
conditions one locality may be fog bound while another close by may be clear. The difficulties of a
forecaster are enhanced by the dependence of the factors for fog formation on local topographical
features, which cannot be assessed with precision.
15.
The conditions favourable for radiation fog may now be summarised from the above
discussion.
(a)
High Relative Humidity.
This is necessary so that little cooling is required to reach
the dew point.
(b)
Clear sky.
(c)
Light Wind.
This permits the maximum radiative cooling of the ground at night.
This enables the cooling to extend to a sufficiently deep layer and
bring the air temperature at all levels in this layer down to the dew point. A wind speed of 2-7
kt is usually favourable for fog formation, though much depends on the type of terrain.
16.
48
Radiation fog is frequently found to form when the relative humidity is less than 100%. This is
because of the presence of hygroscopic condensation nuclei. Condensation occurs on such nuclei
even when the air temperature has not yet reached the dew point.
17.
In many instances radiation fog and smoke haze may be mixed up resulting in very poor
visibility. If the relative humidity is greater than 75% the phenomenon is reported by Met sections as
fog while if the relative humidity is less than 75% it is reported as smoke haze.
18.
When moist haze is thick but visibility does not fall below 1000 m the phenomenon is known
as mist. Conditions favourable for formation of fog are almost identical with those of mist and it is
difficult to anticipate precisely whether fog or mist will eventually occur.
Local Influences on Radiation Fog
19.
The topography and the condition of the ground are factors responsible for the localised
nature of radiation fog. Although there are a few cases when radiation fog is widespread and covers
large areas as an unbroken blanket, usually its incidence is localised. The following types of localities
are liable for radiation fog, other meteorological conditions being same:
(a)
Valleys.
Here katabatic flow of air assists fog formation. If the valley has a river
flowing along it, adequate moisture is also available. The high incidence of fog in the valley of
the river Brahamaputra during winter is an example.
(b)
Water-Logged or Moist Ground.
Although the presence of water reduces the
night radiational cooling, the availability of moisture becomes the dominant factor.
(c)
Coastal Areas.
The availability of moisture as well as hygroscopic nuclei assists
fog formation. In most cases, however, the formation is of moist haze or mist.
(d)
Industrial Areas.
Smoke gets mixed up with moist haze or mist to produce very
low visibilities. The phenomenon is known as Smog.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
(a)
Visibility reported by Met section is:

(i)
In-flight visibility
(iii)
Horizontal visibility
(ii)
Slant visibility
49
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Radiation fog is caused by:

(i)
Solar radiation.
(iii)
Water evaporation.
(ii)
Loss of radiation.
(ii)
Intensity of precipitation
Visibility in precipitation depends upon:

(i)
Size of drops
(iii)
Amount of precipitation
Visibility in Dust storm could be as low as:

(i)
1000 m
(iii)
10 m
(ii)
100 m
Visibility in stratosphere is not excellent because of:

(i)
Mid vision
(iii)
Haze particles
(ii)
Sun's glare
50
51
CHAPTER 8
WINDS
Introduction
1.
Wind is defined as air in horizontal motion. Although the atmosphere has both horizontal and
vertical motions of air, the horizontal motions have in general, larger speeds and their measurement
both near the ground and at upper levels can be made with a greater degree of accuracy than in the
case of vertical motions.
Pressure and Wind
2.
Like any other fluid, air has got a natural tendency to move from a region of air surplus (high
pressure) to one of air deficit (low pressure). This movement is the primary cause of wind. The
speed of movement is proportional to the gradient of pressure, i.e. the rate of change of pressure from
high to low. Thus, if the gradient were the only force, we should expect the wind to blow directly from
high pressure to low pressure i.e. at right angles to the isobars.
3.
A look at any chart wherein isobars are drawn and surface winds are plotted shows that this is
not the case. In fact the surface winds blow more or less along the isobars. The reason is that apart
from the pressure gradient force, there is another apparent force, which deflects air in motion. This
apparent force is known as the Coriolis force or the geostrophic force and arises out of the rotation of
the earth on its axis. The Coriolis force is greatest in magnitude at the poles and zero at the equator.
At a given latitude it is proportional to the wind speed. As regards the direction in which it operates, it
deflects a wind towards the right in the Northern Hemisphere if we look along the air motion.
Geostrophic Wind
4.
The wind which results from balance between the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force is
known as geostrophic wind. At higher latitudes where

the magnitude of the Coriolis force is large, the
observed wind closely corresponds to the calculated
geostrophic wind.
5.
A wind, which starts blowing from high to low
pressure, may be assumed to start initially at right

angles to the isobars.
However, once the motion
commences, the coriolis force starts acting on it,

deflecting it to the right, with the result that ultimately it
Fig 8-1: Geostrophic Wind
52
blows along the isobars with low pressure to its left. Fig 8-1 illustrates this. The adjustment of wind
directions brought in by the coriolis force is quick at higher latitudes but may take as long as 24 hours
in the tropics.
Cyclostrophic Force
6.
When the path of motion is not straight there is yet another force, which acts on air in motion,
this arises out of the curved motion. This force is a centrifugal type and in meteorology it is known as
cyclostrophic force. Its magnitude and sign depends upon the amount of curvature and the fact
whether the curvature is cyclonic or anticyclonic. Its effect is to reduce the speed in cyclonic motion
and increase it in anticyclonic motion.
Gradient Wind and Cyclostrophic Wind
7.
A wind which results from the balance between the pressure gradient force, Coriolis force and
the cyclostrophic force is known as gradient wind. A special case of this one wherein the Coriolis
force is neglected is known as cyclostrophic wind. Winds in a tropical cyclone correspond fairly well
to calculated values of cyclostrophic wind.
Effect of Friction
8.
There is yet another force which acts on wind in the layers close to the ground. This is friction
and its magnitude depends upon the roughness of the ground and the presence of obstacles. Its
primary effect is to reduce the wind speed and deflect the direction in such a way that the wind blows
a little towards low pressure. A second but more important effect is to disturb the smooth horizontal
motion and cut it up to a greater or lesser extent into minor broken circulations embedded in the flow.
These are known as "eddies".
9.
The eddies move in the general flow causing irregular variation in the speed as well as the
direction of the wind. This is known as gustiness. Pronounced gustiness is associated with bumpy
motions of an aircraft as it encounters the eddies. The entire phenomenon is known as mechanical
turbulence.
10.
The effort of friction persists upto about 600 m, above ground level beyond which it is
negligible.
Veering and Backing
11.
A wind is said to veer when its direction changes in clockwise sense and to back when it
changes in an anti-clockwise sense.
53
Winds
Cross Wind
12.
At every airfield the runways are constructed after studying the wind records of the locality
over many years. Their orientation is chosen in such a way that for a large part of the year the
prevailing wind is along one of the runways. In spite of this, occasions arise when the surface wind
blows at an appreciable angle to the runway. Such winds could be dangerous for flying as aircraft
may tend to swing or drift on takeoff / landing.
13.
The component of the wind at right angles to the runways in use is known as Cross-wind
component. For each type of aircraft, critical cross wind components have been specified. When the
critical value is exceeded flying has either to be suspended or great caution exercised.
14.
Crosswinds of appreciable strength occur in unusual weather situations and in months in
which a transition takes place in the prevailing winds.
Buys Ballot's Law
15.
The Buys Ballots Law states that in the northern hemisphere, if an observer stands with his
back to the wind, the low pressure is to

his left. In the Southern Hemisphere
the reverse is true. From Buys Ballot's
Law it follows that the wind circulation
around
low
in
the
Northern
Hemisphere is anti clockwise, and

around a high is clockwise. Fig 8-2
illustrates this.
Winds at Higher Levels
17.
Buy Ballot's Law is applicable
Fig 8-2: Circulation of Wind - Northern Hemisphere
to winds at higher levels also. At these

levels effect of friction does not exist.
18.
It is known from observations of pressure and temperature at higher levels that in the upper
troposphere there is higher pressure in the equatorial zone and low pressure at the poles. Thus at
these levels the winds are westerly except in a restricted belt in the tropics. These are known as the
zonal westerlies. Close to the tropopause, in certain latitudes, the zonal westerlies become very
strong. They are known as jet streams.
54
Local Winds
19.
The large-scale distribution of pressure determines the general direction and speed of wind at
any location. This scheme is, however, sometimes completely upset by local wind circulation set up
by smaller scale topographical features. When such circulations are set in the general wind pattern
due to local topographical features, the pressure distribution is either partially or completely masked in
the locality. Since these local wind circulations occur with great regularity, they have to be taken note
of while assessing the surface winds at any location. A few important types of local winds are
discussed below.
20.
Sea and Land Breezes.
Coastal areas are subjected to the characteristic alternation of sea
breeze during daytime and land breeze at night. These are set up because land gets heated in the
day more quickly than the adjacent sea, while at night it cools more quickly than the sea. Some of the
important characteristics of these breezes are given below:
(a)
Sea breeze sets in abruptly around noon or somewhat later. It dies down by sunset.
(b)
Average speed of sea breeze is 12 - 15 kts, but in some localities it could be higher
due to peculiarities in the coastline.

(c)
Initially the direction of sea breeze is at right angles to the coastline. Later it tends to
blow keeping land towards the left.

(d)
It penetrates to about 50 Kms inland.
(e)
Land breeze is less pronounced than see breeze, the speed being rarely more than 7
kts during night.
21.
Katabatic and Anabatic Winds.
These are characteristic of hilly areas. At night the
ground on a hill slope cools rapidly with the result that the temperature at any point close to the hill
slope is lower and the air close to it being heavier slides down the slope to give rise to a wind known
as Katabatic wind. During daytime the reverse process takes place and an upslope wind known as
Anabatic wind occurs.
22.
Fohn Wind.
This is local name in the Alps region for a warm dry wind on the leeward side
of the mountains, but has now become a general terms of winds of this nature.
23.
Valley Winds.
When a mountain is broken by a valley, the wind tends to blow along the
valley at a speed appreciably greater than in neighbouring area on either side. Such winds are known
as valley winds.
Some Important Local Winds
24.
Many small-scale wind circulations have acquired local names as they make their impact on
the life of the people in region. A few important local winds are as follows:
55
(a)
Bora.
Winds
A wind of Katabatic origin which blows in violent gusts on the shores of the
Arabic sea from the mountains to the northeast.
(b)
Chinook.
A wind of the Fohn variety blowing down the eastern slopes of the
Rockies in the U.S.A. and Canada.
(c)
Loo.
A hot dust-laden wind that blows during summer afternoons over the plains of
northern India.
(d)
Mistral.
A strong offshore northerly wind that blows along the north coast of the
Mediterranean.
(e)
Shamal.
A gusty northwesterly wind which blows over Iraq and the Persian Gulf in
the summer.
25.
Surface winds are of great importance in landing and take-off. A pilot must, therefore, be
thoroughly familiar with the prevailing winds in different seasons on the airfield on which he normally
operates. He should also have a good knowledge of the changes that take place in the surface wind
in different weather situations.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Wind is:
(i)
Horizontal motion of air.
(iii)
Both (a) & (b).
(ii)
Vertical Motion of air.
(ii)
Pressure gradient.
(ii)
Cyclostrophic.
(ii)
Anti-clockwise.
Wind is directly proportional to:

(i)
Pressure.
(iii)
Pressure change in last one hr.
Wind we experience is:

(i)
Geostrophic.
(iii)
Gradient wind.
Veering means wind direction changing:

(i)
Clockwise.
(iii)
Irregular.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(j)
(k)
56
Backing means wind direction changing:

(i)
Clockwise.
(iii)
Irregular.
(ii)
Anti-clockwise.
(ii)
60 kt.
(ii)
Afternoon.
Jet stream means winds stronger than:

(i)
50 kt.
(iii)
70 kt.
Sea breeze is observed in:

(i)
Morning.
(iii)
Night.
Cross wind means component of wind at:

(i)
90 to runway.
(iii)
Not along or opposite runway.
(ii)
60 to runway.
(ii)
Up slope in afternoon.
Anabatic winds are winds which blow:

(i)
Down slope & at night.
(iii)
Up slope and at night.
As per Buy Ballots' law, winds blow in Northern Hemisphere keeping:

(i)
Low to right.
(iii)
High to left.
(ii)
Low to left.
57
CHAPTER 9
LAPSE RATES, STABILITY AND INSTABILITY

Introduction
1.
Before consideration can be given to the formation of clouds and their characteristics,
including flying conditions, attention must be paid to the upper air temperature structure and the
terminology used to describe it.
2.
Firstly, the term temperature lapse rate. A temperature lapse rate is the rate of decrease of
temperature per unit increase of height and in aviation in the India is expressed in C per 1000 ft.
Different circumstances of static, ascending and descending air produce different lapse rates, which
are known by the following names:
3.
(a)
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR).
(b)
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR).
(c)
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR).
Upper air temperatures are observed regularly through the troposphere into the stratosphere
and may variously be referred to as the observed, environmental or ambient upper air temperatures.
These environment temperatures vary with place and time as well as with altitude. Environmental
lapse rate is the observed rate of decrease of temperature with increase of height at a particular place
and time. From the observed environment temperatures given in table 9-1, from surface to 2000, the
Environmental lapse rate (ELR) is 2C per 1000 while from 2000 to 4000 the ELR is 1C per 1000.
In fact where temperatures are decreasing with increase of height, the ELR is positive.
Altitude
Environment Temperatures
4000
100C
3000
110C
2000
120C
1000
140C
Surface
160C
Table 9-1: Observed Upper Air Temperatures
4.
The observed upper air temperatures may however be as shown in table 9-2. Where as in
sample 1, the environmental temperatures remain unchanged with increase of height, the ELR is 0C
per 1000 and the layer from 1000 to 3000 would be called an isothermal layer. If as in sample 2, the
environmental temperatures increase with increase of height (i.e. the usual temperature structure is
inverted) the ELR is negative and the layer from 1000 to 3000 would be called an inversion layer or
58
just an inversion. If the temperature inversion starts at the surface, it is usual to refer to the condition
as a surface inversion.
Altitude
Sample 1
Sample 2
4000
15 C
90C
3000
150C
110C
2000
150C
90C
1000
150C
80C
Surface
150C
100C
Table 9-2: ELR of Two Sample Air Spaces
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
5.
This term is used in relation to vertically moving unsaturated air. The term adiabatic means
that no heat is lost or gained from the system during a particular process. Take the case of piston
moving in a simple cylinder. If the piston is moved so that it compresses the gas, work is done on the
gas. The energy required for compression passes to the gas leading to an increase of its internal
energy, raising its temperature (e.g. bicycle hand pump, diesel engine, etc.). Cooling by expansion of
a gas, as in some domestic refrigerators, is the reverse process. In the atmosphere, because air is a
poor conductor of heat, any rising bubble of air (called a parcel by met men) can be considered
thermally insulated from its environment as it expands and cools with no loss or gain of heat to or from
its environment, i.e. adiabatically. So long as the vertically moving air remains unsaturated it changes
its temperature at a predictable constant rate. The DALR can therefore be defined as the rate of
cooling with ascent or warming with descent of unsaturated air displaced vertically in which the
temperature changes entirely
due to dynamical processes
and there is no exchange of
heat with the environment.
Expressed in terms of height
(Fig 9-1), the DALR value is
3C/1000 ft (1C per 100 m).
Fig 9-1: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)
6.
In rising saturated air, condensation occurs and latent heat is released. This heat partly
offsets the expansional cooling so that the saturated adiabatic lapse rate value is less than that of the
DALR. The SALR has a variable value although as an average, at mean sea level in temperate
latitudes, its value is approximately 2C per 1000 ft (0.6C per 100 m). At high temperatures the
SALR has a low value and at low temperature its value is greater, approaching the DALR value, and
59
Lapse Rates, Stability and Instability
equalling it for all practical purposes at - 40 C. Thus the SALR value increases with altitude and also
usually with latitude. Remember that the SALR value is derived from the simple sum:
Per 1000 ft:
Cooling adiabatically due to expansion
3C
Warming due to latent heat of condensation
xC
Resultant SALR value per 1000 feet
xC
This may be shown graphically (Fig 9-2) for a given

amount of cooling ('t' deg) and the following can be
seen:
(a)
At high temperatures, there is a
large
difference
in
saturation
value
therefore much condensation takes place

and the latent heat released is high, hence
the SALR value is low.
(b)
At low temperatures there is a
Fig 9-2: Variation in Saturated Lapse Rate

with Height
small difference in saturation values and consequently the condensation is lesser and the
latent heat released is less, hence the SALR value is high.
7.
Typical Values of the SALR at mean sea level are:

0C
15 C
30 C
Warming
0.5
1.5
22
Net Cooling = SALR (per 1000')
2.5
1.5
Cooling
Compared with Fig 9-1 for

the DALR, the SALR may
be represented as in Fig
9-3.
The
graph
temperature
height
in
of
versus
a
large
developing cloud is called

an ascent or path curve,
and
would
appear
shown in Fig 9-4.
8.
as
Fig 9-3: SALR
Although the DALR applies to both ascending and descending unsaturated air (i.e. is
reversible), the SALR strictly should only be applied to ascending saturated air. This is because in
60
rising air excess water vapour will condense

out and latent heat will be released, it cannot
be assumed that the same amount of latent
heat will be taken up to evaporate all the
condensation instantaneously to maintain
saturation of descending air. The SALR may
be defined as the rate of cooling with ascent
of saturated air in which the expansional
cooling is partly offset by the latent heat of
Fig 9-4: Path Curve
condensation, and there is no exchange of

heat with the environment. It has a variable value but in temperate latitudes at mean sea level, its
value is approximately 1.5C per 1000ft.
9.
By comparing the temperatures of rising parcels of air with the environmental temperatures of
the air which surrounds them at their new upper levels, the stability (or instability) of the atmosphere
at a particular place and time may be assessed. As is true in other applications, a state of stability
means that when an object is displaced, it will tend to return to its original position when the displacing
force is removed. In an unstable state, the displaced object will continue to become more displaced
even though the original displacing force is removed. In the case of atmospheric (in)stability, the
object is the mass of air which produce different flying conditions.
Atmospheric Stability
10.
If a body at rest is given a small displacement by applying an external force for a short time
and then the force is removed, one of three things can happen:
(a)
The body may return to its original position (stable equilibrium).
(b)
The body may remain at the point where the external force was removed (neutral
equilibrium).
(c)
The body may continue to be displaced even when the external force is removed
(unstable equilibrium). In such a case, even a small displacement will grow and the original
state breaks down, sometimes violently.
11.
The stability of the atmosphere is considered in terms of the vertical displacement of parcels
of air. The following definitions apply:

(a)
A layer of air is said to be stable if a parcel of air, given a small initial push upwards,
sinks back to the original level.
61
(b)
It is said to be neutral if a parcel of air, given a small initial push, remains at the level
at which the force pushing it upwards is removed.
(c)
It is said to be unstable if the parcel of air continues to be displaced upwards on its
own even when the initial force pushing it upwards is removed.
Principle of Buoyancy
12.
It is well known principle of physics that in a fluid, a parcel having higher density sinks to a
level where its density is equal to the surrounding fluid, while a parcel having lower density rises to a
level where its density is equal to the surroundings. This is known as buoyancy and is responsible for
convective motions in the atmosphere. From the fundamental gas equation, it is known that at a
given pressure, the density of a gas is inversely proportional to its temperature. The principle of
buoyancy may, therefore, be stated in terms of temperature as follows:
(a)
A parcel of air, whose temperature is higher than the surroundings, rises up to a level
where the temperature equalises.

(b)
A parcel of air, whose temperature is lower than the surroundings, sinks to a level
where the temperature equalises.
13.
In rising, the parcel of air cools at the adiabatic lapse rate (DALR or SALR as the case may
be). By comparing the actual lapse rate with the adiabatic lapse rate, it is thus possible to determine
whether the parcel of air will continue to rise or sink at any stage.
Temperature 0C
Altitude
1
DALR 30C
SALR 1.50C
ELR 40C
ELR 20C
ELR 10C
3000
21
21
18
24
25.5
2000
24
27
22
26
28
1000
27
28.5
26
28
29
Surface
30
30
30
30
30
Absolute Stability
Conditional
Stability
DALR>ELR>SALR
Absolute Instability
ELR>DALR>SALR
DALR>SALR>ELR
Table 9-3: Lapse Rates
Stability and Lapse rates
14.
To examine the state of atmosphere on a particular day one should examine if the parcel,
whether dry or saturated, will rise vertically or not. It is evident from foregoing discussion that dry
62
parcels will follow DALR and cool at a rate 3C/1000' during ascent. Similarly saturated parcels will
follow SALR and cool at a rate 1.5C/1000' in Indian region.
(a)
Case 1.
ELR is 4C/1000', as shown in column 3 hence ELR>DALR>SALR which
means whether the parcel is dry (Column 1) or saturated (Column 2) the environment
temperature at any level is lesser than that of parcel.
In such a case parcel will rise
unconditionally and it is a case of Absolute Instability.
(b)
Case 2.
ELR is 1C, as in column 5, hence ELR>SALR>DALR. It follows from
above analogy that in such a case parcel will be colder than environment at all levels
irrespective of the fact whether they are dry or saturated.
Such saturation is known as
Absolute Stability.
(c)
Case 3.
ELR is 2C, as in column 4 hence SALR>ELR>DALR.
Now if you
examine column 2 & 4, you will notice that parcel of saturated air will rise since temperature in
column are higher than in column 4, but a comparison of column 4 and 1 will show that dry
parcels will not rise since the temperature in column 1 are lesser than that in column 4 at all
levels. This situation is known as Conditional Instability where the condition is that parcels
will rise and atmosphere will be unstable if parcels are saturated, whereas if the parcels
remain dry atmosphere will be stable.
Latent Instability
15.
Consider a layer of air in which the lapse rate itself varies, being stable in the lower levels but
unstable aloft. Such a layer is said to have latent instability in the sense that instability is, so to say,
hidden aloft and can be reached only if a sample of air is lifted upto some considerable height.
Potential (or Convective) Instability
16.
Finally, the term's potential (or convective) stability and instability may be met. Whereas all of
the cases considered so far have concerned parcels of air rising through the environment, potential
(in)stability relates to what would happen if the whole environment were lifted bodily. The simplest
case to visualise is of a whole airmass moving from, say over the ocean or a low-lying plain rising up
to a new location over a plateau. Although both terms potential (in)stability and convective (in)stability
may be found in meteorological literature, the prefix of potential may be preferred because of its
connotations of position. The case for convective is that the (in)stability arises from the rearrangement
of heat due to the bodily movement of the air.
17.
That state of the atmosphere in which there is a high relative humidity at low levels and a low
relative humidity at upper levels, such that if a lower layer of air is lifted bodily, the ELR value through
the layer will gradually increase to attain finally an unstable value (Fig 9-5.)
63
Potential (or Convective) Stability
18.
If the state of atmosphere is such that there is low relative humidity at low levels and high
relative humidity at upper levels, and now if a layer of air is lifted bodily the ELR value through the
layer will gradually decrease to attain finally a stable value (Fig 9-6).
19.
When considering the possibility of development of instability and its associated flying
conditions of turbulence etc., due allowance must be made for the modification of the environment
curve by any or all of the following:
(a)
Diurnal variation of temperature of the underlying surface.
(b)
Inflow of upper air of different temperatures at different levels.
(c)
Movement of the whole airstream into an area of different surface temperatures.
(d)
Mixing within the air mass.
(e)
Bodily lifting of the whole mass of air and also of the increased humidity that will
prevail in an airstream that has acted as a watershed.
Fig 9-5: Potential Instability
Fig 9-6: Potential Stability

Conclusion
20
The above properties are summarised and illustrated below:
64
(a)
Dry air is stable if ELR is < DALR.
(b)
Dry air is unstable if ELR is > DALR.
(c)
Saturated air is stable if ELR is < SALR
(d)
Saturated air is unstable when ELR is > SALR.
(e)
Air, whether dry or saturated, is stable when ELR < SALR. This is known as absolute
stability.
(f)
Air, whether dry or saturated, is unstable when ELR > DALR. This is known as
absolute instability.
(g)
Air,
in
SALR<ELR<DALR
which
has
the
conditional
stability i.e. it is stable so long as the air is

dry but is unstable when the air becomes
saturated.
It follows from the above that a layer wherein the
lapse rate is zero (isothermal) or negative
(inversion), has absolute stability.
On the other
hand a layer in which as superadiabatic lapse rate

(lapse rate greater than DALR exists), has
Fig 9-7: Summary of Environmental

Stability
absolute instability.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
A radio-sonde measures the upper air temperatures on a cloudless day when plotted
on a temperature- height graph, these temperatures would give:
(b)
(c)
(d)
(i)
The path curve.
(iii)
The dry adiabatic curve.
(ii)
The environment curve.
A temperature inversion indicates a state of the atmosphere which is:

(i)
Absolutely stable.
(iii)
Conditional unstable.
(ii)
Absolutely unstable.
An isothermal layer is a state of the atmosphere which is:

(i)
Absolutely stable.
(iii)
(ii)
An ELR value between those of the SALR and DALR indicates:

(i)
Absolutely stable.
(iii)
(ii)
65
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
2.
On a clear night inland, the stability of the lowest layers of the atmosphere:
(i)
Will decrease.
(iii)
Will increase.
(ii)
Will not change.
(ii)
Become more unstable.
Air moving from the J & K to Bihar will:

(i)
Become more stable.
(iii)
Not experience any change in its stability.
The DALR value is:

(i)
1.5 C deg/1000 ft.
(iii)
3.00 C deg/ 1000 ft.
(ii)
1.98 C deg/1000 ft.
For potential instability, the relative humidity must:

(i)
Decrease with increase of altitude. (ii)
Increase with increase of altitude
(iii)
Remain constant with increase of altitude.
State true or False.

(a)
At surface levels, greatest instability normally occurs in mid-morning when clouds are
forming fastest.
(b)
The lapse rate through a layer of cloud is less than the SALR if the conditions are
unstable.
(c)
Generally the ELR can never greatly exceed the DALR value in unsaturated air, nor
greatly exceed the SALR value in saturated air.
(d)
At surface level, greatest instability normally occur in mid-morning when clouds are
forming fastest.
(c)
The lapse rate through a layer of cloud is less than the SALR if the conditions are
unstable.
(f)
Generally the ELR can never greatly exceed the DALR value in unsaturated air, nor
greatly exceed the SALR value in saturated air.
66
67
CHAPTER 10
CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION

Introduction
1.
At a given temperature, air can hold a certain quantity of water vapour and no more. The
temperature at which saturation occurs is the dew point temperature, because if the air is cooled
below this temperature, the extra water vapour settles down as dew i.e. into small water droplets. The
conversion of water vapour into liquid form is condensation.
Definition of Cloud
2.
A cloud may be defined as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in
the free air.
Clouds consist of water droplets or ice crystals in suspension in the atmosphere,
produced when excess water vapour is condensed out of the saturated air and present in sufficient
quantity to produce visible mass. When initially formed, the water droplets are very small and the
average size cloud droplet is around 0.02 millimetres in diameter. However, within the cloud the
droplet may well grow in size so that it eventually becomes big enough to fall from the cloud as
precipitation. From a brief observation of the sky two fundamental characteristics of clouds become
apparent, first, their infinite variety of form and second, their continual change in appearance. The
study of clouds is one of the most fascinating aspects of weather science and at the same time, it is
particularly important as a tool for weather forecasting. Clouds form in sky, develop, take different
shapes and dissolve.
Each process is an indication of some physical state or process in the
atmosphere.
Classification of Clouds
3.
From watching the clouds in the sky it will be seen that as they are carried along by the wind
they are constantly changing in their appearance. There is an infinite variety of shapes and of shades
of light and dark. Nevertheless, certain general characteristics are sufficiently repetitive for various
cloud types to have been given names. It was almost two hundred years ago that the first
classification of cloud forms was proposed. The definitive work on cloud names, identifying features,
etc. is the International Cloud Atlas, published by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), a
specialised agency of the United Nations. The following definitions are taken from the International
Cloud Atlas and assume a ground observer on a day with normal sun's illumination and clear visibility.
(a)
Cirrus (Ci).
Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, or white or
mostly white patches or narrow bands. These clouds have a fibrous (hair-like) appearance or
a silky sheen or both. (Fig 10-1).
68
Fig 10-2: Cirrocumulus Clouds
Fig 10-1: Cirrus Clouds

(b)
Cirrocumulus (Cc).
Thin, white patch, sheet or layer of cloud without shading,
composed of very small elements in the form of grains, ripples, etc., merged or separate, and
more or less regularly arranged. Most of the elements have an apparent width of less than
one degree. (Fig 10-2).
Cirrostratus (Cs).
(c)
Transparent whitish cloud veil of fibrous or smooth appearance,
totally or partly covering the sky, and generally producing halo phenomena. (Fig 10-3).
Fig 10-4: Altocumulus Clouds
Fig 10-3: Cirrostratus Clouds

(d)
Altocumulus (Ac).
White or grey, or both white and grey, patch, sheet or layer of
cloud, generally with shading, composed of laminae, rounded masses, rolls, etc., which are
sometimes partly fibrous or diffused, and which may or may not be merged. Most of the
regularly arranged small elements usually have an apparent width of between one and five
degrees. (Fig 10-4).
(e)
Altostratus (As).
Greyish or bluish
cloud sheet or layer of striated, fibrous or

uniform appearance, totally or partly covering
the sky, and having parts thin enough to reveal
the sun at least vaguely, as through ground
glass.
Altostratus
does
not
show
halo
phenomena. (Fig 10-5).

Fig 10-5: Altostratus Clouds
69
(f)
Nimbostratus (Ns).
Grey cloud layer, often dark, the appearance of which is
rendered diffuse by more or less continually falling rain or snow which in most cases reaches
the ground. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun. Low ragged clouds frequently
occur below the layer with which they may or may not merge. (Fig 10-6).
Fig 10-6: Nimbostratus Clouds

(g)
Stratocumulus (Sc).
Fig 10-7: Stratocumulus Clouds
Grey or whitish, or both grey and whitish, patch, sheet or
layer of cloud which almost always has dark parts, composed of tessellations, rounded
masses, rolls, etc., which are non-fibrous and which may or may not be merged. Most of the
regularly arranged small elements have an apparent width of more than five degrees. (Fig 107).
(h)
Stratus (St).
Generally grey cloud layer with a fairly uniform base which may give
drizzle, ice prisms or snow grains. When the sun is visible through the cloud its outline is
clearly discernible. Stratus does not produce halo phenomena except, possibly, at very low
temperatures. Sometimes stratus appears in the form of ragged patches. (Fig 10-8).
Fig 10-8: Stratus Clouds

(j)
Cumulus (Cu).
Fig 10-9: Cumulus Clouds
Detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines,
developing vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers, of which the bulging
upper part often resembles a cauliflower. The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant
white. Their bases are relatively dark and nearly horizontal. Sometimes cumulus is ragged.
(Fig 10-9).
70
Cumulonimbus (Cb).
Heavy
(k)
and dense cloud, with a considerable

vertical extent, in the form of a mountain or
huge towers. At least part of its upper
portion is usually smooth, or fibrous or
striated, and nearly always flattened. This
part often spreads out in the shape of an
anvil or vast plume. Under the base of this
cloud, which is often very dark, there are
frequently low ragged clouds either merged
Fig 10-10: Cumulonimbus Clouds
with it or not, and precipitation, sometimes

in the form of virga. (Fig 10-10).
General Classification of Clouds

4.
The first differentiation between clouds may be made on their general appearance in the sky,
to describe the clouds as either stratiform or cumuliform. Stratiform clouds are in the form of a layer of
cloud, while Cumuliform clouds are characterized by vertical development in the form of heaps or
lumps.
5.
Secondly, although it is sometimes difficult to determine the cloud base height when rain,
drizzle, or snow in particular is falling from clouds; clouds are also classified by their base height. On
this basis, clouds may be categorised as being high cloud, medium cloud or low cloud. This
categorisation may be further refined by making a sub-group of the low clouds which are of such great
vertical extent that they extend into the medium and high levels of the troposphere.
Cloud
High
Medium
Low (Stratiform)
Great Vertical
Extent
Cirrus (Ci)
Cirroculumus (Cc)
Cirrostratus (Cs)
Altocumulus (Ac)
Altostratus (As)
Nimbostratus (Ns)
Temperate
16000 to 45000
6500 to 23000
500 to 6500
Stratocumulus (Sc)
1000 to 6500
Stratus (St)
Surface to 1500
Cumulus (Cu)
1500 to 6500
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
1000 to 6500
Latitude
Polar
10000 to 25000
-200 to 600 C
6500 to 13000
+ 100 to 200 C
500 to 6500
+ 100 to 100 C
1000 to 6500
+ 150 to 100 C
Surface to 1500
+ 200 to 50 C
1500 to 6500
+ 200 to 50 C
1000 to 6500
Tropical
20000 to 60000
6500 to 25000
1000 to 6500
1000 to 6500
Surface to 1500
1500 to 6500
1000 to 6500
Table 10-1: Families of Clouds

6.
Table 10-1 classifies the ten fundamental cloud types. The heights and cloud base
temperatures tend to be higher than average in summer and lower in winter. As they vary with latitude
71
also, comparative base height figures are given for low (tropical) and high (polar) latitudes, as well as
temperate latitudes.
7.
Cumulus clouds on fine sunny days with a stable atmosphere may be very limited in their
vertical extent and are often referred to as fair weather cumulus. However, in unstable atmospheric
conditions when the cumulus builds upwards through the troposphere, the clouds are then called
towering cumulus.
8.
Apart from these rather self-evident prefixes to the basic cloud name cumulus, there are a
number of other terms used to amplify the descriptions of clouds and of these a pilot should know the
following:
(a)
Calvus (Cal).
Cumulonimbus is described as calvus (from the Latin for bald) when
although there is no visible cirriform part, some of the cauliflower cloud top is starting to
change to a fibrous structure.
(b)
Capillatus (Cap).
This suffix is added to the name by meteorologists observing
cumulonimbus to indicate that the cloud(s) have a definite cirriform top, usually anvil-shaped.
The cloud is probably associated with a thunderstorm with squalls and showers, possibly of
hail, and virga beneath it. It has been said that if the aircraft is near Cb cap, then the aircraft
captain should be the pilot handling the controls.
(c)
Castellanus (Cast).
A term applied to Ci, Cc, Ac and Sc (and previously termed
castellatus) when the cloud takes on a turreted or crenellated appearance. This appearance
is most noticeable when a line of the cloud is seen from one side. It is indicative of instability
at the cloud level.
(d)
Fractus (Frs).
This suffix is applied only to cumulus and stratus. It indicates that the
cloud is broken or ragged in appearance.
(e)
Lenticularis (Len).
Clouds such as Cc, Ac, Sc which are described as lenticular
are in the form of lens or almond shapes. They are good indicators of standing waves.
(f)
Virga.
This is a term used in relation to clouds and not as suffix to a particular cloud
name. It is the name to describe precipitation descending from the base of a cloud but not
reaching the surface. The precipitation may be falling vertically or slantwise and is also
described as fallstreaks.
Two other terms that you may come across in your general reading or experience are nacreous and
noctilucent clouds which may be of general interest because of their colouring and their delicate
structure.
72
(g)
Nacreous Clouds.
Also called mother of pearl cloud, it is a relatively rare
occurrence of stratospheric cloud in the ozone layer at 20-30 km, sighted mainly in Scotland
and Scandinavia. With a very delicate structure similar in appearance to cirrus or altocumulus
lenticularis, their little or no movement suggests that they may be mountain wave clouds.
They are very iridescent (rainbow-coloured) especially so just before sunrise and shortly after
sunset, when they may continue to be seen on into the night. (Fig 10-11).
Fig 10-11: Nacreous Clouds

(h)
Noctilucent Clouds.
Fig 10-12: Noctilucent Clouds
Also called luminous night cloud, it is also seen in northern
Europe, usually on the northern horizon around the midnight hours in the summer.
Resembling cirrus or cirrostratus, they occur at 80-85 km, their colour varying from a bluishsilver to yellow-orange, the cloud being illuminated by direct sunlight against a dark, clear sky.
(Fig 10-12).
Cloud Formation
9.
Clouds form in what previously was clear sky because the air is cooled so that it becomes
saturated and then cooled further so that there is an excess of water vapour over and above the
amount required to saturate at that temperature and pressure. This excess water vapour then
condenses onto condensation nuclei as visible water drops or ice crystals. The necessary cooling
can take place by:
(a)
Long-wave radiation from the air itself, although there is little evidence that on its own
it is likely to produce condensation. Long-wave radiation from the upper surfaces of preexisting cloud may however lead to enough cooling to produce further cloud.
(b)
Contact with a cold surface, so losing heat from the air by conduction, but this
process too is unlikely to be significant in producing cloud. In calm or very light winds, the
condensation is deposited as dew or frost. In slightly stronger winds, the condensation will be
as mist or fog. In winds exceeding 8 knots the vertical motion within the turbulence then
generated will produce adiabatic cooling and conductional cooling is not then the significant
factor.
73
(c)
Mixing two nearly saturated masses of air at markedly different temperatures. There
is again little evidence that this process is a reason for clouds to form. However, the process
can contribute to additional condensation in certain circumstances. It will be considered later
in the context of fog formation.
10.
The basic reason why clouds form is adiabatic cooling. The sequence is:
(a)
For some reason, air is caused to rise. The four different reasons for this are often
used to categorise the resulting clouds:

(i)
Orographic Cloud.
These are formed due to the ascent of air over high (or
rising) ground.
(ii)
Convection Cloud.
These are formed due to surface heating of the air
producing thermal up-currents.
(iii)
Turbulence Cloud.
These are formed due to the air flow producing a
frictional turbulence layer caused either by the underlying earth's surface or, at upper
levels, another airflow associated with a rapid wind change with height.
(iv)
Frontal Cloud.
These are formed when there is a general ascent of air
over a wide area. This situation is typical of low pressure systems where large air
masses of different characteristics are in juxtaposition.
(b)
The rising air is subjected to a steady decrease of pressure as it ascends.
(c)
The decreasing pressure causes the air to expand.
(d)
The expanding air cools adiabatically.
(e)
If stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 are continued sufficiently, the originally unsaturated air will
become saturated. The height at which this saturation occurs is called the condensation level.
It should be noted however that the temperature of the air at the condensation level is not the
original surface air dew point temperature.
11.
As covered earlier, the Dew point temperature is the temperature to which air must be cooled
at constant pressure to become saturated by the water vapour it contains. In the case of ascending
air, while it is unsaturated, the temperature will decrease at the DALR while the dew point temperature
will decrease at 0.50C per 1000. This latter decrease is due to the fact that as the pressure on air is
reduced, its capacity to hold water vapour at a given temperature increases. For example, the
saturation humidity mixing ratio at 20C and 1000 mb is 15 g/kg but at 20C and 900 mb is 16.5 g/kg.
74
In fact at 900 mb, 15 g/kg will saturate the air at 18.5C. Thus in 100 mb (approximately 3000 ft) the
dew point corresponding to 15 g/kg has decreased by 1.5C, i.e. 0.5C per 1000.
12.
Further ascent and expansional cooling will produce the excess invisible water vapour which
condenses out as the visible water droplets (or ice crystals) of cloud.
Cloud Characteristics
13.
14.
Generally, the mode of uplift of the air tends to determine the cloud characteristics of:
(a)
The time of the occurrence of the cloud.
(b)
The location of the clouds and their horizontal distribution.
(c)
The persistence of the cloud and often their dispersal.
(d)
The location and nature of any precipitation associated with the cloud.
The degree of stability or instability of the environment in which the air is forced to ascend
determines:
(a)
The vertical extent of the cloud.
(b)
Turbulence within the cloud and other flight conditions.
Cloud Dispersal
15.
The ultimate dispersal of cloud involves a reversal of the formation process. The visible water
drops or ice crystals disappear either due to evaporation or by just falling out of the air that had
previously sustained them. In the former case, the cloud evaporates either because the air becomes
warmer (and as its capacity to contain water vapour increases so the relative humidity falls to below
100%) or because the cloud, especially if it is isolated as in the case of cumulus, is surrounded by
drier air with which it mixes. In the latter case, precipitation physically removes the water from the air
by returning it to the surface. This is indeed a significant factor.
Orographic Cloud
16.
When an airstream meets a range of hills or mountains or even just generally rising terrain, it
too ascends and, due to the decreasing pressure, cools adiabatically. The effect is also true with
individual hills or peaks although some of the airflow will, in this case, be diverted around the hill or
peak. Provided that the basic parameters are satisfied, orographic cloud forms irrespective of the time
of day or season of the year. Depending upon the stability of the airstream cooling quickly produce
cloud. The cloud base then lowers appreciably so that it may prove impossible to maintain VMC. If
committed to flying through orographic cloud, beware of an increase in severity of airframe icing
where a front rises over high ground. It should not be assumed that, because crossing a belt of frontal
cloud produced no problems when encountered over flat terrain on an outward journey, on the return
75
flight crossing the same front in a mountainous area will produce the same weather: it may be much
worse. This is because the orographic updraughts will supplement the frontal uplift so supporting
bigger and more water drops than earlier in the day.
Convection Cloud
17.
This cloud forms due to the air being heated from below so producing thermal upcurrents. At
the same time as the surface is heating the air irregularly, causing some to rise away from the surface
in a series of convective bubbles or parcels, so the conduction of heat from beneath is also increasing
the Environmental lapse rate (ELR) in the lower levels. Depending upon the original ELR value which
is being modified, varying patterns of cumuliform cloud formed by convection will result.
Fair Weather Cumulus
18.
This type of cloud is associated with predominantly stable conditions which limit the vertical
extent of the convection. Initially, the convection currents start over the terrain which warms most
rapidly. For a while however, because of the stable lapse rate, they do not reach the condensation
level. Nevertheless the absence of cloud enables the surface temperatures to increase steadily in the
continuing sunshine, producing stronger convection currents and deepening the surface unstable
layer. Provided that there is no marked wind shear which will sever the rising currents, and also that
the general humidity is not so low that mixing with their surroundings, called entrainment, will keep
them unsaturated, the up currents will eventually reach and rise above the condensation level.
However, because of the basic stability of the initial ELR, vertical development of the cloud is inhibited
and generally each small cumulus will last less than half an hour before dispersing. If the surface
temperatures continue to rise there will be a corresponding rise in the height of the cloud base and
top. Sometimes if there is a marked stable layer such as an inversion above the condensation level,
the rising bubbles of air having initially formed the small cumulus, spread out sideways to form a layer
of stratocumulus.
Towering Cumulus
19.
In this case the environment is unstable through a deeper layer, usually in excess of 10000
feet. The surface heating of the moist air may either be due to the normal overland daytime heating by
the sun or due to advection of cool air over a warmer surface at any time during the 24 hours. The
surface air continues to ascend because while cooling at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate it remains
warmer than the environment.
20.
The rising currents produce condensation and despite the entrainment of unsaturated air
around, this condensation continues to great heights. The ultimate cloud tops are limited by the
tropopause so although convection clouds extend to 20000 feet in Polar Regions, they commonly
76
develop to over 50000 feet in low latitudes. Similarly their vertical extent is greater in summer than in
winter.
21.
Assuming the dawn of a fine day when, through a deep layer, the air is humid and the
environmental lapse rate exceeds the saturated adiabatic value, surface heating makes bubbles of air
to rise. Typically the initial cloud base may be around 1500 to 2000 feet. While the cloud is
developing, the top is rounded and is like a cauliflower as it reaches upper levels. When it reaches
temperatures of -10C and colder, ice starts to become a feature of the upper parts of the cloud which
then take on a fibrous appearance. When ultimately the tropopause is reached, its stability causes the
air to spread out horizontally, especially downwind, to give the typical anvil of a cumulonimbus. The
associated flight conditions and hazards are considered in the chapter on thunderstorms.
Flying in Clouds
22.
Flying in clouds has generally to be done under Instrument Flight Rules unless the clouds are
thin or of patchy nature. Before entering cloud aircrew are to be thoroughly sure of the kind of cloud,
its approximate thickness and horizontal coverage. Cloud flying is associated with the following
hazards:
(a)
Poor Visibility.
In clouds the vertical as well as horizontal visibility is poor. The
horizontal visibility ranges from about 1000 m in cirrus clouds to less than 10m in welldeveloped cumulus or cumulonimbus.
In general, rain-giving clouds, which have a
concentration of larger water drops, are associated with much less visibility than the nonprecipitating types.
(b)
Bumpiness.
All clouds are associated with vertical motion of air because this is a
pre-requisite for their formation. These vertical motions may be in the form of columns of
rising or falling air or in the form of smaller eddies with irregular random motions. When their
sizes are comparable to the dimensions of an aircraft they cause bumpiness in the motion of
the aircraft; the bumpiness may range from slight to severe type. In general, Cumuliform
clouds give more bumpiness than stratiform clouds. Clouds associated with instability give
severe bumpiness.
(c)
23.
Ice Accretion.
This forms the subject of a separate chapter.
Cumulonimbus clouds are the most dangerous clouds so far as flying is concerned. The
structure of a cumulonimbus cloud and the various hazard of flying through it are covered in the
chapter on Thunderstorms.
77
24.
A study of cloud forms, their heights of base and their vertical extent is very rewarding to an
aviator because after some experience he will be in a position to anticipate weather phenomena by
having a good look at the clouds in the sky. He should, therefore, develop the habit of noting the
cloud structure whether he is in air or on the ground.
Types of Precipitation
25.
The clouds may eventually give out the excess moisture in the form of precipitation. This
precipitation can assume many forms as described in the following paragraphs:
(a)
Drizzle.
Drizzle is liquid precipitation in the form of very small water drops, normally
very close together, indeed so small that their impact on an exposed water surface is
imperceptible. The droplets are so small that the up-currents against which they are falling
must be very weak and the air below the cloud very humid so that the droplets do not
evaporate. Drizzle is thus associated only with stratus and stratocumulus cloud and for the
record, has a droplet size of up to 0.5 mm diameter.
(b)
Rain.
Rain is the precipitation of water drops greater than 0.5 mm in diameter. On
striking a water surface, raindrops make a distinct splash.
(c)
Snow.
Snow is solid precipitation in the form of ice. It may take various forms.
Snowflakes are white, opaque, ice crystals. At lower temperatures the flakes have an
individual, six-pointed, crystalline structure but at surface temperatures around 0C crystals
amalgamate to give large snowflakes. Snowflakes can occur at surface temperatures up to
4C and a foot of freshly fallen snow is approximately equal to an inch of rainfall. In very cold
temperatures, the precipated ice may fall as granular snow consisting of small (less than 1
mm in diameter) white opaque grains or as ice needles, the latter giving a scintillating fog
often nicknamed diamond dust by the hardy souls inhabiting such cold climes.
(d)
Sleet.
Sleet means either snow that is melting as it falls to earth or a mixture of
snow and rain (or even drizzle) falling together because the surface air temperature is just
above 00C.
(e)
Hail.
Hail comprises precipitation in the form of small balls or chunks of ice which
may vary in size from 2 mm to 5 mm in soft hail (or graupel) to golf ball or tennis ball size in
the hail associated with violent thunderstorms.
26.
Because they are also means by which water is deposited from the atmosphere, dew and
frost are included in precipitation totals recorded for a meteorological station.
78
Formation of Precipitation
27.
Precipitation in general can be quite a significant weather factor to a pilot, especially during
the take-off and initial climb and then later in the approach and landing phase. Not only is it usually
associated with a rapid lowering of the cloud base but there is also a reduction in visibility at the same
time as there may be turbulence, downdraughts and gusty winds or squalls. In the cases of hailstones
or rain which is freezing as it falls, these bring their own additional hazards. Just when and why a
cloud system may be expected to produce precipitation is therefore a matter of some importance to
the pilot.
28.
It has already been stated that a cloud water droplet will probably have a diameter of 0.02 mm
and that rain drops have a diameter of greater than 0.5 mm (in fact, up to a maximum of 5.5 mm
diameter). Whatever its size, the water drop has mass and so will fall through the air around it at a
speed called its terminal velocity. The heavier the drop, the greater is its terminal velocity. Of course,
if the air current in the cloud is travelling upwards as fast as or faster than the terminal velocity
downwards, then the water drop will not leave the cloud base. There are two mechanisms by which
cloud particles can grow large enough to fall as precipitation:
(a)
Ice-particle (Bergeron Process) growth.
(b)
Coalescence/collision growth.
Ice Particle Theory of Growth
29.
Although it had been suggested soon after World War I that there needed to be both ice
crystals (i.e. temperatures below 0C) and water drops in cloud for rain to form, it was not until the mid
1930s that the Norwegian scientist Bergeron put forward the basis of this theory. When cloud
temperatures fall below 0C and ice nuclei are present, ice crystals form amongst the supercooled
water droplets. However, in these circumstances, although the air is saturated in respect of water it is
supersaturated in respect of the ice crystals. Consequently the ice crystals will grow rapidly by
condensation upon them. By rapid growth they become large enough to fall through the up-currents
(possibly growing further by the coalescence/collision process), enter a part of the cloud with
temperatures over 0C where they melt, and fall from the cloud as rain.
Coalescence/Collision Theory of Growth
30.
Despite Bergeron's theory, sometimes rain falls from clouds which are warmer at all levels
than 0C. In this case the precipitation occurs because within the cloud, not all of the droplets are of
the same size nor are all of the up-currents of equal strength. Large water droplets rise more slowly in
up-currents than small droplets and grow in size at the expense of the small drops by collisions and
coalescence. When they fall back through the cloud they then grow rapidly from more collisions with
79
rising cloud droplets, so that after a minimum period of about half an hour, the water drops are big
enough to fall as rain.
31.
Precipitation is usually caused by both processes acting together. Of course, once the
precipitation leaves the cloud base, it will be falling through unsaturated air, albeit probably of a high
humidity, so the droplets or particles will diminish by evaporation. In fact, rain or snow originating from
altostratus may be encountered by an aircraft in flight but evaporate entirely before reaching the
runways of an aerodrome below. On the debit side, the evaporation may itself saturate the air below
the cloud and ultimately produce condensation as very low stratus (known as pannus) which can
easily obscure the upper parts of even small hills.
Flying in Clouds
32.
What problems should a pilot guard himself against in precipitation? First, and perhaps most
obvious, is the effect on visibility. In snow, sleet and drizzle it will be extremely poor indeed, with no
time to manoeuvre if something solid looms up ahead, so a re-check of altitude and safety altitude is
called for. In rain the visibility may be no worse than 1 kilometre unless you are in a tropical
downpour. The rain on the windscreen does not help either and, at night, judgement of the distance of
lights requires great care as it can lead to lights appearing to be closer or further away.
33.
Precipitation also contaminates runway surfaces. Runways which are wet during or after
precipitation can produce handling or braking problems so pilots are told the runway surface state in
the following terms:
(a)
Damp.
(b)
Wet.
The runway surface shows a change of colour due to moisture.

The runway surface is soaked but no significant patches of standing water are
visible.
In each of these two cases, pilots can assume that an acceptable degree of braking action is possible.
(c)
Water Patches.
(d)
Flooded.
Significant patches of standing water are visible.
Extensive standing water patches are visible.
In these two latter categories there is a distinct possibility of aquaplaning, and the procedures laid
down in the aircraft's flight manual and the operations manual must be followed. In fact, together with
runways contaminated with snow and slush, the operations from such runways involve a significant
amount of risk.
34.
During cold weather, aerodrome authorities do their best to keep runways, taxiways, etc.,
clear of snow and slush. SNOTAMs give current situations at aerodromes during wintry conditions.
Depending upon the specific gravity (SG) of the contaminant, the subjective assessment is made as:
35.
(a)
Dry snow, less than 0.35 SG.
(b)
Wet snow, 0.35 to 0.5 SG.
(c)
Compacted snow, over 0.5 SG.
(d)
Slush, 0.5 to 0.8 SG.
(e)
Standing water, 1.00 SG.
80
The risks to the aircraft landing under such conditions could be:
(a)
Additional drag.
(b)
Possible power loss due to ingestion or impingement.
(c)
Reduced braking or risk of aquaplaning.
(d)
Reduced directional control.
(e)
Possible structural damage.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(k)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
In India Cirrus clouds are generally reported at:

(i)
25 - 30,000'.
(iii)
40 - 50,000'.
(ii)
30 - 40,000'.
In India heights at which the clouds are found:

(i)
Do not vary with seasons.
(ii)
Are higher in summer than in winter.
(iii)
Are generally lower in summer than in winter.
Visibility in Cu/Cb clouds can be as low as:

(i)
100m.
(iii)
Nil.
(ii)
10m.
(ii)
Sc.
(ii)
T Cu & Cu.
(ii)
Large horizontal extent.
Bumpiness will be maximum in:

(i)
Ac.
(iii)
Cu.
Line Squall is a line of:

(i)
Cu.
(iii)
Cb.
Stratiform cloud are characterised by:

(i)
Large vertical extent.
(iii)
Large depth.
81
(g)
(h)
(j)
Maximum vertical growth is seen in:

(i)
Stratiform clouds.
(iii)
Cirriform clouds.
(ii)
Cumuliform clouds.
(ii)
Cs.
Highest water content would be in:

(i)
As.
(iii)
St.
A sheet of cloud, which is producing a halo around the sun, is:

(i)
Cs.
(iii)
Ns.
(ii)
As.
82
83
CHAPTER 11
THUNDERSTORMS
Introduction
1.
Thunderstorm is a violent, short-lived weather disturbance that is almost always associated
with lightning, thunder, dense clouds, heavy rain or hail, and strong, gusty winds. Thunderstorms arise
when layers of warm, moist air rise in a large, swift updraft to cooler regions of the atmosphere. There
the moisture contained in the updraft condenses to form towering cumulonimbus clouds and,
eventually, precipitation. Columns of cooled air then sink earthward, striking the ground with strong
downdrafts and horizontal winds. At the same time, electrical charges accumulate on cloud particles
(water droplets and ice). Lightning discharges occur when the accumulated electric charge becomes
sufficiently large. Lightning heats the air it passes through so intensely and quickly that shock waves
are produced; these shock waves are heard as claps and rolls of thunder. On occasion, severe
thunderstorms are accompanied by swirling vortices of air that become concentrated and powerful
enough to form tornadoes.
2.
Thunderstorms are known to occur in almost every region of the world, though they are rare
in Polar Regions and infrequent at latitudes higher than 50 N and 50 S. The temperate and tropical
regions of the world, therefore, are the most prone to thunderstorms.
Types of Thunderstorms
3.
At one time, thunderstorms were classified according to where they occurredfor example,
as local, frontal, or orographic (mountain-initiated) thunderstorms. Today it is more common to classify

storms according to the characteristics of the storms themselves, and such characteristics depend
largely on the meteorological environment in which the storms develop. The United States National
Weather Service has defined a severe thunderstorm as any storm that produces a tornado, winds
greater than 26 metres per second (94 km [58 miles] per hour), or hail with a diameter greater than
1.9 cm(0.75 inch).
4.
Isolated thunderstorms tend to occur where there are light winds that do not change
dramatically with height and where there is abundant moisture at low and middle levels of the
atmospherethat is, from near the surface of the ground up to around 10,000 metres (33,000 feet) in
altitude. These storms are sometimes called air-mass or local thunderstorms. They are mostly vertical
in structure, are relatively short-lived, and usually do not produce violent weather at the ground.
5.
84
Cumulonimbus is a cumulus cloud which develops up to great heights due to instability and a
high degree of humidity in a deep layer of air. The release of energy due to the over turning of air in
the unstable layers gives rise to a storm. The electrical charges developed in the cloud give rise to
lighting and thunder. Thunderstorms are one or more convective cells in which electrical discharges
are seen as lighting or heard as thunder. The thunder is by far the most dangerous weather
phenomena from the point of view of aviation.
Conditions Favourable for Cb Formation
6.
The necessary conditions for the formation of Cb clouds are:

(a)
Lapse rate steeper than the SALR throughout a layer at least 5 to 6 Km in depth,
permitting development of clouds to height at which the temperature is below 0 oC.

(b)
Adequate supply of moisture from below.
(c)
A process, which produces saturation in the region of the steep lapse rate or a
triggering mechanism.
7.
As the instability cloud grows upward, some of the surrounding unsaturated air is entrained
into the cloud mass. Consequently, some of the cloud droplets evaporate. If the humidity of the
surrounding air is very low, the evaporation becomes dominant and arrests further growth of the
cloud. Well-developed Cb are thus possible only when the humidity aloft is sufficiently high.
8.
The triggering mechanism which sets off a thunderstorm are:
(a)
Local convection (Insolation)
(b)
Orographic lifting.
(c)
Convergence
(d)
Frontal lifting
(e)
Radiational or Katabatic cooling
Structure of Thunderstorm
9.
Knowledge of the structure of Cb clouds has been greatly advanced within the last two
decades both by exploratory flights of specially instrumented aircraft and by observations made by
ground based or air borne radars designed for thunderstorm detection and study. In USA, a regular
project known as the Thunderstorm Project was carried out in which 1300 traverses of severe
thunderstorms were made. Projects on a smaller scale have also been undertaken elsewhere, notably
by the RAF in Singapore where the traverses were inside tropical type of Cb clouds.
85
Thunderstorms
Cellular Structure
10.
From various thunderstorm projects and other investigation, the essential structure and
mechanism
of
cumulonimbus
cloud
is
composed of several cells,

each of which behaves as
a
unit
circulation
of
convective
and
goes
through its own life cycle of

short duration, more or
less
independently
adjacent
cells.
of
The
diameter of individual cells

vary from 2 to 10 Km while
between neighbouring cells
there are cloud filled lanes
up to 1 to 2 km in width.
Fig 11-1: Cellular Structure
Life Cycle of a Cell
11.
The three distinct stages in the life cycle of a cell are:
(a)
Cumulus Stage.
This occurs when one or more cumulus cloud begins to grow into
a large cumulus with a top up to say 8.0 km. A general updraught prevails throughout the cell
at this stage, in which extreme velocities of 100 ft. per second have been reported. At the
same time, inflow to the cell takes place through the sides at all levels as well as through the
bottom of the cloud.
b)
Mature Stage.
This stage begins with the fall of precipitation. The release of the
precipitation starts a downdraught in a part of the cloud where there was previously an
updraught. Due to evaporation of the falling drops, the descending air is kept saturated with
the result that it warms at the SALR during descent. Since the ELR is greater than the SALR,
the descending air is colder at every stage than the environment and hence continues the
downward motion on its own. Downdraughts upto 40 ft. per second have been observed, the
maximum being reached a little after rain starts falling. The speed of updraught is about the
same as in the cumulus stage. Thus at this stage both updraught and downdraught co-exist in
the cell.
(c)
Dissipating Stage.
86
This is reached when the downdraught spreads across the
lower portion of the cloud and the updraught becomes of secondary importance. Eventually,
the entire lower portion of the cloud exhibits downdraught, while only slight upward movement
exists in the upper portion of the cloud. The lack of vigour in the upward movement results in
the top portion spreading out laterally. Since this part of the cloud contains ice crystals, the
spread out portion has an appearance of cirrus cloud. It is therefore referred to as false cirrus
or anvil cirrus. The lower part of the cloud cannot continue for long, it may be the first stage of
the dissipation leaving the anvil cirrus and other stratified remnants at higher levels.
Fig 11-2: Stages of a Cell

Electrical Phenomena in Cb Cloud
12.
In clear air of normal density a critical electrical field of about 3,000,000 volts per metre is
required for breaking down the insulation and for a spark to pass. In cloud it is reduced to about
1,000,000 volts per metre. Such intense electrical fields are built up locally within a Cb cloud. The
upper portions of a Cb cloud acquire a positive charge and the lower portions a negative charge.(Fig
11-3) The exact cause of the generation of these charges is not yet fully understood. However, the
electrical field is sufficiently strong to permit a lighting discharge. Discharges may take place within
the same cloud, from one cloud to another and less frequently from cloud to the earth. The lighting
discharge is in the form of stepped strokes, 1 to 4 km long with a channel diameter of 1 to 10 meters.
The air through which the discharge has passed is rendered white hot and expands suddenly, giving
the clap of thunder. If the lighting stroke is long, the thunder may be in the form of peals as the sound
from different parts of it takes longer time for travel and reach the ground.
13.
When the accumulated electric charges in a thunderstorm become sufficiently large, lightning
discharges take place between opposite charge regions, between charged regions and the ground, or
from a charged region to the neutral atmosphere. In a typical thunderstorm, roughly two-thirds of all
87
Thunderstorms
discharges occur within the cloud, from cloud to cloud, or from cloud to air. The rest are between the
cloud and ground.
Fig 11-3: Electrical Phenomena
14.
In recent years it has become clear that lightning can be artificially initiated, or triggered, in
clouds that would not normally produce natural lightning discharges. Lightning can be triggered by a
mountain or a tall structure when a thunderstorm is overhead and there is a high electric field in the
vicinity or when an aircraft or large rocket flies into a high-field environment.
Regeneration of Thunderstorms
15.
The cold downdraught from one thunderstorm can activate a nearby cumulus cloud and
cause the latter to build up rapidly into a cumulonimbus. This process is known as regeneration.
Regeneration can happen successively, giving the impression of movement of the same Cb or
thunderstorm cloud. In reality it is chain reaction by means of which thunderstorm occur in quick
succession over an extended belt covering some hundreds of kilometres. The violent summer
thunderstorms known as Norwesters or Kalbaisakhis which affect Bengal and Bihar owe their origin to
regeneration from the primary thunderstorms over the ChotaNagpur hills which build up in the
afternoon.
Multiple-Cell Thunderstorms and Mesoscale Convective Systems
16.
Violent weather at the ground is usually produced by organized multiple-cell storms, squall
lines, or a supercell. All of these tend to be associated with a mesoscale disturbance (a weather
system of intermediate size, that is, 10 to 1,000 km [6 to 600 miles] in horizontal extent). Multiple-cell
storms have several updrafts and downdrafts in close proximity to one another. They occur in clusters
of cells in various stages of development moving together as a group. Within the cluster one cell
88
dominates for a time before weakening, and then another cell repeats the cycle. In squall lines,
thunderstorms form in an organized line and create a single, continuous gust front (the leading edge
of a storm's outflow from its downdraft.
17.
Sometimes the development of a mesoscale weather disturbance causes thunderstorms to
develop over a region hundreds of kilometres in diameter. Examples of such disturbances include
frontal wave cyclones (low-pressure systems that develop from a wave on a front separating warm
and cool air masses) and low-pressure troughs at upper levels of the atmosphere. The resulting
pattern of storms is called a mesoscale convective system (MCS). Severe multiple-cell thunderstorms
and supercell storms are frequently associated with MCSs. Precipitation produced by these systems
typically includes rainfall from convective clouds and from stratiform clouds (cloud layers with a large
horizontal extent). Stratiform precipitation is primarily due to the remnants of older cells with a
relatively low vertical velocity that is, with limited convection occurring.
18.
Thunderstorms can be triggered by a cold front that moves into moist, unstable air.
Sometimes squall lines develop in the warm air mass tens to hundreds of kilometres ahead of a cold
front. The tendency of prefrontal storms to be more or less aligned parallel to the front indicates that
they are initiated by atmospheric disturbances caused by the front.
Vertical Extent of Cb Clouds
19.
From radar surveillance as well as aircraft reports it has been found that Cb clouds over the
Indian area reach great height, at times up to the tropical tropopause. Average heights of tops are
between 10 Km and 15 km. Cb clouds have however, been reported to reach heights of 18 to 20 kms.
The base is usually over 1 km above the ground but in heavy showers may lower to less than 300 m
above ground in the monsoon season.
Diurnal and Seasonal Variation of Thunderstorm
20.
Thunderstorms over India are usually triggered by solar heating or insolation when other
favourable causative factor may exist. Their frequency of occurrence is therefore, greatest in the
afternoons in summer. Close to hills or mountains, there may be a secondary maximum in the early
hours of the morning. This is partly due to the slow drift of the thunderstorm down-slope at night and
partly due to regeneration caused by the cold katabatic wind. Well defined valleys have a
thunderstorm maximum at night and minimum during day. This is explained by the anabatic winds
along the slope during day. The central parts of the valley have net downward motion of air to
compensate the anabatic flow on both the sides. This is unfavourable for Cb development in the
valley itself, the mountain slope on either side may, however have large build-ups.
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Thunderstorms
Movement of Thunderstorms
21.
Thunderstorms move with prevailing winds in the layers in which the cloud is embedded. As
a first approximation the direction of movements may be deduced from the winds at 10 15,000 ft
above sea level. The speed of movement is less than the wind speed. When the winds aloft are
weak or variable, thunderstorms show little movement. In such cases the shower from the cloud may
be confined to a restricted area, resulting in heavy falls in a short duration. This is popularly known as
a cloud burst. In the case of moving thunderstorm the shower gets distributed over a large belt.
22.
Sometimes the down-drought from a thunderstorm cloud may activate another cumulus cloud
and cause the latter to build up into cumulonimbus.
This can happen successively, giving the
Fig 11-3: Storm Movement

impression of movement of the same thunderstorm cloud. In reality it is a chain process, known as
regeneration.
Flying Hazards of Thunderstorm
23.
From time to time, the: Aeronautical Safety Information Circular reminds pilots of the care
required when flying in the presence of thunderstorms. The carriage of weather radar on the flight
deck has enabled pilots to have early recognition of thunderstorms near the flight path. It is prudent to
avoid thunderstorms rather than to fly in or close to them if it is operationally feasible to do so. All
thunderstorms are potentially dangerous and their external appearance is no guide to the severity of
the hazards that may be expected. The hazards, not in any order of priority, may be summarised as:
(a)
Base height.
90
Many large cumuliform clouds have a base height of some 1500 feet
or more above ground level so there is space for light aircraft to operate beneath them if
necessary. Once thundery precipitation starts, the cloud base lowers and terrain clearance
beneath the clouds becomes difficult to maintain. Inside the thunderstorm the visibility may
be down to 20 metres.
(b)
Hail.
Despite the mass of information which has been gathered since World War II,
there is still no means by which hail can be forecast to fall from particular cumulonimbus
clouds with 100% certainty. The forecaster can only provide a pilot with a percentage
probability at the best. Soft hail or graupel are insignificant. Large hailstones, however, are a
problem and form when the up-currents prevent small, soft hail from falling out of the cloud.
These small stones are carried upwards, striking water drops which freeze around them as a
sheet of clear ice. Successive journeys up and down give alternate layers of soft and clear ice
as well as the possibility of hailstones fusing together. With the great vertical extent and
strong up-currents of thunderstorms in low latitudes, hailstones can build up to golf-ball or
tennis-ball size. Although the period involved in transiting the hail area of a thunderstorm may
be relatively short, damage from large hailstones can be considerable especially to radomes,
transparencies, upper and leading surfaces (including de-icer equipment). The greater the
aircraft's speed, the greater the damage and hail can be met anywhere, in or under the storm,
even under an overhanging anvil.
(c)
Icing.
The subject of icing is dealt with as a topic, nevertheless, it should be noted
that thunderstorm clouds give icing problems both in the engine(s) and on the airframe. In a
piston engine even at temperatures above 00C there can be a serious loss of power while a
turbine engine may suffer a flame-out. On the airframe, the large supercooled water drops
freeze to give a rapid build-up of clear ice with its attendant problems of increased weight,
disturbed relative airflow decreasing lift and increasing drag, risk of control surfaces becoming
less effective, etc. Check the operation of all anti-icing and de-icing equipment and that the
pitot heaters are switched on.
(d)
Instrument Errors.
Turbulent airflow around the aircraft and the localised
variations in pressure can produce rapid and serious errors in the readings of the altimeter,
airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator. If the pressure head suffers serious rain
ingress or, worse still, ices up, the pressure instrument readings are useless. Remember too
that a lightning strike on the aircraft will probably rearrange the aircraft's magnetism so the
compass heading will be suspect.
(e)
Lightning.
This can be used, especially at night, to supplement the aircraft's
weather radar for pinpointing the most active storm areas. Because of metal-to-metal bonding
and screening of vulnerable equipment, an aircraft struck by lightning is unlikely to suffer
91
Thunderstorms
more than a scorch mark on the aircraft's skin. Nevertheless the sudden brilliance of the flash,
the noise, and sometimes the burning smell, can be distracting to say the least. In a
thunderstorm, lightning may occur at any level but has been observed most frequently on test
flight: between +100C and -100C, that is, in a 10000 feet band about the freezing level. To
avoid the distraction and blinding effect, wind up the cockpit lighting to full and at least one of
the operating pilots on the flight deck should wear dark glasses
(f)
Squalls, Wind Shear and Micro-Bursts.
Squalls from thunderstorms wrecked
mariners for centuries before aviation commenced. Flying has led to a continuing study of
such airflow and yet its pattern cannot be precisely forecast or measured despite an intense
study set up by ICAO in 1977. Major airports issue winds shear alerting messages and pilots
are expected to report any wind shear experienced. Sometimes the normal variation of wind
speed with height becomes greatly accentuated, perhaps decreasing from 40 knots or more
at 1000 - 2000 feet to less than 10 knots near the surface. If the pilot does not intervene, the
actual flight path will divert progressively from that intended. A varying crosswind component
complicates the matter. The gust front of self-propagating storms may be 15 to 20 miles
ahead of the storm which generated it. It may be marked by newly-forming cumuliform cloud
or by a line of dust storms in desert countries, but equally it may be quite invisible. On the
other hand Micro-bursts are particularly intense and localised, probably not more than half a
mile across, and especially hazardous when they are overhead or near the runway in use.
Also the micro bursts are often asymmetrical. Again, if on the approach in thunderstorm
conditions it is found that abnormal levels of power are necessary to maintain the airspeed,
attitude and glide slope, then a wind shear go-around should be initiated.
(g)
Apart from problems from virga under the cloud base and from the
Precipitation.
possible ingestion of precipitation into the pitot head, forward visibility is always seriously
reduced in heavy precipitation. For departing and arriving aircraft there are the hazards of wet
runways to contend with.
(h)
Static.
This is often more of a nuisance than a hazard, as it builds up noise on the
radio and can affect communications. It can be an infuriating distraction just when it is least
wanted. It is as well to take care when using non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) near their
maximum range under these conditions and if in doubt, disregard radio navigation information
from ADF and OMEGA.
(j)
Turbulence.
Although last in this alphabetical list, turbulence is by no means the
least of the hazards. It makes the aircraft difficult to handle and indeed, incorrect handling can
lead to loss of control. If the aircraft is flown at a higher speed than that specified as its
turbulence or thunderstorm penetration speed in the flight manual then there is a risk of
92
structural failure. On the other hand, speeds lower than that recommended may lead to the
aircraft stalling.
Avoidance and Flying Techniques
24.
The take-off of an aircraft should be postponed while there is any risk of flying into the area of
an active thunderstorm cell before completing the initial climb.
Similarly on arriving in such
conditions, the approach and landing should, if possible, be delayed or a diversion carried out on
advice from ATC. The worst phase of a thunderstorm usually does not last for more than half an
hour, a diversion may not normally be necessary for transport aircraft. For fighter aircraft, however,
the endurance at overhead position will be main consideration.
25.
While undertaking cross country flying the areas of possible development of thunderstorms
should be thoroughly checked in preflight Met briefing and the flight planning should aim at selecting
a route and flight level which will have the least possible traverse in the dangerous parts of
thunderstorms.
26.
Flying through a thunderstorm should be avoided as far as possible. Sometimes, however, it
may be necessary to penetrate them. Penetration is always very dangerous, but by employing
certain techniques it is possible to minimize the risks and come out of the cloud unhurt.
27.
The following procedures are recommended while penetrating a thunderstorm:
(a)
Select a level below the freezing level or above 25,000 ft, if the aircraft is capable of
this. This height band is the worst with regards to bumpiness, and hail formation.
(b)
Fasten safety belts and loose articles, which may be tossed about.
(c)
Select a safe speed for penetration of turbulent zone, so that stalling may not occur
due to gusts. For most types of aircraft speeds of penetration of turbulent zones have been
laid down. Wherever these are not specified then safest speed is taken as 1.6 times the
stalling speed with flaps and undercarriage retracted.
(d)
Earth a trailing aerial and reel it in, otherwise it increases the chances of lightning
strike.
(e)
Disengage the autopilot and check all instruments before entering the storm.
(f)
If you have a second pilot, wear goggles and ask the second pilot to keep an eye on
the instruments. Turn on full cockpit lighting.
93
(g)
Thunderstorms
While within the storm area, maintain constant heading and avoid coarse movement
of controls. It is safer to let the aircraft ride the storms. If control is lost even temporarily,
the subsequent recovery action could lead to structural failure due to the combined loads
from gusts as well as from recovery action.
(h)
Do not attempt to control altitude or to execute turns as this may lead to increase of
strain on control surfaces and to dangerous attitude of the aircraft.

(j)
Disregard the fluctuation of the ASI while within the storm so long as the lower setting
has been selected for safe speed of penetration and level altitude has been maintained. The
Pilot tube gets partially blocked due to heavy rain, giving low readings of the ASI.
Radar Detection of Thunderstorm
28.
In recent years radars specially designed for thunderstorm detection have been increasingly
used for locating thunderstorms and watching their development, movement and dissipation. These
are known as storm detection radars of more popularly as weather radars. They can be either
ground based or air borne. Only a few types of aircraft in the Air Force are fitted with weather radars.
29.
Ground based radars are installed at major civil airfields. They take frequent observations
and pass the detailed reports to the Approach/Area Control from whom aircraft in flight can obtain
them. The radar scope can also be seen by a pilot at the time of pre-flight met briefing at these
airfields.
30.
Approach/Area control may pass observations of weather radar to aircraft in flight in a partially
coded form. It is essential that a pilot is familiar with this code which is known as RAREP.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
Choose the correct answer / answers:

(a)
(b)
(c)
Thunderstorms are caused by:

(i)
Thunder and lightning.
(ii)
(iii)
Instability, high humidity, trigger action.
Anvil cumulonimbus.
Frontal thunderstorms are mainly associated with:

(i)
Warm fronts.
(iii)
Ridges of high pressure.
Orographic thunderstorms occur:

(i)
At any time during the 24 hours.
(ii)
Cold fronts.
(d)
(e)
94
(ii)
Almost exclusively during the daylight hours.
(iii)
Mostly after dark, between sunset and 2 am.
Heat thunderstorms occur over land in cols because:

(i)
The humidity and ELR may be high and the wind speed low.
(ii)
The land will be warmer than the sea.
(iii)
Warm fronts frequently occur.
With a cumulonimbus cloud over the approach end of the runway a micro burst may
be experienced:
(f)
(g)
(i)
Over or near the runway in use.
(ii)
15-20 km away, at the edge of the downward 'first gust'.
(iii)
Under the nearest self-propagated cumulus.
If a cumulonimbus has developed a large anvil:

(i)
It has reached the beginning of the most active (mature) stage.
(ii)
It is in the most active (mature) stage.
(iii)
It has reached the third or dissipating stage.
If a thunderstorm 10 miles ahead is assessed as still being in the mature phase, the
pilot of a light aircraft:
(h)
(i)
Still has time to climb above the storm.
(ii)
Still has enough visibility and terrain clearance to pass beneath the storm.
(iii)
Should alter heading to circumnavigate the storm.
When flying through a turbulent thunderstorm cloud, increasing up to maximum
speed (V NE):
(j)
(i)
Will enable the storm to be penetrated safely in the shortest time.
(ii)
Will probably cause the aircraft to suffer a high speed stall.
(iii)
Will greatly increase the risk of structural failure.
The general rule relating to the probable direction of movement of a thunderstorm
observed to be 20 nm ahead of your aircraft is:

(i)
It will follow the direction of the surface wind.
(ii)
It will follow the direction of the 2000 ft wind.
(iii)
That its motion is not reliably predictable.
95
CHAPTER 12
JET STREAMS
1.
Pilots flying military aircraft during World War II first flew into these jet streams. Now, when
pilots flying in the Northern Hemisphere, fly west they try to avoid them, however, when flying east
they try to fly along with the jet stream. As these jet streams move around the globe, they meander
side to side.
2.
In the Northern Hemisphere, there are two areas of jet winds. One area occurs at about 30O
to 35O N. Lat. and another at about 40 O to 45O N. Lat.
3.
Jet Streams are narrow belts of very strong winds embedded in relatively light winds. The
velocities in this narrow belt exceed 60 kt.
4.
of
Early observations of the drift

Cirrus
clouds
indicated
the
existence of strong winds in the upper

troposphere.
The drift of volcanic
dust from the eruption of Krakatoa in

1883 also pointed to strong winds at
higher levels. During World War II, jet
streams were encountered by pilots
and were used by them in navigation
in the Far East theatre of operations.
Fig 12-1: Jet Streams
5.
The jet stream plays an important role in the steering and formation of weather such as,
cyclones, hurricane tracks and abnormal weather conditions.
6.
Since 1950 high level wind observations with the help of radiosondes, aircraft and rockets
have given us a large mass of information on jet streams. Salient features of the different types of jet
streams are discussed in this chapter.
Characteristics of Jet Streams
7.
The WMO defines a jet stream as A strong narrow current concentrated along a quazi-
horizontal axis in the upper troposphere characterized by strong vertical and lateral wind shears and
featuring one or more velocity maxima. Normally a jet stream is thousands of kilometers in length,
hundreds of kilometers in width and some kilometers in depth. The vertical shear of the wind is of the
order of 5m/sec per kilometre. An arbitrary lower limit of 30m/sec is assigned to the speed of the wind
96
along the axis of a jet stream.
8.
In a jet stream, the path of the maximum speed is known as the axis and the tubular volume
immediately surrounding it is known as the core. Since the speed of wind outside the core reduces
rapidly as one goes away from the core, there is strong horizontal as well as vertical shear of wind
near a jet stream. A measure of the horizontal wind shear is given by the half-width of the jet stream,
which is the distance from the axis at which the speed of wind reduces to half the value at the axis.
Obviously, a small half-width means excessive wind shear and a sharp core, while a large half-width
means comparatively smaller wind shear.
9.
The wind speed along the axis is not always uniform. There are distinct maxima along the
axis which travel downstream at a speed much lower than the wind speed itself. At certain places on
the axis the speed reduces to well below 60 kts, constituting breaks in the jet stream. Quite often the
axis branches into two jet streams, to rejoin further downstream.
Temperatures near a Jet Stream
10.
The thermal gradient near a jet stream is large and can be a high as 3o C per degree latitude.
In the case of many jet streams such high temperature gradients are set up due to a transition from air
of polar origin to air of tropical origin in the vicinity of the jet stream axis.
Seasonal Variations
11.
Jet Streams are special features of the general circulation, i.e. they form part of the larger
wind belts of the globe. Thus they are also subjected to seasonal oscillations.
Types of Jet Streams
12.
There are four types of jet streams in the troposphere:
(a)
Arctic Jet Stream (AJ).
It is found in the high level westerlies of the Arctic regions
at a mean height of about 7 to 8 kilometers close to the polar tropopause.
(b)
Polar Front Jet Stream (PFJ).
It is found in the high level middle-latitude
westerlies which lie above the surface polar front. The PFJ is at a mean height of about 9.0
km close to the middle-latitude tropopause. The PFJ migrates in winter to as far south as
latitude 30o N and in summer to as far north as latitude 70o N. The core speeds are stronger
in winter than in summer. The main direction is westerly although on many occasions the jet
stream may be north-westerly or south-westerly. Normal speeds are 80 to 100 Kt in winter.
97
(c)
Sub-tropical Jet Stream (STJ).
Jet Streams
It acquires its name from the fact that it is found in
the high level westerlies above the sub tropical high pressure belts. In winter it migrates to
about latitude 25o N and is strong, while in summer it moves to north of latitude 35o N and
weakens. The STJ lies close to the middle-latitude tropopause, but this type of tropopause is
seen only to the north. Towards the south of the core the tropical tropopause lies aloft, about
4 to 5 Km above the jet stream core. The STJ affects India in the non-monsoon months.
(d)
Tropical Jet Stream (TJ).
It is more commonly known as the Easterly Jet Stream,
because unlike the ones listed above, this jet stream is found in the zonal easterly wind belt of
the tropics. It is found at a mean height of about 14 to 15 kilometers above msl. It is
prominent in the summer and becomes very weak in the winter. In summer (July) average
core speeds may vary from 60 to 80 Kt, but on occasions winds upto 100 to 120 Kt may be
encountered. The axis in July-August is near latitude 15o N over the Indian area. Elsewhere
there are large breaks, the core velocities falling to very low values. In winter this jet stream
becomes very weak, only moderate easterly winds being found a little to the south of the
equator.
(e)
Stratospheric Jet Stream (SJ).
Over and above the four jet streams in the
troposphere, a stratospheric jet stream is found at levels above 20 kilometers in the Arctic and
Antarctic regions.
These are westerlies in winter and easterlies in summer.
These are
believed to be associated with the sudden and explosive warming of the upper atmosphere at
levels above 100 mb.
Jet Streams over India
13.
There are two types of jet streams which prevail over India the sub-tropical jet during non-
monsoon months and the easterly jet during the monsoon months.
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
14.
The sub-tropical westerly jet appears over the northern parts of the Indian region in October
after the withdrawal of the southwest monsoon and shifts progressively southwards with the progress
of the winter.
It reaches its southernmost position in February-March.
Thereafter it shifts back
northwards and moves out of the Indian subcontinent by the end of May. In winter the mean position
of the sub-tropical jet is roughly at latitude 27o N at a height of 12 Km with a mean wind speed of 100
Kt. Southernmost positions as far south as 22o N are reached in February. The maximum speeds
range between 150 and 200 Kt. Sometimes there is a split in the jet stream due to the Himalayan
massif. The jet is seen upto Afghanistan, thereafter splitting, with one branch to the south and
another to the north of the Himalayas. These branches later recombine to form a single stream over
China. The sub-tropical jet stream can be seen over the Indian sub-continent for about eight months
98
of the year (October to May). The mean core velocities in the sub-tropical westerly jet stream are the
lowest (of the order of 60 to 70 Kt) in October and May and the highest (100 to 120 Kt) in January.
On occasions the core velocities reach 200 Kt.
Fig 12:2: Jet Streams over India

Easterly Jet Stream
15.
With the establishment of the southwest monsoon over the subcontinent, the westerly sub-
tropical jet shifts northwards, weakens and disappears. The easterly jet stream appears over the
South China Seas and can be seen upto the African continent passing through south Malaya and the
Indian Peninsula. It lies above the Indian and African monsoon currents, at an altitude 13.5 and 16.0
km. The core is roughly at latitude 15o N between 150 and 100 mb levels. The strongest current is
over Peninsular India. The average speeds are of the order of 70 Kt, though at times speeds of 150 Kt
can be seen. The tropical easterly jet is present over the south Peninsula from June to August. The
July-August position is in the latitude belt 12o N to 15o N. It disappears from the Indian area by
September. The tropical easterly jet attains its highest intensity in July when core velocities are of the
order of 60 to 80 Kt, on occasions reaching 120 to 150 Kt.
Temperature Distribution
16.
Temperature increases from north to south below the core while the reverse is the case
99
Jet Streams
above the core. The normal temperature gradient below the core is about 1o C per degree latitude,
though in well-marked jet streams, steeper gradients are obtained.
Height of the Core
17.
The core of the sub-tropical jet streams is usually found just about the extra-tropical
tropopause.
Normally a more or less isothermal layer exists at this level, before the tropical
tropopause is reached. The level of maximum wind (LMW) is found about 5 Km below the tropical
tropopause.
]Fig 12-3: Height of the Core
18.
In the case of the easterly tropical jet stream, the level of maximum wind lies just below the
tropical tropopause.
Horizontal Shear
19.
In the case of the sub-tropical jet, the horizontal shear is more to the north than to the south of
the core. In pronounced jet streams the shear to the north of the core can be as much as 30 Kt/deg.
Latitude while the shear to the south is of the order of 10 Kt/deg. Latitude. In the case of the tropical
jet, the shear values are much less as compared to the westerly jets.
Correlation between Jet Streams and Weather
20.
Jet streams constitute an integral part of the general circulation of the atmosphere. The
100
changes in the location and intensity are intimately connected with the changes in the seasons. In the
Indian region, the disappearance of the sub-tropical jet and the appearance of the tropical jet
practically coincides with the onset of the southwest monsoon.
Again, the withdrawal of the
southwest monsoon is associated with the southward shifting of the sub-tropical jet into the northern
parts of India.
21.
Attempts have also been made to correlate the position and intensity of the sub-tropical jet
with the date of onset of the southwest monsoon, though without much success. In the case of the
tropical jet, it has been noticed that breaks in the monsoon are often associated with a more than
normal northerly position of the tropical jet. The large velocity gradients (both in the horizontal and in
the vertical) associated with jet streams give rise to areas of convergence and subsidence. These
naturally have an important bearing on the generation of dust storms and thunderstorms as also on
the development, intensification and decay of depressions.
Low Level Jets (LLJ)
22.
These are high speed winds appearing in the lower levels between 1 Km and 3 Km and have
been noticed at many places, notably in the sub-tropics.
Squalls and thunderstorms are associated
with this phenomenon. A prominent LLJ is often found over the Peninsula in the southwest monsoon
current. This is probably a continuation of a prominent LLJ found off the Somalia Coast in Africa.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
In jet stream minimum speed is:

(i)
60 kt.
(iii)
40 kt.
(ii)
50 kt.
(ii)
Monsoon
(ii)
Monsoon.
(ii)
Feb.
STJ is strongest over India in:

(i)
Pre-monsoon
(iii)
Winter
TEJ is strongest during:

(i)
Pre-monsoon.
(iii)
Post-monsoon.
STJ is at lowest latitude in the month of:

(i)
Jan.
(iii)
Mar.
101
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
Jet Streams
In India, you can encounter both PFJ & STJ in:

(i)
Winter.
(iii)
Post-monsoon.
(ii)
Monsoon.
Path of maximum speed in jet stream is known as:

(i)
Core.
(iii)
Half-width.
(ii)
Axis.
(ii)
40,000'.
(ii)
40,000'.
Average height of STJ is:

(i)
30,000'.
(iii)
47,000'.
Mean height of TEJ is

(i)
30,000'.
(iii)
47,000'.
STJ can cause a head wind/tail wind upto:

(i)
100 kt.
(iii)
200 kt.
(ii)
150 kt.
TEJ can cause a head wind/tail wind upto:

(i)
80 kt.
(iii)
120 kt.
(ii)
100 kt.
(ii)
TEJ.
(ii)
TEJ.
(ii)
Mountain waves.
Which jet is found at higher height?

(i)
STJ.
(iii)
PFJ.
Which is a stronger jet?

(i)
STJ.
(iii)
PFJ.
Jet stream are closely related to:

(i)
CAT.
(iii)
Thunderstorm.
102
103
CHAPTER 13
MOUNTAIN WAVES
Introduction
1.
Over the plains air moves more or
less horizontally. When air blows against a

mountain or a hill, it climbs over its slope and
descends on the other side. Thereafter, for
some distance it does not flow horizontally
even when the ground below has once again
become plain. It acquires a wavy motion in a
deep layer.
The wave is known as a
mountain wave or lee wave.
A pilot flying
along these waves will experience alternating

regions of lift and sink.
A simple mountain
wave is illustrated in Fig 13-1.
Fig 13-1: Mountain Waves
Meteorological Conditions
2.
Pronounced mountain waves form under the following meteorological conditions:

(a)
Wind flow in a deep layer is perpendicular to the ridge, speed not less than 15 kts.
(b)
Wind speed increases appreciably with height.
(c)
Stability prevails in the layers close to the top of the ridge, but below and aloft the
stability should be less.
Vertical Currents in Mountain Waves
3.
An aircraft flying on the leeward side of a ridge may experience alternate regions of lift and
sink. In powerful waves the associated vertical currents may attain a speed of 40 km/h. While in
extreme cases the speed may be 100 km/h.
4.
The speed of vertical currents in a mountain wave depends on the amplitude, wavelength and
the wind speed. Strong up and downdraughts are favoured by:

(a)
Large amplitudes.
(b)
Short wavelengths.
(c)
Strong winds.
104
Visible Effects
5.
When the atmosphere is comparatively dry, the updraughts in a mountain wave may not
result in condensation. The waves then show no visible evidence. On the other hand if the air is
humid enough, lens shaped clouds (known as lenticular clouds) may form at the crests of the waves.
The shape, horizontal extent and thickness of these clouds depend on the variation of the humidity
with height. If moist air overlies very dry air, the clouds are thin and sharp and appear only at the
crests. If very moist air overlies very dry air, the clouds may be thick and may extend into the troughs
also, except the trough immediately next to the ridge. This is known as the Fohn gap and is the best
visible evidence of mountain waves under such conditions.
Turbulence in Mountain Waves
6.
When the amplitude is small and the wavelength large, flying is very smooth in a mountain
wave inspite of changes in altitude due to lift and sink. However, when the amplitude is large and the
wavelength small, eddies may be created in the crests and troughs. These eddies may give rise to
bumpiness in addition to large-scale lift and sink due to the vertical currents of the wave. When there
are several ranges, the mountain wave may be so complex that the turbulence due to eddies may be
actually more prominent than the wave motion itself and the flow on the leeward side becomes
disorganised upto some level. In the Ladakh area such turbulence is common in the post-monsoon
months. Clear air turbulence is more frequent over mountainous terrain than over the plains.
7.
Well-developed eddies under the crests of a mountain wave may give rise to rotor clouds.
From the air they look like a line of cumulus clouds. Unlike lenticular clouds they may be associated
with violent bumpiness. The base of the clouds is near the peak of the ridge, but the tops may extend
much higher and merge with the lenticular clouds.
Aviation Hazards of Mountain Waves
8.
Mountain waves are associated with the following hazards to flying:

(a)
Changes in Altitude.
These may be large and not necessarily accompanied by
bumpiness. If the aviator is unwary and does not keep a good watch over the altimeter
readings, the aircraft may sink in a trough dangerously close to mountainous terrain.
(b)
Vertical Currents.
The stronger downdraughts may prevent a powered aircraft
from gaining height, especially when flying parallel to mountain ridge. There is one case on
record in which a Dakota flying in one of the valleys of the Central Himalayas had to forceland
on a rugged slope apparently due to a strong down draught in a mountain wave preventing it
from climbing to safer altitudes. The aircraft was badly damaged and some of the crew had
105
Mountain Waves
fatal injuries. The danger of downdraught in mountain waves is enhanced due to the fact that
conventional transport aircraft have less rate of climb at higher altitudes.
(c)
Altimeter Errors.
It is known that, apart from physical lift and sink of an aircraft due
to vertical current, there are rapid variations of pressure in a mountain wave, which give rise
to sizable altimeter errors. These are generally such as to indicate high altimeter readings.
Thus an aviator has to keep sufficient ground clearance to compensate for these errors. Thus
the errors increase considerably when the wind speeds are high.
(d)
Wind Speed Variations.
The up and down motion in a mountain wave is
accompanied by large changes in horizontal wind speed. In extreme cases this could lead to
stalling of conventional low speed aircraft.
(e)
Turbulence.
Flying conditions may be exceptionally smooth in many mountain
waves, but when the amplitude is large and the wavelength small, localised areas of violent
turbulence may exist. The zone of the rotor cloud is the worst in this regard. On many
occasions the air may not be sufficiently humid to result in rotor clouds, severe turbulence
then occurs without any visual warning and may be encountered suddenly after a spell of
smooth flying.
(f)
Icing.
The chances of icing in mountain wave clouds are greater for two reasons:
(i)
The freezing level has a wavy structure and may be much lower in the wave
troughs than the undisturbed one.
(ii)
The concentration of liquid water is more in mountain clouds than in similar
ones over the plains.
Recommended Flying Techniques
9.
If it is practicable, flight into an area where pronounced mountain waves are forecast should
be avoided. Otherwise the following precautions should be observed:

(a)
Maintain a close watch on the altimeter. Remember that the altimeter may over-read
in a mountain wave.
(b)
Approach the mountain range at a 45 angle rather than directly, particularly when
flying upwind, so that quick turn can be made away from the ridge if conditions appear
dangerous.
(c)
106
In case of sustained loss of altitude when flying parallel to a ridge, rising air will
probably be found by changing course so as to fly a few miles towards or away from the high
ground up-wind. If the aircraft is very near the lee slope, the down current is obviously
caused by air flowing down this slope; then look for rising air further downstream.
(d)
Look for rising currents up-wind of a rotor cloud and also of lenticular clouds if they
are near flight level.
(e)
Avoid flying into rotor clouds and into lenticular clouds which have torn and irregular
edges.
(f)
Avoid flying on instruments.
(g)
Avoid flying into a cap cloud which is an orographic cloud near the top of the ridge
and projecting towards the windward slope. (This cloud is also known as Fohn wall or Banner
cloud).
10.
The Meteorological conditions under which mountain waves are generated and the
characteristics of these waves have been thoroughly investigated, so far as the Indian area is
concerned, by Met Officers of Indian Air Force. It is, however, known that pronounced wave activity
may occur in the valleys of the Himalayan Mountains and in the river valleys of Assam and NEFA in
certain seasons, in particular the post-monsoon and early winter period. The hazard of mountain
waves should be borne in mind especially by transport and helicopter crew who are required to fly in
areas where complicated mountain wave patterns may lead to strong down-draughts or violent
turbulence.
Over hilly terrain a cumulus cloud with small vertical extent may give more severe
turbulence than a well-developed Cb cloud over the plains because the former is a rotor type of cloud
with very strong localised vertical currents.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
For mountain waves to form, wind speed should:

(i)
Increase with height.
(iii)
Should not change with height.
(ii)
Decrease with height.
For mountain waves to form wind speed should be minimum of:

(i)
10 kt.
(iii)
20 kt.
(ii)
15 kt.
Mountain waves form when wind direction with respect to mountain is:
107
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(j)
(k)
(i)
At 90.
(iii)
Parallel.
Mountain Waves
(ii)
At 45.
(ii)
Lenticular clouds.
Maximum turbulence is experienced in:

(i)
Cap clouds.
(iii)
Rotor clouds.
While flying through mountain waves, Altimeter will:

(i)
Under read.
(iii)
Over/Under read.
(ii)
Over read.
(ii)
Does not change.
In mountain waves, freezing level:

(i)
Becomes wavy.
(iii)
Lowers.
While in mountain waves, it is advisable to:

(i)
Fly on instruments.
(ii)
Fly on auto pilot.
(ii)
Fly visually.
(ii)
Troughs.
(ii)
On top of mountain.
(ii)
Small hills.
Rotor clouds form in waves at:

(i)
Crests.
(iii)
At midpoint of crest & troughs.
Waves form on:

(i)
Windward side.
(iii)
Leeward side.
Large waves form near:

(i)
Big mountain.
(iii)
Large range of hills.
108
109
CHAPTER 14
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE

Introduction
1.
Before the advent of jet aircraft, it was thought that flight at high altitudes would be smooth as
it was above the weather. However, it soon became evident that even in the upper troposphere as
well as in the lower stratosphere the airflow is not always smooth and there are regions of bumpiness
ranging from slight to severe degree. The danger of such bumpiness is not so much due to its
severity but instead from the fact that it occurs in clear (cloud-free) air without any visual indications.
The term Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is used in connection with such bumpiness. Apart from crew
and passenger discomfort, CAT can give rise to difficulty in controlling an aircraft and inaccuracy in
bombing, aerial gun-fire or dropping operations. CAT associated with mountain waves is known to
have led to disastrous accidents.
Definition
2.
The term Clear Air Turbulence is used to denote turbulence at high levels (3 km and above)
outside Cb clouds. It can occur in cirrus cloud, Haze or Clear Air.
CAT Occurrence over India
3.
The incidence of CAT over India has been studied from a large number of reports from
aircraft on routine as well as non-routine high-level flights. Some of the more important results of
such study are as below:
(a)
CAT frequency is highest from October to May over central and northern India and in
July-August over southern India.
(b)
Maximum incidence is from December to February and it coincides with the peak
activity of sub-tropical jet stream.
(c)
CAT zones are usually of patchy nature. Average dimensions of distinct zones are
80 miles in the north-south direction and twice this in the east-west direction.
(d)
Vertical extent of a CAT zone may be about 1000-2000' but in many cases CAT
extends through a deep layer.
110
(e)
Most of the encounters are of feeble / moderate CAT. In a few cases they are
reported as severe. Severe CAT is restricted to the period from December to February.
(f)
Greatest chances of CAT are in a zone of about 200 km to the south of the sub-
tropical jet stream axis.
(g)
In the Ladakh area CAT is most frequent in October when the sub-tropical jet stream
makes its appearance over the area.
(h)
In the Assam and NEFA area CAT frequency is quite high in the mid-winter months.
(j)
In the south Peninsula CAT is obviously associated with the easterly jet stream of the
monsoon season.
Characteristics
4.
Typical dimensions of areas of CAT are 30 Km long and 5 to 15 Km across, between heights
4 Km and 5 Km with a thickness of the order of 300 m to 500 m, lasting from 30 minutes to three
hours. However U2 flights have noted CAT at 20 Km and X15s at still greater heights. Individual
turbulent zones or patches often occur in close proximity to one another, both vertically and
horizontally.
Types of CAT
5.
CAT can be divided into the three following separate categories:

(a)
Wind Shear Turbulence.
It is associated with strong vertical and horizontal wind
shears.
(b)
Mountain Waves Turbulence.
Mountain waves produce greatest amount of
turbulence. This type of turbulence depends upon wind speed, static stability and slope of the
ridge.
(c)
Convective Type Turbulence.
It is associated with dry convection and also
convection in a cirrus shield.
Features
6.
The main difficulty in the analysis of CAT zones is the scale of motion involved. Individual
turbulent eddies or waves have a micro scale structure. The size of eddies which cause aircraft
bumpiness varies from 300 to 1000 m, depending on the speed of the aircraft. The distance between
111
radiosonde observations is extremely wide, of the order of hundreds of miles. The data based on
these observations do not reveal the microstructure of the waves. Thus the structure of eddies and
waves are missed out on the chart. Forecasting techniques used are basically extrapolation through
association with synoptic features.
7.
Important CAT features are:
(a)
CAT is predominantly a patchy phenomenon and its intensity is generally less than
the turbulence encountered in thunderstorms.
(b)
High level turbulence is frequently associated with stronger horizontal gusts. The
frequency of bumpiness is greater at higher levels than at lower levels.
(c)
There is a strong association between jet stream and CAT.
(d)
CAT occurs mostly on the cyclonic side of the jet stream.
(e)
CAT is significantly more at the tropopause.
(f)
Terrain has an additive influence on CAT.
Some Empirical Rules
8.
CAT can be expected in the following regions:

(a)
Vertical wind shear greater than 4 kt per 300 m.
(b)
Horizontal temperature shears of 5C per 150 Km.
(c)
Horizontal wind shears greater than 25 kt per 150 Km (moderate) and 50 kt per 150
Km (severe).
(d)
Left or polar side of the jet stream at all altitudes around the jet stream and just below
the tropical tropopause.

(e)
In the convergence zone of two jet streams.
(f)
Inversions especially near and downwind of mountain ranges.
(g)
Over sharp troughs.
Avoidance of CAT
9.
Before undertaking a high-level cross-country flight a thorough briefing should be obtained on
the probable regions of CAT occurrence. Whenever possible, deviations from the route should be
planned if the exercise and ATC requirements permit this. If CAT is encountered in-flight the following
evasive action are recommended:
(a)
112
Turn towards North or South to get out quickly from the CAT zones. The degree of
bumpiness as well as the length of track in the patch of bumpiness is likely to be less in the
north-south direction than in east-west direction.
(b)
Climb or descend to a level where the rate of change of wind speed with height (i.e.
vertical wind shear) is known to be less.
(c)
Climb or descend to a level where the lapse rate is known to be small. A level
immediately above a layer of cirrus or cirrostratus is likely to be free from CAT.
10.
(d)
Avoid flying just below the tropopause.
(e)
Flight 2,000' - 3000' above the tropopause is likely to be free from CAT.
(f)
Whenever possible fly on the windward side of high ground.
Forecasting of CAT is still in the stage of evolution.
The difficulties in this regard are
enhanced due to its patchy nature and the fact that CAT zones appear to develop and dissipate with
an irregular life cycle. Most of our knowledge of CAT is based on actual reports from aircraft. Every
aviator should, therefore co-operate by giving detailed post-flight debriefing whenever he encounters
CAT.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
CAT can occur in Cirrus.

(i)
True.
(iii)
May be/may not be.
(ii)
False.
(ii)
Mountain waves.
CAT has strong association with:

(i)
Jet stream.
(iii)
Cumulonimbus.
CAT is likely when wind changes rapidly with height:

(i)
True.
(III)
May/may not.
(ii)
False.
(ii)
Below tropopause.
CAT will be maximum:

(i)
Above tropopause.
(iii)
At tropopause.
113
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(j)
(k)
In NW India CAT will be maximum during:

(i)
Winter.
(iii)
Post monsoon.
(ii)
Monsoon.
During monsoon CAT will be maximum over:

(i)
North India.
(iii)
Peninsula.
(ii)
Central India.
CAT around mountains will be higher on:

(i)
Wind ward side.
(iii)
Lee ward side.
(ii)
On top of mountain.
(ii)
Below 3 km.
(ii)
Equatorward.
CAT occurs at:

(i)
Ground level.
(iii)
Above 3 km.
CAT is more on which side of the jet:

(i)
Poleward.
(iii)
Northward.
CAT can be expected, if wind speed exceeds:

(i)
5 kt/1000'.
(iii)
15 kt/1000'.
(ii)
10 kt/1000'.
114
115
CHAPTER 15
ICE ACCRETION
Introduction
1.
Icing is a hazard which the aviator shares with the mariner but unfortunately on a wider global
scale. However, whereas a mariner may find icing conditions developing over an area of ocean faster
than he can move clear of the area, in the case of the aviator, keeping clear of airframe icing
conditions should normally be entirely within his control. Although most of this chapter is devoted to
airframe ice accretion, it is concluded with a discussion of power plant icing which also could
significantly affect the aircraft's performance by, for example, causing total engine failure in a light
aircraft flying in a cloudless sky.
2.
A quick revision first of some terms that have already been introduced earlier which must be
borne in mind.
(a)
Latent Heat.
Heat involved in a change of state of a substance without change of
temperature. It is released in the change from liquid to solid.
(b)
Supercooling.
Water remaining in its liquid state despite its temperature being
below 0C. This is an unstable state of affairs with the water turning to solid (ice) when
disturbed.
Because of its relevance to the type of icing formed when supercooled drops freeze, the reader is also
reminded of the value learnt at school that the figure for the latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 calories
per gram, i.e. when 1 gram freezes it releases 80 calories. (In turn, of course, 1 calorie is the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 10C.) In aviation forecasts, two
other terms are used in connection with icing. These are:
(c)
Freezing Level or 0C Isotherm.
This is the height at which the environmental
temperature is 0C. In fact there may be more than one such height, if there is an inversion
present. Usually the temperatures are sub-zero at greater heights than the 0C isotherm but
also this is not true if there is an inversion.
(d)
Icing Index or Intensity.
This relates to the rate of accumulation and may be
classified as light, moderate or heavy. The terms mean, respectively, light: no problem if deicing/anti-icing equipment is used; moderate: use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment, or diversion
is necessary otherwise potentially dangerous even over a short period; severe: de-icing/antiicing equipment will not reduce or control the hazard and diversion is essential.
116
Hazards of Airframe Ice Accretion
3.
The effects are cumulative but are treated separately below to simplify the explanations. Do
not ever assume that, whether in level flight or about to taxy out for take-off, increasing speed will
cause the ice or snow to blow off your aeroplane's surfaces. The effects of airframe icing are:
(a)
Lift and drag.
The icing, particularly when forming on leading edges of mainplane
and other surfaces, soon alters the profile so that the relative airflow is disturbed. Not only is
there an increase in drag but it is accompanied with a reduction in lift so the lift/drag ratio is
quickly eroded. Because all surfaces (including propellers) exposed to the relative airflow are
affected, ice accretion on the tailplane, fin and all control surfaces will impair their efficiency
and can ultimately lead to loss of control. For example, this can happen due to icing on the
tailplane when flaps are lowered on the approach. Flutter set up by quite thin layers of ice on
control surfaces can lead subsequently to structural damage.
(b)
Hinges, Locks and Seals.
Moving on from iced-up control surfaces, serious
problems occur when other moving parts are covered, even partially, by ice. For example, on
selecting undercarriage down the doors may be impossible to open if they have an external
coat of ice, ice in the locking mechanisms, in hinges and seals or moisture freezes in
pressure lock systems.
(c)
Weight.
The increase in all-up weight due to icing is not negligible, so requiring
more lift and hence more power to maintain level flight. If the ice accumulates unevenly there
may be a change in the aircraft's centre of gravity and hence its weight and balance.
(d)
Vibration.
Apart from the flutter mentioned in (a) above, serious vibration can also
result from an unbalanced distribution of icing, not so much due to irregular formation but
more due to an unequal breaking away of ice.
(e)
Aerials.
On older aircraft, ice on aerials can impair communications and in the case
of whip aerials may lead to their vibration and eventual fracture.
(f)
Instrument Readings.
If, despite use of the pitot heater, ice blocks the pressure
head or static vent then the pressure instruments i.e. Machmeter, airspeed indicator, altimeter
and vertical speed indicator will give false readings (or even no reading!).
(g)
Transparencies.
Often ice can first be detected visually by its appearance in flight
in the corners of windshields. Allowed to develop, vision will quickly become obstructed.
117
Ice Accretion
Icing on Parked Aircraft
4.
5.
The ice may occur in one of three ways:

(a)
Deposited as ice already formed (i.e. from snowflakes).
(b)
Sublimation direct from water vapour.
(c)
Freezing of water.
Packed Snow.
Dry snow does not adhere readily to a dry aircraft but will be blown into
intakes, apertures, corners, etc. If the aircraft surface is wet or the snow is wet (i.e. contains some
liquid water) then the snow will pack down onto all exposed areas and to some depth, requiring
careful removal.
6.
Hoar Frost.
The white winter equivalent of dew, hoar frost forms when the air temperature
falls below 0 C and then to below the frost point temperature to give direct sublimation of the excess
water vapour into the white crystalline frost deposit. While not particularly heavy, it must be removed
before take-off not only to give a clear view through the transparencies but also because it disturbs
the boundary layer airflow, so seriously reducing total lift while increasing drag.
7.
Rime.
Rime is the result of freezing fog and forms when the temperature falls to below the
dew point temperature to produce fog and then falls further to below 0C. The fog droplets then
become supercooled. As they drift gently along and come into contact with objects with surface
temperatures below 0C such as parked aircraft, the disturbed droplets turn to ice. The ice is therefore
found on the windward side and builds out into the wind. It is a rough, white, opaque, porous deposit
(and often used by photographers to produce picturesque Christmas cards using frosted trees and
shrubs as their subjects). It is the form of ice around the lining of the domestic refrigerator or deepfreeze.
8.
Glazed Frost (Rain Ice).
Unlike the three preceding cases, glazed frost is fortunately
relatively rare, but when it does occur it poses serious problems for all forms of transport and,
because of its weight, brings down overhead wires, power cables, etc. It is sometimes called clear ice
or rain ice and is a sheet of transparent or translucent ice with a glasslike appearance which forms
over all exposed surfaces. It forms when the temperature is below 0C and rain falls from an inversion
above. The rain drops form a sheet of water which then freezes, excluding any air, so giving a solid,
heavy sheet of ice everywhere that the rain has fallen and run. Going back to the domestic refrigerator
or deep-freeze for comparison, the same sort of ice is formed when ice cubes are made in the tray.
9.
Although all ice must be removed before take-off, there are therefore various forms of frost
and it must be clearly understood which type is being forecast when assessing whether operations at
118
the planned time will be possible and if so, what will be involved in the clearing of the aircraft and
possibly the airport facilities.
Action Pre-Flight
10.
The factors that must be kept in mind while looking after the aircraft while on ground are:
(a)
If it is your responsibility for safeguarding the aircraft between flights, heed frost
warnings for the period prior to your flight so that the aircraft can be best protected against the
elements so minimising the de-icing required to prepare the aircraft for service. Ideally, keep it
in a heated hangar!
(b)
Fit all orifice guards, covers, engine blanks before starting to de-ice. Although some
loose snow can be brushed off, de-icing fluid of the correct strength will really be needed to
clear it all off together with any frost and ice.
(c)
Surfaces which remain wet from under-strength de-icing fluid will in fact enhance re-
formation of icing or packing snow especially if there is any delay between de-icing and taking
off. In fact, it is not bad practice to tend to finish the de-icing with some over-strength fluid on
leading edges of all surfaces to give some anti-icing protection.
(d)
Remove all the covers, guards, blanks, etc., and check that all orifices are clear of
ice, snow or slush. At the same time, double check that all inlets and outlets, vents, hinges,
exposed operating mechanisms, seals and gaps between surfaces are completely clear of
contamination.
(e)
Check that the de-icing fluid has not cleaned away grease from vital areas.
(f)
Do not taxy if there is likely to be a hold which will negate all the de-icing procedures
that have been carried out.
(g)
When taxying, exercise caution while operating on contaminated runways and use
engine anti-icing, carburettor heat and propeller de-icing as appropriate.
(h)
Keep well clear of the other aircraft taxying ahead. It is not a clever idea to put your
aircraft in the wake of the hot engine exhaust of the aircraft in front of you to keep your aircraft
de-iced.
(j)
Immediately prior to take-off re-check that all the visible surfaces are still
uncontaminated by snow or ice and that all anti-icing devices available have been set.
119
Ice Accretion
Remember that there may be very cold fuel in wing tanks which will be conducting heat away
from wing surfaces, so inducing ice formation. Once airborne, be ready to operate the deicing equipment as appropriate.
Ice Accretion in Flight
11.
In flight, although the same forms of icing are experienced as occur on the ground, there is a
wide range of variations due to differing degrees of the contributory factors of:
(a)
The temperature and the degree of supercooling of the water drops being
encountered by the aircraft.

(b)
Kinetic heating.
(c)
Cloud density and/or concentration of liquid water.
(d)
Airspeed.
(e)
Size of supercooled drops.
(f)
Cloud base temperature.
(g)
Effect of high ground.
Each of these is now considered in-turn.
Temperature
12.
For all practical purposes, supercooled water drops may be encountered down to -40C. Only
the smallest drops can be supercooled to -40C, larger drops being supercooled to a lesser extent. As
each drop is struck by an aircraft it
starts to change from liquid to solid, i.e.
ice. Because the latent heat of fusion
of ice is 80 calories per gram, oneeightieth of a supercooled drop freezes
on
impact
for
each
deg
of
Fig 15-1: Supercooled Water Drops Freeze Partially

on Impact
supercooling (Fig 15-1).
13.
The freezing process releases latent heat
which warms up the remaining part of the drop to

00C. This liquid part of the drop then flows over the
aircraft structure to freeze fractionally later by
conduction. The ice formation is therefore a twostage process (Fig 15-2). The nearer the sub-zero
temperature is to 00C, the greater will be the flow
back and the worse will be the resultant icing.
Fig 15-2: The Freezing Process of a

Supercooled Water Drop
120
Kinetic Heating
14.
Although Fig 15-2 shows an aircraft which has acquired the same temperature (-X0C) as its
environment, this may not be true for fast aircraft. However, for relatively slow aircraft cruising in level
flight at speeds up to, say, 250 knots, this is a realistic approximation. Kinetic heating arises from the
airflow around the aircraft from two sources i.e. compressibility and frictional effects. Compressibility
at the stagnation points in the relative airflow heats the air adiabatically. Where the relative airflow is
greatest (and the compressibility heating least) there is maximum heating due to friction between the
air and the aircraft surface. The temperature rise in 0C due to kinetic heating on and near leading
edges is given by:
Temperature rise (0C)
15.
{TAS (KTS) / 100}2
(15.1)
Sometimes the kinetic heating may be offset to some degree. This occurs when the aircraft
surface has become wet, say by flying through cloud. The wet surface then evaporates its moisture
away using latent heat of vaporisation (which is around 600 calories per gram). In practice, the rule is
to use the indicated air temperature in assessing the icing risk as the thermometer element itself will
be subject to both the kinetic heating and the cooling due to latent heat of vaporisation.
Concentration of Liquid Water (Cloud Density)
16.
As the ice accumulated by an aircraft originates from the water it encounters, the greater the
concentration of liquid, the faster and more severe will be the ice accretion. There will be more latent
heat to be dissipated before the freezing is completed, more water spreading over the aircraft surface
and merging with adjoining drops, all tending towards producing clear ice.
Airspeed
17.
Increasing air speed serves to increase the rate of catch of water drops in the aircraft's flight
path so acting in the same way as an increase of cloud density.
Size of Supercooled Water Drops
18.
It has already been mentioned that the smallest drops can be supercooled to a greater
degree than the largest water drops. They also tend to be sufficiently spaced from neighbouring small
drops so that they freeze on impact. This means that air is trapped between the separately frozen
drops, giving a soft white opaque deposit of rime. At the other extreme, large water drops (which may
be associated with a high cloud density and only a small amount of supercooling) will have a large
spread-back of water over the aircraft while the freezing is occurring. Merging with the liquid portion of
adjoining drops gives a sheet of freezing water excluding air and becoming clear ice. Often the
121
Ice Accretion
situation is not so clear-cut, with drops of an intermediate size or a mixture of sizes and this produces
an ice formation intermediate between rime and clear ice.
Cloud Base Temperature
19.
When flying at levels well above the cloud base, cloud base temperature may seem to be
totally unconnected with any assessment of icing risk at cruising level. The reason why it is very
significant as far as towering cumuliform clouds are concerned is because the warmer the cloud base
temperature, the greater the concentration of liquid water, of which the effects have been described
above. The base height of cumuliform cloud is much the same everywhere but at the warmer
temperatures of summer or tropical latitudes there is more condensation in the lower parts of the
cloud than in the cooler temperatures of winter or higher latitudes. The vigorous convection carries the
condensed droplets upwards so the warmer clouds contain more free water than the clouds with lower
base temperatures. Because of their warmer base temperatures, towering cumulus and
cumulonimbus in summer will have a greater liquid water concentration than those in winter in
temperate latitudes.
Effect of High Ground
20.
This is in some ways a rather insidious effect which must be guarded against. Suppose that
the flight has been in cloud for some time and the aircraft's de-icing system is coping with the ice that
has been forming because the supercooled drops have been small and the liquid water concentration
relatively low. When the aircraft moves into a mountainous region the up-currents in the cloud will be
reinforced by the upward deflection of lower level winds supporting larger drops in denser cloud and
probably with a lowered freezing level. The consequent increase in severity and rapidity of ice
accretion while flying in apparently unchanged IMC can quickly lead to a serious situation. Although
the effect might reasonably be anticipated over high ground such as the Himalayas, pilots should also
beware that the problem of a sudden and rapid build-up of icing can also be encountered over hills of
more modest dimensions such as the Western Ghats..
Forms of In-Flight Ice Accretion
21.
Hoar Frost.
Hoar frost occurs in moist cloudless air which is cooled by a cold aircraft
moving from a colder layer, so that the air in contact with the aircraft surface is cooled to below 0C
and to below its frost point. This could occur either following a rapid descent or after taking off into a
marked surface inversion such as on a winter night in a cold country.
22.
Rime Ice.
Rime ice occurs under flight conditions which are the equivalent of freezing fog,
i.e. small supercooled water drops in cloud with a relatively low rate of catch. When these water drops
freeze almost instantaneously, small ice particles are produced along leading edges with air
122
entrapped between them to give a rough white opaque deposit, with little spread-back over the
mainplanes etc.
23.
Clear Ice.
This is also known as translucent rime or glaze ice and occurs when the aircraft
encounters large, slightly supercooled water drops giving a high rate of catch. This may occur in
dense cloud or in rain. The freezing of the supercooled water drops is relatively slow so that while
some ice is formed on impact, most of the water spreads back while freezing to give a heavy,
adhesive, clear or translucent deposit of ice with a glassy surface.
24.
Cloudy (Mixed) Ice.
Cloudy (mixed) ice occurs when conditions are intermediate between
those quoted for rime and for clear ice, arising from the wide range of supercooled water drop sizes
between 0C and -40C, varying cloud density, etc. The smaller the drop size and the lower the
temperature, the more rough and rime-like will be the cloudy ice that is formed. Conversely, the larger
the drop size, the nearer the temperature to 0C and the higher the rate of catch, the smoother and
glossier will the ice become. Also if the cloud contains ice crystals as well as the freezing water drops
they will become frozen in the ice accretion, giving a rougher cloudier form. Cloudy (mixed) ice is
unlikely in stratocumulus, altocumulus or altostratus unless the cloud has been formed orographically.
It is most likely in towering cumulus, cumulonimbus and orographic cloud at temperatures around
-20C and in nimbostratus around -5C to -10C depending upon the degree of frontal activity.
25.
Packed snow.
If snowflakes are met while flying in icing conditions they will become
embedded on the airframe ice accretion making the deposit opaque, which may be referred to as
packed snow as on the ground. It may not be particularly dense compared with clear or cloudy ice but
it can be very effective in blocking intakes and apertures.
Flight Procedure in Airframe Icing Conditions
26.
At temperatures colder than -40C or when flying in cirriform clouds the chances of airframe
icing are very small indeed and any rime that may be encountered will not be of any significance.
However, when flying at sub-zero temperatures in other cloud or in precipitation, airframe icing must
be anticipated and the appropriate procedure followed, including the use of the aircraft's de-icing
systems. Remember that there may be power loss due to engine icing too.
Icing in Scattered or Broken Cloud
27.
In these circumstances it is important to remember that when an aircraft emerges from cloud
with ice on the mainplanes, etc., this ice, whatever its type, does not quickly evaporate. Successive
passes through cloud therefore lead to a progressive build-up or ice and a worsening problem. The
best practice therefore (within the constraints of air traffic control) is to fly around rather than through
detached cloud masses.
123
Ice Accretion
Icing in Continuous Cloud or Precipitation
28.
In freezing rain a decision is required urgently as the ice reaches dangerous proportions in a
matter of minutes. The choices of how to get clear of the freezing rain are:
(a)
Descend to an icing-free layer where the temperatures are definitely warmer than
0C, provided that there is sufficient terrain clearance. The pilot must know his position and
the safety height.
(b)
Climb to an icing-free layer (ideally an inversion where temperatures are warmer than
0C). In this case there are also provisos. Firstly it must be remembered that the aircraft will
continue to collect ice while it is climbing, so reducing the performance if there is no reserve
of power in hand. Secondly, in the climbing attitude there will be a change in the wetted area
of the aircraft's surface and hence the airframe will ice over. Finally, except for the ice that can
be removed by the de-icing system, at the new cruising level the aircraft will be committed to
continued flight carrying the ice already formed.
(c)
Turn back while the aircraft still has full manoeuvrability. Certainly this is the safest
option in freezing rain, subject to air traffic control. It may then be possible to obtain ATC
clearance for another altitude or route clear of the icing region. If not, it will be necessary to
divert to the specified alternate and to wait for conditions to improve.
Power Plant Icing
29.
This is a matter which is best considered in conjunction with the specific flight manual and
operations manual as constructors strive to design engines with minimum susceptibility to power loss
due to icing. Starting with the most straightforward case, both piston and turbine engines suffer from
impact icing. This icing forms where supercooled water drops strike the intake or induction system
surfaces and is merely airframe ice accretion occurring in a locality where it chokes the air supply to
the power plant. The icing occurs in all of the situations where the aircraft is experiencing airframe ice
accretion and is also worst at temperatures just below 0C. With rear-mounted engines, there is a
further impact ice hazard. Accidents have occurred when ice which has been de-iced from the
mainplanes has been ingested and power lost.
30.
Within an engine, pressure is reduced in the induction process causing expansion and
adiabatic cooling and may be sufficient to give both condensation and supercooling and hence icing
on adjoining surfaces. Depending upon the turbine engine, this can occur at particular rpm and
airspeeds. In a piston engine, the throttle effect together with fuel evaporation icing (jointly called
carburettor icing) may cause a temperature fall of 20 to 30 C and has caused many incidents and
accidents resulting from partial or total power failure. Light aircraft with direct injection engines are not
prone to such engine icing.
31.
124
Fig 15-3 represents schematically the induction
airflow of a conventional float-type carburettor. Air from the

intake passes through the venturi (choke) where the
pressure drop and expansional cooling can cause the
temperature fall to produce throttle ice and the vaporising
of the fuel from the jet will require latent heat so producing
a further temperature fall. Depending upon the throttle
butterfly setting, this may amount to 25 C and this is
where the trouble lies.
32.
On a quite warm, cloudless, but humid day, it is
very easy, especially at small throttle openings such as on

a glide approach, to experience serious carburettor icing
Fig 15-3: Carburettor Ice
and if the engine fails it may not restart. Incidentally, tests show that MOGAS is more likely to produce
carburettor icing than AVGAS. It is important to be guided by the relevant flight manual and operations
manual, including the use of the carburettor heat control. The carburettor heat when selected, heats
the intake air by an exhaust heat exchanger but unless the selected hot air actually produces
temperatures over 00C in the carburettor, the situation may be worsened by its use. This situation
occurs if the initial intake air temperature was so low that even applying heat does not prevent subzero conditions occurring around the throttle butterfly.
33.
Advice on recognition and avoidance of carburettor icing may be summarised as:

(a)
Check with the Flight and Operations Manuals for start-up, taxy, in-flight drills.
(b)
Be prepared for serious icing in precipitation, cloud or clear humid air (relative
humidity over 40%) even at +0C temperatures, especially at small throttle settings. The
extreme temperature range is probably + 25C to -10C and some authorities consider that
the most serious icing occurs at outside air temperatures of around + 130C, but it all depends
upon the particular engine.
(c)
Suspect its onset in level flight if the aircraft has:

(i)
A fixed pitch propeller and there is a slight drop in rpm and airspeed
(preceding rough running, by which time action should have been taken).
(ii)
A constant speed propeller and there is a drop in manifold pressure and
airspeed.
(iii)
An exhaust gas temperature (EGT) indicator which shows a drop in
temperature.
125
(d)
Ice Accretion
Use carburettor heat. Normally it will need to be fully on, for the reasons given in the
preceding paragraph. Because ice in the induction system cannot be melted and cleared
instantaneously, advice is to allow up to 15 seconds for the process to be completed. Except
for take-off, the continuous use of hot air is not normally permitted for an engine - again follow
the manual.
(e)
Finally remember that, like carbon monoxide poisoning from exhaust leaks,
carburettor icing can sneak up on the pilot and failure to deal with it will have dire results.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Q.1.
Q.2.
Q.3.
Q.4.
Q.5.
Q.6.
Q.7.
Icing will be severe:

(i)
Just above 0C.
(iii)
Well above 0C.
(ii)
At 0C.
Engine icing can occur at temperatures as high as:

(i)
5C.
(iii)
13C.
(ii)
10C.
(ii)
Supercooled drops.
(ii)
Decreases.
(ii)
Decreases.
Main cause of icing is:

(i)
Ice particles.
(iii)
Low temperature.
Due to icing, stalling speed:

(i)
Increases.
(iii)
Remains same.
Due to icing, fuel consumption:

(i)
Increases.
(iii)
Remains same.
If you are flying above 30,000', chances of icing are:

(i)
Remote.
(iii)
Very less.
(ii)
Very high.
(ii)
Cb.
Maximum icing is likely in:

(i)
As.
(iii)
Cs.
Q.8.
Q.9.
Q.10.
126
Most hazardous type of icing is:

(i)
Hoar frost.
(iii)
Clear Rime.
(ii)
Opaque rime.
Icing will be maximum in:

(i)
Winters.
(iii)
Monsoon.
(ii)
Post monsoon.
Icing is unlikely above:

(i)
-5C.
(iii)
-20C.
(ii)
-10C.
127
CHAPTER 16
CONDENSATION TRAILS
1.
Clouds form due to natural processes. Condensation or sublimation can also occur in the
atmosphere by the injection of water vapour into air and thereby inducing saturation. This type of
artificial condensation or sublimation occurs in the wake of an aircraft and is important in high altitude
flying of military aircraft.
2.
Condensation trails (Contrails) are visible streaks of condensed or sublimated water vapour
formed in the wake of moving aircraft.
Importance to Aviation
3.
When an aircraft leaves a visible trail behind it, both the position and heading of the aircraft
are revealed to an observer on the ground. The disadvantage of this to military aviation is self-evident.
In mountainous areas where radar surveillance is difficult, contrails may be the principal means by
which enemy observers may locate an aircraft. It is, therefore, necessary that the meteorological
conditions favouring their formation and the action to be taken to avoid them are well understood.
Type of Contrails
4.
These are two types of contrails:
(a)
Wing Tip Trails.
These are thin and
transient contrails which are formed near wing tips

and propeller edges. They are formed due to
aerodynamic reduction of pressure, expansion of air
and consequent adiabatic cooling near wing tips and
Fig 16-1: Wing Tip Trails
propeller edges. If the air temperature is already low,

sufficient water may not be condensed to produce a
visible trail: also if the air is very dry, the adiabatic
cooling may not be sufficient for the dew point to be
reached. Such trails are thus common only in mild
damp weather at low altitudes. These trails are short
and evanescent and are relatively unimportant. (Fig
16-1)
(b)
Exhaust Trails.
These form due to the
moisture content in the exhaust gas. They may be
Fig 16-2: Exhaust Trails
128
long and persistent and are visible to a ground observer even when the aircraft is at great
height.
Physics of Contrail Formation
5.
Combustion of hydrocarbon fuel (petrol or ATF) in the engine of an aircraft results in two end
products which are of importance in contrail formation. These are:

(a)
Water vapour
(b)
Heat
Both these are delivered through the exhaust to the ambient air. Addition of water vapour increases
the relative humidity of the ambient air. On the other hand, addition of heat raises its temperature and
hence reduces the relative humidity. The two factors thus act in the opposite directions. At high
temperatures of the ambient air (i.e. at low levels) the second effect is predominant. For saturation to
occur, the rise of relative humidity due to addition of water vapour outweighs the reduction due to
addition of heat. Contrails can, therefore, form only when the temperature of the ambient air is low, i.e.
at high levels in the atmosphere.
Mintra Level
6.
From calculation of the release of water vapour and heat from the exhaust, it is possible to
determine the critical temperature at which contrail formation take place. This critical temperature
varies to some extent according to the relative humidity as well as the pressure of the ambient air. In
any given situation, the critical temperature at which contrail formation is possible as per theoretical
calculation is known as minimum trail (MINTRA) temperature and the level at which this critical
temperature is found is known as the mintra level.
7.
Though the critical temperature for trial formation is reached at the mintra level, trails do not
necessarily form at this height. But trail formation does not occur below this level.
8.
Since the combustion products of petrol and ATF are different in terms of composition by
quantity, mintra temperatures in respect of piston engine and jet aircraft are slightly different. The
mintra levels for jet aircrafts are higher than those for piston-engine aircraft, other conditions being the
same. When a single type of fuel is used, the variation of mintra level between one type of aircraft and
other is negligible. The flight level at which the temperature is - 45o C gives a reasonably good
estimate of the mintra level (at 100 % humidity) for jet aircraft.
Drytra Level
9.
When the temperatures are very low, contrails form even when the ambient air is absolutely
129
Condensation Trails
dry (o % humidity). In such cases the moisture from the exhaust is by itself sufficient to produce
saturation and sublimation. Above this level contrails form irrespective of the humidity of the ambient
air. This is known as the dry trail (DRYTRA) level. Thus trail formation necessarily occurs above this
level. Drytra level is usually about 2 kms above the Mintra level for saturated air.
Maxtra Level
10.
In the lower tropical stratosphere the temperature increases slowly with height. At a certain
level the temperature may become higher than the critical temperature for contrail formation. Above
this level no contrail will form. This level is known as maximum trail (MAXTRA) level. In the Indian
area except perhaps in the extreme north in winter, maxtra levels are usually above the operational
ceilings of aircraft in present day use. Fig 16-1 explains the different layers in which contrails can
form.
Fig 16-1: Different Layers of Contrails Formation

11.
In the case of jet aircraft, contrails in the Indian area rarely form below 7 kilometers. The
usual height band of formation is 11-14 kilometers. Mintra levels are usually lower in winter than in
summer, they are lower in extreme north than elsewhere. In the extreme north, the mintra level in
winter may occasionally lower below 9 kilometers.
Persistence of contrails
12.
Long and persistent contrails occur under the following conditions:-
(a)
130
High relative humidity of the ambient air. A state of super saturation with respect to
ice enables quick sublimation of the water vapour on the sublimation nuclei, which are
present in the exhaust gas.
(b)
Moderate changes of wind speed along the horizontal and vertical to permit
broadening of the contrail by diffusion. If the diffusion is too vigorous, then the trail dissipates
quickly.
(c)
Temperature more than 140 C below the mintra temperature.
At these low
temperatures any addition of water vapour from the exhaust is sufficient to induce saturation
in the ambient air.
(d)
Higher throttle setting than normal resulting in greater quantity of water vapour
issuing from the exhaust. In such cases, trails may form a little below the calculated mintra
level because the calculations assume normal throttle settings.
Avoidance of Contrails:-
13.
Evasive action in regards to contrail formation:-
(a)
Fly below the forecast mintra level if the exercise or operation permits this.
(b)
If possible, climb into the stratosphere. Even if you have not reached the Maxtra level,
contrails may be short and evanescent because the stratosphere is mostly dry.
(c)
Fly above a layer of cirrus or cirrostratus. Apart from the cloud inversion at the top of
the cloud layer,most probably the air is drier.
(d)
Reduce the throttle setting as far a practicable.
Distrails
14.
When an aircraft flies through a cloud below the mintra level, the heat from the exhaust may
temporarily reduce the relative humidity of the ambient air to such an extent that the cloud droplets in
the wake of the aircraft evaporate completely. If the cloud is thin, a furrow or lane is created in the
cloud and is visible to ground observer. This is known as a dissipation trail (DISTRAIL).
131
Condensation Trails
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Wing Tip trails can only form in:

(i)
Dry Weather.
(iii)
Mild Damp weather.
(ii)
Low Temperature.
(ii)
Height does not matter.
Exhaust Trails are seen at:

(i)
High Altitude.
(iii)
Low Altitudes.
In saturated air trails can not form below:

(i)
Mintra Level.
(iii)
Drytra Level.
(ii)
Maxtra Level.
Distrails are formed due to:

(i)
Condensation of water droplets.
(ii)
Evaporation of cloud droplets.
(iii)
Reduction of pressure.
The level above which contrails can not form is:

(i)
Maxtra Level (Dry air).
(iii)
Tropopause.
(ii)
Maxtra Level (Saturated air).
132
133
CHAPTER 17
GENERAL CIRCULATION OVER THE GLOBE
1.
The Sun is the principal source of heat for the earth. The diameter of the Sun is more than
hundred times that of the earth. It has an estimated surface temperature of 6000 C. At its distance of
93,000,000 miles, the earth intercepts about 1/2,000,000,000 part of the solar output. Most of the
physical and biotic phenomena of the earth are due to the incoming solar energy. The winds and
ocean currents and the various weather phenomena, all ultimately owe their origin to solar energy.
The high temperature radiation from the Sun is in the form of long waves. The solar radiation or
insolation in the short wave radiation received from the sun or the amount of solar energy received at
any place on the earth will depend upon:
(a)
The intensity of solar radiation or the angle of incidence of the Suns rays.
(b)
The duration of solar radiation or the length of the day.
Apart from these, there are certain minor factors also which affect the distribution of
insolation:(c)
Fluctuations in the solar output of radiation are about 1-2 % from the average of
roughly 1.9 gm .cal. per minute per sq. cm.

(d)
Varying distance of the earth from the Sun at the several positions in its orbit.
Variation in Solar Radiation
2.
The normal daily and seasonal variations in the receipt of the solar radiation give rise to
corresponding diurnal and seasonal variations in weather and climate. It is however, open to question
as to weather small irregular variations is solar radiations cause any anomalies in world weather. The
main variation of this type is the sunspot cycle (on an average 11 years).
Seasons
3.
The earth rotates around an imaginary axis once in 24 hours. During this period most places
on the sphere are turned alternately towards and away from the Sun, giving rise to day and night. The
direction of rotation is towards the east. The rotating earth revolves in a slightly elliptical orbit about
Sun. The time of one revolution is one year during which period the earth rotates around its axis
approximately 365 times, thus determining the number of days in a year.
134
4.
The plane of the ecliptic is an imaginary plane passing through the Sun and extending
outward through all points in the earths orbit. The axis of rotation of the earth has a fixed inclination of
about 66 from the plane of the ecliptic (i.e. 23 from the vertical). This position is constant and
hence the axis at any time during the yearly revolution is parallel to the position that is occupied at any
previous time. This is called parallelism of axis.
5.
The rotation, revolution, inclination and parallalelism of the axis act to produce the changing
lengths of the day and varying angles of the Suns rays which in turn cause the seasons.
Equinox
6.
Twice during the yearly period of revolution (21 March and 23 September) the Suns noon
rays are directly vertical at the equator with one half of the earth in light and the other half in darkness
and days and night are equal.These are known as spring and autumn equinoxes (Equi= equal; nox=
night) respectively.
Solstices
7.
On 22 June and on 22 December, the earth is approximately midway in its orbit between the
equinoxial position and the

North Pole is inclined 23
towards/away from the sun.
As a result of the axial
inclination the Suns rays
are
shifted
northward/
southward by the same

inclination of 23 so that
the noon rays are vertical at
the Tropic of Cancer /
Capricorn (23) and the
tangent rays in the northern
hemisphere/
southern
hemisphere pass over the
Fig 17-1: Yearly Revolution of Earth
pole and reach the artic/

Antarctic circle(66 ).
8.
On the opposite hemisphere, the tangent rays do not reach the pole but terminate at the
Antarctic / Arctic, 23 short of the pole. Hence, during summer solstice (22 June) while all parts of
the earth north of Arctic circle are experiencing constant day light, areas polewards of the Antarctic
135
General Circulation Over the Globe
circle in the southern hemisphere are entirely without daylight. This is the summer for northern
hemisphere when days are longer and the period when maximum solar energy is received.
9.
On winter solstice (22 December), opposite conditions prevail. It is constant daylight south of
Antarctic circle, constant darkness north of Arctic circle, summer in the southern hemisphere and
winter in the northern hemisphere.
10.
Thus, the belt of maximum isolation swings back and forth across the equator during the
course of a year.
Effects of the Atmosphere on Insolation
11.
The distribution of insolation over the earth, though primarily determined by the latitude is
largely modified because of the gaseous envelope or atmosphere of the earth. The main effects are:-
(a)
Selective scattering, principally of the short wavelengths by particulates.
(b)
Diffused reflection of all wavelengths by the larger particles.
(c)
Absorption of selected wavelengths, mainly longer ones by water vapour, oxygen and
ozone.
A part of the solar energy which is scattered and reflected by the atmosphere and earths surface
goes back to space. This constitutes the earthshine which illuminates the new moon.
Heat balance
12.
65% of the solar radiation received at the outer limits of the earths atmosphere is absorbed
by the atmosphere (14%) and by the earths surface (51%). Thus, this much part of solar radiation
(65%) is converted to terrestrial energy. The remaining 35% of solar radiation is returned to space as
shortwave radiation and plays no part in heating the atmosphere. A balance is struck between the
65% incoming radiation and longwave radiation from the earth back to space. This balance is known
as terrestrial heat balance.
13.
The mean annual temperature of the earth as a whole remains the same because the amount
of incoming solar radiation absorbed is balanced by the amount of terrestrial energy radiated to
space. However, there is a latitudinal imbalance in the energy absorbed against energy radiated from
the earth. In the low latitudes (equator to 37) the incoming solar radiation exceeds the outgoing earth
radiation while poleward of 37, the opposite is true. In other words, there is a continued excess of
gain over loss in the low latitudes and the reverse in the middle and high latitudes.
14.
136
In order to maintain the overall heat balance, this situation requires a latitudinal transfer of
energy from the excess to deficit latitudes. This transfer is achieved by the earths atmosphere and
oceanic circulation. i.e. winds, ocean currents, storms and other weather phenomena.
Idealized Pressure Distribution
15.
As we have seen, the equatorial regions of
the earth receive more heat from the sun than the
Polar Regions. Hence, in a simple scheme we should
expect a surface low pressure area near the equator
and surface high pressure area at the poles, with
gradual increase of pressure from equator towards
the poles. In actual fact the pressure distribution is
governed by thermal influences only. There are other
dynamical causes which give rise to high pressure
areas in either hemisphere at about latitude 30. The
idealized pressure belts thus derived from simple
thermal and dynamical effects are shown in Fig 17-2.
16.
It is seen from the above diagram that the
pressure belts are zonal in character i.e. they are

aligned along latitude bands. The central area of
Fig 17-2: Idealised Pressure Distribution
pressure systems are at the identical latitudes in both

hemispheres. However, in the northern hemisphere the zones are broken up into cells, while in the
southern hemisphere they are more in the nature of bands. This is because the northern hemisphere
has oceans and continents in fairly equal proportions; the thermal capacity of the two differs, resulting
in a cellular pattern of pressure. On the other hand, the southern hemisphere has a much larger
ocean area; the pressure belts are thus more continuous in character.
17.
This simple arrangement of high and low pressure belts roughly corresponds to what is
actually observed on average pressure charts of the world. The equatorial low, the sub-tropical highs,
the sub-polar lows and polar highs form prominent landmarks in any pressure chart of the world. They
are source regions of the more transient disturbances which we see on day to day charts.
Idealized Surface Wind Distribution
18.
From the generalized sketch of surface pressure as shown in Fig 17-2, we can derive a
simple system of surface winds. From the sub-tropical highs located at about 30 north and south,
surface wind flow towards the equatorial low. The Coriolis force deflects them to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. They blow as north-easterlies in the
137
northern hemisphere and as south-easterlies in

southern hemisphere. They are known as trade
winds and are the steadiest wind system known
on earth.
19.
Poleward from the sub-tropical high
pressure areas in each hemisphere, wind flow

towards the sub-polar lows. Due to the Coriolis
force they become westerlies. They are known
as middle-latitude westerlies or merely as zonal
westerlies.
20.
The existence of polar easterlies to
complete this scheme is yet to be confirmed by

schematic observation. The three great wind
Fig 17-3: Idealised Surface Wind Distribution
systems derived above are shown in Fig 17-3.

Large deviations from this simple pattern occur to local circulations on a continental scale as in the
case of monsoons.
Circulation Aloft
21.
The
surface
circulation
above
would
have
corresponding upper air circulations. In actual fact the upper

air circulations are much simpler than the surface ones. The
sub-tropical highs are not of great vertical extent. In the
upper air, due to a higher mean temperature over the
equator than over poles, the pressure over the equator is
higher than that over the poles. Thus, except close to the
equator where easterlies prevail at higher levels, the upper
winds are westerlies right up to tropopause. (Fig 17-4).
Origin of Transient Disturbance
22.
The static patterns of pressure and wind described
above are highly idealized. Due to breaks in the pressure

belts caused by various factors like distribution of land and
sea, exchange of air takes place between one zonal belt
and another. This exchange of air is the principal cause of
transient disturbances.
Fig 17-4: Circulation Aloft
23.
138
The idealized global pressure and wind systems are shown in Fig 17-5.
Fig 17-5: Idealised Global Pressure and Wind Systems
Seasonal Migration of Pressure and Wind Belts
24.
In the forgoing discussion we have assumed that the equator receives the maximum amount
of radiation. This is not true throughout the year. Due to the inclination of the axis of rotation of the
earth to the plane of its orbit around the Sun, the apparent elevation of the Sun is different in different
parts of the year. Hence the radiation maximum executes oscillations between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn on an annual scale.
25.
The pressure and wind belts, which are based mainly on thermal causes, also execute similar
oscillations. Thus, in the northern summer we may find the equatorial low as far as latitude 25 north
while in the northern winter it migrates to the south of the equator. For practical purposes the locations
of the various belts in different seasons are to be studied, because the places of origin of the
migratory disturbances depend on these locations.
139
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The solar radiation received at earth is in the form of:

(a)
Long wave.
(c)
No wave.
(b)
Short wave.
The axis of rotation of the earth has a fixed inclination of about

(a)
66 .
(c)
26.
(b)
from the earth.:
23 .
The distribution of insolation over the earth is primarily determined by:

(a)
Longitude of place.
(c)
Time of day.
(b)
Latitude of place.
Pressure belts in the southern hemisphere are more continuous in character because:
(a)
There is more insolation.
(c)
It has much larger ocean area.
(b)
It is further away from sun.
Wind blowing from 30 north and south towards the equator are known as:
(a)
Westerlies.
(c)
Easterlies.
(b)
Trade winds.
At higher levels in the atmosphere except close to equator, the upper winds are generally
right up to tropopause.
(a)
Westerlies.
(c)
Not there.
(b)
Easterlies.
140
141
CHAPTER 18
AIR MASSES
1.
Weather phenomena depend on the properties, movement and interplay of the wind systems.
Once synoptic analysis came into vogue, it became possible to identify and follow the different wind
systems. This lead to an understanding of the winds and in developing the concept of air masses.
Nature
2.
It is interesting to identify different types of air masses and understand their properties,
movements and changes. An air mass is a vast body of air whose physical properties are more or
less uniform in the horizontal, though abrupt changes may be found along its boundaries. Air masses
form in the semi-permanent circulation systems situated on the land e.g. polar continental highs and
over the oceans e.g. sub tropical highs. The air in these systems is subjected to the prolonged
influence of the underlying surface whose properties it acquires. In size, air masses cover hundreds of
thousands of square kilometers and vertically extend to thousands of meters. The presence of such
large bodies of homogeneous air masses can be seen by observations of temperature and humidity.
Origin
3.
Air masses derive their original characteristics from the underlying surfaces over which they
form. For formation of a large air mass body, a huge volume of air must remain practically stagnant or
circulate for quite some time over a particular portion of the earth in order to acquire distinct
temperature and humidity characteristics. The area where such formation takes place are called
source regions.
4.
The source regions naturally differ in summer and winter according to the pressure and wind
patterns. However, generally they tend to bound the belt of prevailing westerlies. One set of source
region exists along the northern boundary in the vicinity of the sub-polar lows while another set of
source region exists near about the Horse latitudes. The temperature and humidity characteristics
naturally differ with the type of the source.
Classification
5.
Air masses can best be classified according to their source region where the basic properties
are determined. When the air masses move leaving the source, their physical properties get modified.
They are termed continental or maritime according to whether they originate on land or over sea.
Including the geographical source also, a dual system of classification is commonly resorted to. Thus
the principal air masses and their characteristics can be summarised as below in Table 18-1.
142
Air Masses
Symbol
Place of Origin
Properties
Low temp, low specific but
Arctic
high
Polar regions
summer
humidity.
relative
Coldest
of
the
winter air masses.

Continental
P
O
L
A
R
Maritime
T
R
O
P
I
C
A
L
Pc
Pm
Continental
Tc
Maritime
Tm
Equatorial (Maritime)
Em
Sub-Polar
Continental
areas.
Sub-polar
Low temp, temp increasing

with
southward
Low humidity.
and
arctic
oceanic areas.
Low temp, increasing temp

with
movement.
High
land areas.
content.
border
of
oceanic sub-tropical highs.

Equatorial
and
seas
Higher
humidity.
Subtropical high pressure
Southern
movement.
tropical
temp.
Low
moisture
Moderately high temp, High

relative and specific humidity.
High temp. High humidity.
Table 18-1
A symbol W or K is suffixed to the air mass designator to indicate whether the air is warmer or colder
than the surface over which it is moving. Thus PcK will be polar continental air, colder than the
underlying land or sea surface.
Movement
6.
As the air mass starts moving into areas outside the source region, it undergoes continual
change not only due to passage over warm/cold or dry/moist areas but also due to mixing with other
types of air masses. While undergoing the modification, the air mass is called transitional and is often
indicated by prefixing the letter n to the air mass designator. For example, nTm will mean transitional
tropical maritime air.
Properties of Air Masses

7.
The conditions within a moving air mass are determined to a large extent by the temperature
of the underlying surface. Warm air masses are usually of tropical origin moving to higher latitudes. If
they move over cooler surface, they get cooled from surface upward. This causes stratified conditions,
inhibiting vertical motion and gives rise to stratiform clouds, light rain or drizzle and poor visibility with
143
Air Masses
a tendency for fog formation. Cold air masses are mostly of polar origin and move to lower latitudes.
In the passage over warm surfaces, convection and turbulence develop and result in cumuliform
clouds and showery activity. Visibility is generally good outside precipitation.
8.
For day to day identification, temperature, relative humidity, pressure and cloudiness do not
form reliable guides since the variations are too large. The best conservative tags are: potential
temperature, specific humidity and dew point.
Air Masses of Indian Region

9.
In the Indian area, tropical and equatorial air masses are the usual types in all seasons,
although in winter, there are infrequent incursions of polar air. The main features of air masses of the
Indian region are indicated below. Often, two or three air masses may reach an area and undergo
transformation in situ.
(a)
Tropical Maritime Air (Tm).
This air originates in the sub-tropical highs of the
North Pacific Ocean and arrives over India through the countries of Southeast Asia during the
monsoon season (June-September). At its source region the air has high temperature, high
relative humidity and high dew point. It largely retains these characteristics as it moves
eastwards towards the summer low over northern India. The air mass is characterized by
excellent visibility, a fairly high diurnal range in temperature and cumuliform clouds with some
showers and thunderstorms. Tm air may be found occasionally in other seasons in
association with depressions or cyclones, especially over the South Peninsula.
(b)
Tropical Continental Air (Tc).
This is the most common air mass over India. In the
winter season it practically over-runs the country. It originates in the greater Siberian high,
and moves over India as a cold dry current and is referred to as the Northeast Monsoon. The
visibility is only moderate due to some amount of dust particles. There is little moisture and
hence very little clouding except when it has had some sea travel over Bay of Bengal or the
Arabian Sea. In the monsoon season it is confined to northwest India. In the pre-monsoon
months it undergoes surface heating, and with a little sea travel may become unstable in the
lower layers leading to instability phenomena like dust storms or thunderstorms.
(c)
Polar Continental Air (Pc).
This air which is cold and dry makes infrequent
intrusions into northern India in the winter as Pc or nPc in the rear of strong depressions
which move across Kashmir and the Punjab. This air mass gives rise to the more severe type
of cold waves which occasionally affect northern India.
(d)
Equatorial Maritime Air (Em).
Tropical air mass which has originated in the sub-
tropical high of the Indian Ocean south of the equator and has crossed the equator into India
144
is equatorial maritime air (Em). Em prevails over India to the south of Lat. 25O N in the south
west monsoon season. It makes occasional incursion into the extreme South Peninsula in
winter.
10.
At its source region it is cool and humid, but convectively stable or neutral. As it crosses the
equator into the northern hemisphere, it undergoes surface heating, the lapse rate becomes steeper
and cumuliform clouding increases in vertical extent. Visibility is good except in showers. The diurnal
range in temperature is rather small. When the in-draught of the air mass is vigorous, widespread
showers and squally weather occur. Thunderstorms are rare except during the first advance and
during fresh revivals after prolong breaks.
Identification of Air Masses
11.
Air mass identification is important, because once we have identified an air mass over any
region, a whole lot of associated weather phenomena can be inferred. The principal methods of
identifications are:-
12.
(a)
Temperatures and dew points plotted on surface charts.
(b)
Structure of the temperature and dew point curves on a T gram.
(c)
The approximate source region as indicated by streamlines on upper wind charts.
(d)
Structure of clouding and state visibility.
The air masses over India during various seasons and their extent are shown in Figs 18-1 to
18-4.
Fig 18-1: Cold Season
145
Fig 18-2: Hot Season
Fig 18-3: Wet Season
Air Masses
146
Fig 18-4: Cool Season
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Source region of air masses are semi-permanent circulation systems which are situated over:
(a)
Land.
(b)
(c)
Both over Land and Sea.
Sea.
The conditions with-in a moving air mass are determined to al large extent by:
(a)
Temperature of underlying surface
(c)
Longitude of the place.
(b)
Pressure of the air mass.
(b)
Polar Continental.
The most common air mass over India is:

(a)
Tropical Maritime.
(c)
Tropical Continental.
Prefixing the letter n to air mass designator indicates that the air mass is:
(a)
Colder than underlying surface
(c)
Undergoing modification.
(b)
Warmer than the underlying surface.
Air mass which gives severe type of cold waves and occasionally affects northern India is the:
(a)
Polar Continental.
(c)
Tropical Contnental.
(b)
Equatorial Maritime
147
CHAPTER 19
FRONTS AND DEPRESSIONS OF MIDDLE LATITUDES

1.
Synoptic meteorology had its beginnings in the theories pertaining to air masses, air mass
boundaries and disturbances in the middle latitudes. These disturbances are referred to as extratropical cyclones or depressions. Some of the weather sequences encountered in the middle latitudes
are met within the disturbances that affect the extreme northern parts of India in the winter season.
Frontal Equilibrium
2.
When light and heavy air masses are
juxtaposed, a sloping surface of separation is

formed, with the heavier air mass underneath the
lighter one. Since density is inversely proportional to
temperature, this alternatively will mean that the
warmer air up glides over colder air over a sloping
surface or colder air undercuts warmer air beneath a
Fig 19-1: Frontal Equilibrium
sloping surface. A sloping surface of this type is known as a frontal surface and the line of its
intersection with the ground is known as a front. (Fig 19 -1).
Movement of Fronts
3.
A front is carried along with the winds. The speed of motion can, therefore, be estimated from
the geostrophic wind component at right angles to the front. The speed can be calculated either from
geostrophic scales or tables, on a synoptic chart. The red and black arrows in Fig 19-3 indicate the
direction of frontal movement.
Convergence at a Front
4.
The wind component must be same on both sides of the front because the isobars are
continuous across the front. Thus at the front there should be no accumulation or depletion of air and
hence no convergence / divergence and associated vertical motion. In practice this is not found to be
the case. There is a rarely perfect geostrophic balance at the front because of friction and localised
fall of pressure. Both these factors lead to convergence and consequently extensive cloudiness and
precipitation.
5.
The process of convergence makes the front progressively sharper. This is known as
frontogenesis. When pressures near the front begin to rise, the convergence process ceases and
reverses to divergence. The front then becomes diffuse and wide. This is known as frontolysis.
148
Formation of a Depression on the Polar Front
6.
In Fig 19-2 we have a
stationary polar front with cold

polar air to the north and warm
tropical air to the south. If warm
tropical air penetrates into the
polar front at any point, a wave
is generated on the front as in
Fig 19-2(b).
If this wave is
stable it moves eastwards along

the front without intensification.
On the other hand if it is
Fig 19-2: Formation of Depression on the Polar Front
unstable it grows, pressure falls

in the region where the bulge has occurred on the polar front due to the intrusion of tropical air and a
cyclonic circulation develops. The polar front changes its character in the region of the circulation and
passes through the stages shown in Fig 19-2 (b) to (d).
7.
It will be noticed that in the portion of the front in advance of the cyclonic centre, warm air is
displacing cold air. This is known as a warm front. In the portion of the front in the rear of the cyclonic
centre, cold air is displacing warm air. This is known as a cold front. On a synoptic chart, warm and
cold fronts are marked as shown in Fig 19-3. The shaded semicircles or triangles are marked in the
direction of movement of the fronts. If a colour scheme is used, a warm front is drawn as a line in red
and cold front as a line in blue.
8.
The region between the cold front and the warm front on the warm air side is known as the
warm sector of the depression. The remaining larger area is known as the cold sector of the
depression.
9.
Fronts are carried along with the winds as the depression moves with a speed roughly equal
to the speed of the winds in the warm sector.
Warm and Cold Front
10.
Fig 19-3 shows a vertical section in a typical warm front and cold front. The warm frontal
surface has an average slope of 1 in 100 or 1 in 150. The warm air upglides the cold air on this
surface. This ascent produces adiabatic cooling and clouds are formed above the frontal surface.
About 800 kilometers in advance of the surface front, Cirrus clouds form at a height of about 9.0
kilometers. As we progress closer to the surface front, the cloud height progressively decreases and
the cloud type passes from Ci to Ns through Cs and As. About 300 kilometers from the surface front,
149 Fronts and Depressions of Middle Latitudes
rain falls from As clouds. The rainfall

is continuous till we reach the surface
front
where
it
ceases
abruptly
because of clearance of the rainbearing clouds.
11.
On crossing the front the wind
veers and the air temperature and

dew point increase. The pressure
which had been falling in the cold air
becomes more or less steady.
12.
Fig 19-3: A Typical Warm and a Cold Front
The cold front is usually much
steeper than the warm front, average slopes

being of the order of 1 in 50. Due to this
steep slope, the cold front is the scene of
Cb and thunderstorms, if the warm air is
potentially unstable. Further the weather is
spread over a comparatively short distance
(a)
in the cold air in the rear of the front.
13.
Another noteworthy feature of a
cold front is its retardation near the surface

due to friction. At times it gets bent in the
frictional layer (say up to 1 kilometre). This
is known as the nose of the cold front. This
becomes an unstable layer because of the
(b)
pocket of warm air below cold air, it is

continuously being formed by friction and
destroyed by turbulent mixing. This shallow
unstable layer is responsible for the roll
cloud characteristic of severe cold fronts
which gives rise to squally weather during
its passage. After the front passes, clouding
(c)
and precipitation cease rapidly, the pressure

rises steeply, the wind veers and the
temperature and dew point fall.
Fig 19-4
Fig 19-4: An Advancing Front
shows the different stages during the advancement of a cold front.
150
Occlusion
14.
As the warm air is gradually moving upwards over the warm and cold fronts, the warm sector
progressively contracts in area. A stage may be reached when the surface warm and cold fronts
merge and the warm sector completely disappears from the surface and lower levels. This process of
the merging of the warm and cold fronts is known as Occlusion. The composite front is known as an
occluded front. The different stages of occlusion of a depression are shown in Fig 19-5.
Fig 19-5: Different Stages of Occlusion
15.
Two types of occlusion can occur:
(a)
Cold Occlusion.
In this case
the composite front is of the cold front variety

with very cold air in the rear replacing less cold
air ahead.
(b)
Warm Occlusion.
In this case
the composite front is of the warm front variety

with less cold air in the rear replacing colder
Fig 19-6: Occlusion
air ahead.
As the process of occlusion spreads vertically as well as along the horizontal, the separate
existence of warm and cold fronts ceases. The depression is then in fully occluded state.
Gradually it weakens and fills up. The occluded front is depicted by alternate symbols of warm
and cold fronts or by a purple line.
Summary of Frontal Characteristics
16.
We now summaries the weather features associated with warm and close fronts in a tabular
form in tables 19-1 and 19-2.
Warm Front
Element
In Advance
During Passage
In the Rear
Pressure
Falls
Fall Ceases
Steady
Wind
Backs
Veers
Steady
Temperature
Steady
Rises
Steady
Dew Point
Rises in Rain
Rises
Steady
Ci, Cs, As and Ns, Fs
Clouds
Below
Continuous Rain or Snow
Weather
Low Ns and Fs
Rapid Clearance,
Some St or Sc
Sudden Cessation of
Fair, at times Drizzle or
Rain or Snow
Fog
Table 19-1: Summary of Frontal Characteristics of a Warm Front
Cold Front
Element
In Advance
During Passage
Pressure
Steady and then Falls
Sudden Rise
Backs and becomes
Sudden Veering,
Squally
Squally
Temperature
Steady
Sudden Fall
Steady
Dew Point
Steady
Sudden Fall
Steady
Wind
Clouds
Weather
St or Sc then Ac, As and

Cb
Continuous Rain or Snow
Cb with Fs or Fc
In the Rear
Rises Steadily but
Slowly
After Squall, Veers
Rapid Clearance, Cu
and Cb for short spell
Heavy showers and
Heavy showers (or
thunderstorm, at
snow) for short period;
times with hail
rapid clearance
Table 19-2: Summary of Frontal Characteristics of a Cold Front
Movement of Depressions
17.
The depressions of middle latitudes move eastwards or east-north-eastwards, being steered
by the deep westerly currents in these latitudes. Their rate of movement is about 15 Kt. In their
occluded state the speed reduces; in the final stages of dissipation they are almost stationary for
some days before they eventually fill up.
Families of Depressions
18.
When a depression on the polar front occludes, the unoccluded portion of the front is left
behind trailing at a lower latitude. Conditions may become favourable for the formation of a fresh
152
depression at lower latitude. This process may repeat at a still lower latitude. In this way a family of 3
or 4 depressions may be generated, each depression of the family will have its center further south
and further west of its predecessor. The family may move eastwards almost together as one single
system. The normal tracks of extra-tropical cyclones are in Fig 19-7.
Fig 19-7: Normal Track of Extra-Tropical Cyclone
Secondary Depressions or Lows
19.
At times, we find a weak low within the area of circulation of a stronger low or depression.
This type of low moves along with, as well as, around the stronger low in the nature of a satellite. The
stronger low is called the primary and the weaker low within its circulation is known as the secondary.
Secondary lows may form by any of the following three methods:(a)
Quick movement of a depression along the polar front.
(b)
Formation of a low at the top of the warm sector of a partly occluded depression.
(c)
Formation of a low on the cold front well within the circulation of a depression.
Flying Hazards Associated with Polar Front Depression
20.
The principal flying hazards associated with these depressions are:

(a)
Ice accretion during a fairly long traverse in As and Ns clouds associated with warm
fronts.
(b)
Poor visibility due to drizzle or fog in the warm sector.
(c)
Pronounced bumpiness and other hazards associated with Cb when crossing the
cold front. In particular, hail encounters or severe icing are potential hazards.
21.
These hazards will be encountered while flying at lower medium levels (i.e. below 6 km). As
the flight level is increased beyond 6 Km the effect of the fronts becomes gradually less marked.
Flight at high levels in the region of the warm front presents no problems. At the time of crossing the
cold front, only a few isolated peaks of Cb may be seen and these can be avoided.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The line of intersection with the ground of light and heavy air masses is known as:
(a)
Frontal Surface.
(c)
Low.
(b)
Front.
Frontolysis is:
(a)
Convergence and sharpening of front.
(b)
Diffusion and widening of front due to diversion.
(c)
Convergence and widening of front.
Formation of Cirrus clouds may indicate the approach of a:

(a)
Warm Front.
(c)
No Front.
(b)
Cold Front.
Nose of the cold front is an area of:

(a)
Clear weather.
(c)
Light rain.
(b)
Squally weather.
The composite front where less cold air in the rear replaces colder air ahead is known as:
(a)
Cold Occlusion
(c)
Frontogenesis.
(b)
Warm Occlusion.
154
6.
Formation of a low on the cold front well with in the circulation of a depression may give rise
to the formation of a :
(a)
Primary Low.
(c)
Front.
(b)
Secondary low.
155
CHAPTER 20
WESTERN DISTURBANCES
Introduction
1.
On the global charts, one can see eastward moving troughs in the zonal westerlies. These
upper air troughs in the sub-tropical westerlies often extend down to the lower troposphere of the
northern latitudes of the Indian sub-continent, particularly during the winter season. These often give
rise to closed cyclonic circulations on the sea level charts. In Indian Meteorological terminology,
these have come to be known as Western Disturbances (WDs).
Origin and Movement
2.
The westerly trough or waves and the associated low level cyclonic systems often originate in
the West Atlantic or Mediterranean regions. These are of the extra-tropical frontal type of cyclones.
Secondaries develop over the Persian Gulf.
The mountainous terrain of Iran, Afghanistan and
Pakistan modifies and often obliterates the frontal characteristics of the systems at the lower levels.
The movement is east or northeastwards.
Incidence
3.
These disturbances affect mostly north-western Indian and the Himalayan belt. They come
farthest south in mid-winter. They occur most frequently in winters. During monsoon, WDs have a
track northeastwards, thus taking them north of India.
Characteristics
4.
In the Indian region, these disturbances are mostly in an occluded stage, though sometimes
well-marked lows or depressions with the characteristic warm front, warm sector, cold front and the
associated weather moving from west to east can be clearly discerned. The movement can be clearly
traced on the charts from West Asia onwards. Sometimes, no surface low can be drawn on the charts
but the weather system can be seen progressing eastward. However, in such cases the progression
of well-defined upper air waves can be seen.
5.
Orography plays a major part in the breaking up, stagnation and intensification of these
disturbances. Some of these disturbances split into two in the hilly regions of Pakistan, one moving
north and the other eastwards. In the western Himalayas over J & K and Himachal Pradesh areas,
some of the disturbances break up and dissipate while some take a more easterly course and travel
as far east as Assam and North Burma.
156
6.
A depression located in the coastal region, west of the Nile may move east northeastwards
and affect north Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Northern Pakistan and Kashmir. Many of the depressions
moving over Iraq separate into two near the Iraq-Iran area due to the obstruction of the high terrain
there. The northern cell moves northeast over Iran and the southern cell travels east along the
Persian Gulf. The southern cells intensify over the Persian Gulf area though they weaken further east
since the circulation in the lower levels is cut off over the highland regions of Iran, Baluchistan and
Afghanistan.
Hence, by the time they cross over to India, they are mostly weak and irregular
disturbances.
7.
Over northwest India they revive and intensify again with moisture fed from the Arabian Sea.
Depressions which take a more southerly course often enter Indian peninsula along the Mekran coast,
sometimes developing warm and cold fronts, the contrasting air masses being the moist, warm
Arabian Sea current and the cold, dry north/northwest winds from the temperate regions.
8.
The nearly closed character of the Punjab with high hills to the north, northeast and west and
the open terrain to the east and south explains the tendency of western disturbances to slow down
and intensify in this area.
Weather Sequence
9.
The approach of a western disturbance is indicated by the gradual fall of pressure and rise in
temperature. The winds, both at surface and upper levels, back and acquire a southerly component.
Extensive clouding also appears. Fig 20-1 indicates the cloud pattern. The sequence of clouds is:
cirrus, cirrostratus lowering to altostratus.
Some small amounts of stratocumulus, cumulus and
cumulonimbus also develop. With the advent of the cold front, large cumulonimbus develops over a
relatively narrow belt. Continuous light rain or drizzle occurs over an extended area with the warm
front while intermittent rain or scattered
showers are experienced in the warm sector.
Heavy showers of short duration sometimes
accompanied by thunderstorms or hailstorms
and squalls are characteristics of the weather
during the passage of the cold front. In the
hills, sleet in the beginning of the season and
snowfall later replaces the rain or showers of
Fig 20-1: Cloud Pattern Associated with WD
the plains.
10.
Weather clears up with passage of the disturbance, with a sharp rise in the pressure and
appreciable fall in temperature. In the wake of a disturbance, cold dry continental modified polar air
sets in, causing a cold wave.
157
11.
Western Disturbances
Immediately after the passage of the cold front and prior to the setting in of the strong
continental Northerlies, conditions are favourable for the occurrence of radiation fog. With skies
clearing up overnight enabling prolonged radiation, temperature drops and the humidity is still high
after the precipitation. The fog while lifting up often gives rise to low stratus persisting for two to three
hours after the dissipation / lifting up of fog.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
WD is a term coined by Indian Meteorologists:

(i)
True.
(iii)
Cannot say.
(ii)
False.
(ii)
Central India.
(ii)
Persian Gulf.
(ii)
Pre monsoon.
(ii)
Move North of India.
WDs mostly affect:

(i)
North India.
(iii)
Peninsula.
WD originate in:
(i)
Caspian Sea.
(iii)
Red Sea.
WDs are most frequent during:

(i)
Winter.
(iii)
Post monsoon.
During monsoon, WDs:

(i)
Do not form.
(iii)
Move South of India.
158
159
CHAPTER 21
TROPICAL DISCONTINUITIES AND CONVERGENCE ZONES

1.
We have seen that the existence of a front is dependent upon a sharp contrast between the
density (i.e. temperature) of two air masses. While in the temperate latitudes such density contrasts
are common in the tropics the air masses are subjected to convective and mixing processes to such a
extent that the temperature contrasts between two air masses near their common boundary become
much less marked or even negligible. Thus methods of frontal analysis which are successful in the
middle latitudes fail when applied to the tropics. In view of this, the use of the word front as applied to
the tropics is not appropriate. Common boundaries between air masses in the tropics are termed
discontinuities or convergence zones. In this chapter the salient features of such discontinuities or
convergence zones are discussed.
Types of Discontinuities
2.
There are two general types of discontinuities: -
(a)
Stable Discontinuity.
In this case the air
masses on either side of the discontinuity have parallel

streamlines. It is generally free from towering clouds. If
the velocities on the either side are different, the
resulting wind shear may give rise to As clouds. This
type of discontinuity is illustrated in Fig 21-1.
(b)
Active Discontinuity.
Fig 21-1: Stable Discontinuity
This occurs when two
air masses definitely converge on to the discontinuity, as

in Fig 21-2. In a normal case, cloud formation will vary
from overcast to fair with convective clouds for a zone
up to 5-10 kilometers wide, decreasing outwards in a
zone 50-75 kilometers wide. Total cloud coverage may
Fig 21-2: Active Discontinuity
be more if Sc or Cu is already present in the air masses.

Wind shear may also give rise to As in one or both the air masses. Convergence lines are
fairly common in the Indian area.
3.
To summarise, a discontinuity may be said to be active when there is convergence
(ascending air motion) associated with it. It is inactive when no convergence takes place. Although
most discontinuities are lines or zones of convergence, there are exceptions.
160
Locating a Discontinuity
4.
Careful drawing of streamlines on upper wind charts for the lower levels can indicate the
location and orientation of a discontinuity. In most cases, a discontinuity can be located by mere
inspection of the plotted winds. Cloud and weather patterns on the surface chart give additional
confirmation.
Slope of a Discontinuity.
5.
The angle of inclination of a surface of discontinuity between two air masses depends on the
following factors:
6.
(a)
Latitude.
(b)
Angle between the ground discontinuity and the east-west line.
(c)
Temperature on either side.
(d)
Wind velocities on either side.
In the tropics the temperature differences are small and are in many cases negligible. The
discontinuities are thus generally in the wind field. The slopes of such discontinuities may wary from
vertical to horizontal; small variations in orientation or latitude may produce large variations in slope.
7.
When the discontinuity is east-west, the angle of the slope is equal to the latitude. For
example, at the equator the slope is horizontal; at 5O N it is 1 in 9 and at 10O N it is 1 in 6. In other

words, the slope becomes steeper as we proceed northwards from the equator. When the
discontinuity is oriented north-south, the slope is vertical. Thus if the discontinuity is one of velocity
alone, the slopes may vary widely. In practice, small differences of temperature do exist between the
air masses across a discontinuity. The slopes do not vary so widely if we take differences into
account.
8.
Knowledge of the slope of a discontinuity is important because the vertical motion (and hence
cloudiness and rain) are dependent on the slope. We shall now see the structure of clouding
associated with discontinuities with different slopes.
Cloud Structure at Sloping Discontinuities
9.
Three main categories of cloud structure at sloping
discontinuities may be listed a follows:-
(a)
When the slope is vertical, converging air at all
levels contributes to vertical growth of cloud over the
Fig 21-3: Cloud Growth at

Vertical Sloping Discontinuity
161
Tropical Discontinuities
And Convergence Zones
ground discontinuity; the discontinuity is well marked, comparatively narrow and intense. The
growth of cloud is illustrated in Fig 21-3.
(b)
When the slope is gentle (i.e. near horizontal) the cloud
is scattered and mainly near the ground discontinuity either on it

or on the same side as the sloping surface, as in Fig 21-4. A
marked line with Cb is rare. Cu clouds may be scattered over a
zone hundreds of kilometers wide. Cb does not normally grow at
great distances up the slope because the convergence normally
diminishes at upper levels. Quite often, due to wind shear
(difference in wind speeds) between the air masses As may also
Gentle Sloping Discontinuity
be present.
(c)
Immediate to this class is an appreciable and
nearly vertical slope. In the typical case at Fig 21-5, Cb is

scattered over a zone of 150 kilometers wide, or strung
out raggedly along the ground discontinuity or slightly on
the sloping side. When a Cb cloud grows at some
distance from the ground discontinuity, both air masses
tend to feed it , the ground discontinuity gets temporarily
distorted and reverts to its original shape after the
dissipation of the individual Cb which has distorted it.

Nearly
Vertical Sloping Discontinuity
Diurnal Variation of Clouds at Discontinuities
10.
In presenting these models, an important factor that has so far been neglected is the diurnal
variation of temperature. Although convergence governs Cb formation on a discontinuity, ground

heating and cooling greatly affect air stability in the tropics.
11.
The lapse rates aloft in the tropical air mass are usually conditionally unstable. Daytime
heating which may amount to as much as 10O C or more at an inland station ensures that the lower
layers also become conditionally unstable, if not absolutely unstable. Therefore, if a discontinuity at
which convergence is taking place is located over land, it gives rise to considerable Cb development
during day time. At nights the conditions are reversed. Radiative cooling of land areas reduces
temperatures in the lower atmosphere, promoting vertical stability. Cumuliform clouds decrease or
even dissipate and the sky may be clear except when the As layer formed during day persists at night.
12.
Over the sea the reverse process is operative, but the differences between day and night are
less marked than over land.
13.
162
Apart from a change intensity of clouding, diurnal changes may induce changes in the
position of a discontinuity. By day a discontinuity gets displaced further inland, while at night it has a
tendency to move off-shore.
Inter-Topical Convergence Zone
14.
Among tropical discontinuities, by far the most important is the inter-tropical convergence
zone (ITCZ). This is a discontinuity between the tropical air mass of the two hemispheres. It is also
known as the equatorial convergence zone (ECZ). In older literature it was termed as the inter-tropical
front (ITF), but the word ITF has now been discarded as there is no sharp front in the classical sense
of the term.
15.
The ITCZ is a zone with tropical maritime or continental air to the north and invariably tropical
or equatorial maritime air to the south. The former originates in the sub-tropical highs of the northern
hemisphere which are partly over land and partly over oceans. The later originates over the subtropical high of the southern hemisphere which lies mainly over ocean areas.
16.
The ITCZ lies in the equatorial low pressure area and usually marks the axis of the equatorial
trough. It executes seasonal oscillations.
Structure of the ITCZ
17.
Since the air masses on the either side of the ITCZ shows wide variation in characteristics,
both in respect of season and of locality, the ITCZ is active in some portions and inactive elsewhere.
18.
When the ITCZ is active, (Fig 21-5) its width may extend from 75 to 150 kilometers. In this
zone a high density of Cb clouds are present with heavy showers. The tops of the Cb may reach more
than 18 kilometers. On the either side of this zone are found As clouds, and further beyond, Ac
clouds.
19.
When the ITCZ is inactive, (Fig 21-6) the zone is somewhat wider and diffuse. In the zone
itself Cu and large Cu predominate with scattered light showers. Cb build up is rare. Cloud tops are
generally 3-5 kilometers but in large Cu may extend to 6 kilometers. On either side of the zone,
broken As and Ac may be found along with fair weather Cu.
20.
When the ITCZ is close to the equator (say with 5 degrees latitude on either side), it
sometimes splits into two and encloses a belt of doldrums (fair weather and light winds). This happens
because of the existence of what are known as equatorial westerlies in a narrow zone. These
westerlies act as a buffer between the two split portions of the ITCZ.
163
TOPS 35-45000 FT
CUMULUS
ALTO CUMULUS
ALTO STRATURS
ALTO STRATURS
CUMULO NIMBUS
RAIN HAIL OR THUNDER STORM

WIDTH 50 TO 200 KILOMETERS
GROUND LEVEL
Fig 21-5: Active ITCZ

21.
The cloud structure at the ITCZ is shown at Fig 21-5 and Fig 21-6. It must be remembered
that the ITCZ undergoes diurnal effects explained earlier. In judging the cloud structure, we must not
TOPS 7000-8000 FT
PS
TO
0F
00
0 -8
0
0
CUMULUS
STRATO CUMULUS CUMLUS & CUMULUS
BASE 1000 TO 3000 FT
LIGHT SHOWERS POSSIBLE
GROUND LEVEL
Fig 21-6: Inactive ITCZ
164
only assess whether the ITCZ is active or not, but also take into account the time of the day and the
fact whether the ITCZ is over land or over the sea.
22.
On Synoptic charts, the ITCZ is marked by two lines, the distance between the lines indicating
the approximate width of the zone. Hatching is done between the lines if the ITCZ is active and fairly
widespread Cb is either present or expected to develop. If shown in colour the same scheme with
orange is used.
Peninsular Discontinuity
23.
Another discontinuity of importance in India is a discontinuity which forms over peninsular
India (South of Lat 23O N) in the hot summer months of April and May. This is a discontinuity between
hot and dry Tc air from northern India and comparatively cooler and moist air from the Bay of Bengal.
In most cases the later is also Tc air which has got modified into near maritime characteristics (TcTm)
due to travel over Bay of Bengal. In some cases it may be Tm air bought in by some disturbance.
24.
This discontinuity gives rise to afternoon thunderstorms, at times with hail. Strong north-
westerly squalls and heavy showers accompany the thunderstorms. The discontinuity remains more
or less stationary for 3-4 days before dissipating or reforming at another location, but in the same
region.
25.
Weather in the tropics tends to be concentrated near air mass discontinuities at which
convergence is taking place.
165
166
167
CHAPTER 22
TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS
Introduction
1.
A tropical depression is the one in which wind speed in circulation is between 18 to 27 kt or is
marked on the surface chart with two closed isobars at 2 hPa interval. When the wind speed in
circulation is between 28 and 33 kt, these are called Deep Depressions.
Formation of a Tropical Depression
2.
We know that an easterly wave forms, when a surge of Em (Equatorial maritime) air distorts
the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone). The wave once set in motion on the ITCZ, usually does
not intensify unless certain special conditions exist. The most important of these conditions are:
3.
(a)
Existence of adequate moisture.
(b)
Arrival of Tc (Tropical Continental) air in the circulation.
(c)
Fresh surge in Em air.
The first condition is easily satisfied over the sea areas. The second condition can also be
generally satisfied when the wave is not too far from a large continental area. Surges in Em air occur
fairly regularly, although there are certain favourable locations for their occurrence. Thus when an
easterly wave moves to a location where these three conditions are satisfied the wave intensifies,
cyclonic circulation strengthens, pressure in the central region falls and a depression forms.
4.
The formation of a tropical depression is illustrated in Fig 22-1. Because three air masses are
involved in their formation, such depressions were previously called "Triple point" depressions.
5.
Quite often it happens that an
easterly wave encounters Tc air, but

simultaneously a surge in Em air does not
occur. In such cases the wave does not
develop into a depression; however, it
slightly intensifies and moves on as a lowpressure area with one or two closed
isobars.
Fig 22-1: Formation of a Tropical Depression
168
Winds in a Tropical Depression
6.
In a tropical depression the cyclonic circulation at the surface and in the lower levels extends
to a radial distance of about 500 km from the centre. Since the depressions move West or Westnorth-westwards, the wind speeds in the northern half are more than in the southern half. (This is
because in the northern half the observed wind is made up of two components which add to each
other - one due to the depression gradient and the other due to movement both of which are in the
same direction; in the southern half the components are in opposite directions).
7.
The cyclonic circulation in a tropical depression extends to about 20 - 25, 000 ft; above this
the winds lose the cyclonic circulation and become anti-cyclonic at about 30-35,000 ft. In a monsoon
depression it has been shown that the centre of cyclonic circulation gradually shifts south-westwards
as we go further up; at 30,000 ft, the centre of the weak cyclonic circulation is about 500 km to the
southwest of the surface centre.
8.
The strength of winds remains nearly the same upto 20,000 ft after which it declines. Very
close to the centre, in a small zone in the northeast quadrant, the winds are about 40 kt, but
elsewhere they range from 20 - 30 kt. At the surface and in the layer upto about 2000 ft, the winds
are very gusty due to friction especially when a depression strikes the coast and moves over land.
Clouds and Weather in a Tropical Depression
9.
A tropical depression is a
common
disturbance
in
the
monsoon season. Many flights have

to cross the field of a depression.
An aviator should, therefore, be
thoroughly familiar with the pattern
of clouding and weather in the
various sectors of a depression. Fig
22-2 shows a model of clouding and
weather associated with different
sectors. It must be realised that in
individual cases the actual pattern
may differ to some extent from the
model.
Thorough
pre-flight
Met
briefing should be obtained in each

case of a cross-country flight which
Fig 22-2: Model of Clouding and Weather
may involve traverse of depression.
in Monsoon Depression.
169
10.
Tropical Depressions
Fig 22-2 gives the model of clouding and weather in a typical monsoon depression over land
areas. It will be noticed that the most favourable weather is found in the Right rear quadrant and the
most unfavourable in the Left front quadrant. In general the weather is much better to the rear of the
centre than ahead of it in the direction of movement.
Movement of depressions
11.
The depressions move along the ITCZ from east to west. They have a tendency to move
Westnorthwest or Northwestwards as they move inland over India. When the supply of Em air is cut
off (i.e. when they reach an inactive portion of the ITCZ) they start "recurving"; they change direction
to North and then to Northeast. At this stage they cease to have tropical characteristics.
12.
The usual speed of movement is 15-20 kmph. When the supply of Em air is being cut off the
speed slows sown considerably. At this stage a good deal of rain falls over a limited area in the left
front quadrant. If this happens to be a catchment area of a river, excessive flooding of river can
occur.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Q.1.
Depression is more intense than a cyclone

(a)
Q.2.
May/may not be
Winters
(b)
Pre-monsoon
(c)
Monsoon
Left front sector
(b)
Right front sector
(c)
Rear left sector
J&K
(b)
Bay of Bengal
(c)
Peninsula
Depression generally travel

(a)
Q.6.
(c)
Depression will usually form over

(a)
Q.5.
False
Depression has worst weather in

(a)
Q.4.
(b)
Depressions will form usually in

(a)
Q.3.
True
West wards
(b)
East wards
(c)
Depression will cover an area of about

(a)
200 km
(b)
400 km
(c)
600 km
South wards
170
171
CHAPTER 23
TROPICAL CYCLONES
1.
Tropical cyclones are associated with large scale pressure defect with a definite and well
developed cyclonic circulation. They move from east to west as huge whirls, generally originating in
the sea, accompanied by violent winds and severe weather. There are still several unanswered
questions in regard to their origin, development, intensity and movement. The origin of tropical storms
is confined to specific regions of the globe, mainly in the tropical regions of the western portion of the
great oceans.
Area of Tropical Storms
2.
3.
Tropical storms are known by different names in different geographical areas as follows:
Indian and south pacific
Cyclone.
Atlantic and eastern Pacific
Hurricane.
Western Pacific
Typhoon.
Pacific (Philippines)
Baguio.
Pacific (Australia)
Willy Willy.
The main areas of the
origin of tropical storms and their

predominant tracks are shown Fig
23-1.
Formation and Development
4.
Cyclones rarely form within
5 degree latitude on either side of

the equator. They originate over
comparatively warm oceanic
Fig 23-1: Areas and Frequencies of Tropical Storm
surfaces where the sea temperature

is 27O C or more. The peak months of formation are when the sea temperatures are the highest
(August September in the Northern Hemisphere and February- March in the southern Hemisphere).
However, in the Indian seas, cyclones of greatest intensity form in April - May and October November since during the peak summer months, the temperature contrast and thereby the intensity
of the storm is decreased by the monsoon circulation. All cyclones do not grow into the full-fledged
stage. Cyclones form in a pre-existing synoptic scale disturbance. The usual disturbances with which
cyclone formation is associated are troughs in the easterlies, waves in the equatorial trough, mid-
172
tropospheric troughs and low level troughs.
5.
Their thermal structure is interesting. Initially these disturbances have a cold core. But when
they develop into full-fledges cyclones, they are transformed into warm core systems. The
temperature in the core of a fully developed cyclone may be about 10OC warmer than its surroundings
up to about 15 kilometers, but above this it is colder than the surroundings. It is surmised that the
release of latent heat due to condensation and precipitation plays a major role in the transformation of
the cold core system into a warm core one, through the mechanism is as yet not clear. Some
systems, however, maintain a cold core throughout their life cycle. It has been suggested that huge
Cb clouds extending to the stratosphere act as hot towers in transporting heat to the upper levels.
A Name Scheme
6.
Since 1953, the US weather Bureau has used girls names to identify tropical storms. This
has helped in reducing confusion when two or more storms exist at the same time. Their present
system is to select names from semi permanent list in use for 4 years with names in the alphabetic
order omitting (Q, U, X, Y & Z), beginning from A in each year. After 4 years, the sets are used again.
For example the lists of names for 1973 are:-
Anna, Blanche, Carol, Debbie, Eve, Francelia, Gerda, Holly, Tenny, Kara, Laurie, Martha,
Netty, Orva, Peggy, Rhoda, Sardie, Tanya, Virgy and Wenda.
Characteristics
7.
The life span of a storm averages about 6 days from the time of formation to the time of
entering land or recurvature into higher latitudes. However, in exceptional cases, some storms can
last even up to 2 weeks. A tropical cyclone when full developed is a vast violent whirl 150 kilometers
to 1000 kilometers across , 10 to 18 kilometers high, spiraling round a center and progressing along
the sea surface at a speed of 300 to
500 kilometers a day. The pressure
Nomenclature
Wind Speed
in the centre of a mature storm may
Depression
33 Kt
be about 70 mb less than that at the
Cyclonic Storm
34 47 Kt
periphery. The speed of the winds in
Severe Cyclonic Storm
48 63 Kt
the main storm is of the order of 100
Severe Cyclonic Storm
to 120 kt. The associated rainfall is
with one core of
very heavy. Very high seas and
Hurricane Winds
swells also occur in association with
Super Cyclonic Storm
64 119 Kt
120 Kt and above
cyclone. In India they are classified

as given at Table 23-1.
Table 23-1: Classification in India
173
8.
Tropical Cyclones
The violent winds in the inner ring whip up mountains waves over the sea surface. Waves of
20 meters height are not uncommon in severe cyclonic storms. The ocean water beneath the surface
is also affected to a depth of about 20 meters. As the storm lashes the coast, the sea level rises and
the coastal tracts get inundated. They are known as storm tides, storm surges, storm waves or tidal
waves. The intensity and damage is greater if the storm tides coincide with the normal lunar high tide.
Evolution
9.
The evolution of a cyclonic storm can be divided broadly into following four phases:
(a)
Formative Stage.
Winds become variable with squalls and thunder, rain over a
large oceanic area. Pressure begins to fall over a large area and winds strengthen. This stage
is often referred to as unsettled conditions and in many cases may not develop further.
(b)
Developing Stage.
The pressure fall continues and wind speeds increase further,
assuming definite cyclonic circulation. Two or three closed isobars can now be drawn on the
surface charts round the region of low pressure. Winds of hurricane force form a tight band
round the centre. The cloud and rainfall pattern get organized into narrow bands spiralling
inward, though the area involved is as yet small.
(c)
Mature Stage.
The pressure fall and increase in wind speed are arrested. The
circulation expends and symmetry is lost as the area of gales and bad weather extends and
symmetry is lost as the area of gales and bad weather extends further to the right down
stream, in the direction of movement of the storm. The size of a mature storm varies widely.
All the same, a mature cyclone exhibits four distinct parts:
(i)
A Calm Central Area or Eye.
About 0 to 20 kilometers in diameter
characterized by calm or very light winds with clear to partly cloudy skies. This is the
area of the lowest pressure.
(ii)
An Inner Ring of Hurricane Winds.
Surrounding the eye of the storm is an
inner ring of hurricane winds (64 kt or more), 50 to 60 kilometers in width, within

which violent squalls with torrential rains occur under a circular wall of clouds. This is
the eye wall, the most dangerous part of the storm.
(iii)
Outer Storm Area.
Here the winds reach to gale force (22 to 47 kt), and is
situated asymmetrically to the pressure centre extending to 400 kilometers or so.

Spiral bands of rain are experienced here. Winds decrease outwards. Stronger winds
occur to the right of the cyclone track.
174
(iv)
Outermost Area of Weak Cyclonic Circulation or Edge.
Fig 23-2 shows
the weather in the cyclone.
(d)
Dissipating Stage.
This is the decaying phase, soon after the ring of hurricane
winds enters land, this phase sets in. The increased friction effects on the land and cut in the
moisture supply from the warm oceanic surface make the system weak, ultimately dissipating
it. Rainfall may continue for a day or more.
Fig 23-2: Weather in a Cyclone

Movement
10.
In the lower latitudes, the cyclones move west to north-west under the steering influence of
the high levels easterlies. However, when they reach the higher latitudes, they come under the
influence of the zonal westerlies. In this case, the storms recurve and move initially north and later
northeast.
Dynamics of a Cyclone
11.
A large mass of warm moist stagnant air begins to rise on a large scale. This rising air is
replaced at the surface level by air flowing in from all around. The inflowing air is deflected by the
Coriolis force and a whirling system of spirally ascending air develops. The upper level winds carry
away the ascending air. Much research has been done in recent years to study tropical cyclones with
weather radars and specially instrumented aircraft. Satellite photographs of cyclones are also now
available as a routine. These studies show that cyclones can reach as high as 20 kilometers there is
slow descending air in the central cortex, the periphery round the vortex has vigorous ascending
motion and an upper deck of clouds extends hundreds of kilometers away from the center in the
direction of movement.
175
Tropical Cyclones
Surveillance Radars
12.
Long range weather radars (usually 10 cm
are used for storm surveillance. When within range,

cyclones show typical organized spiral bands and
the eye on the radarscope. These pictures help in
tracking the storm, as well as determining the
movement and thus prove useful for storm warning
services. (Fig 23-3)
Weather Satellite Pictures
13.
Cyclonic disturbances of all scales appear
Fig 23-3: Radar Image
as vortices in cloud patterns in satellite cloud pictures. These vertical cloud patterns are used to locate
and diagnose the stage of development of the storms. Over ocean areas, often satellite pictures give
the first indication of cyclone formation and later help in fixing the center, stage of development, extent
and movement.
Fig 23-4: Satellite Pictures
176
Flying Conditions in Cyclones
14.
Apart from weather reconnaissance flight, other aircraft have also traversed tropical storms.
Conditions within the storm are extremely hazardous and traverses should be attempted only by
special aircraft and crew after the fullest flight planning and preparation. Cloud formation in the storm
field tends to become arranged in bands along the wind, more or less concentric with the center,
spiralling inwards such that the central area outside the eye forms an extensive unbroken cloud mass
or the eye wall. Cloud bases reach down to the surface and the tops in the Cb towers reach 18-20
kilometers. Severe turbulence occurs in the towering clouds. Frictional turbulence is experienced in
the lowest layers due to the strong winds. Strong up and down draughts occurs in various parts of the
storm. Rain in certain portions is torrential.
Tropical Storms over the Indian Region
15.
Cyclonic storms originating in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea move inland year after
year and cause damage and devastation over the maritime states of our country. The damage is
mainly due to the high velocity winds, torrential rain and inundation caused by the storm wave.
16.
Most of the storms form in the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea and as such their spans of
life and sea travel are relatively small. Hence they are usually in the immature or small mature stage
when they strike coast. That is probably why the majority of Indian cyclones are not as violent as their
counterparts, the typhoons and hurricanes. The average span of life of the Indian cyclone is 3 or 4
days and some times 6 to 7 days, even in the case of recurving storms.
17.
The most severe cyclone occur in the pre-monsoon and post- monsoon seasons. The lowest
central pressure recorded is 921 mb in the Orissa cyclone of 1885. The distribution of rainfall is
asymmetric. The number of storms is the least in winter.
18.
The place of origin shits farthest south to about latitude 05
N in winter, and comes farthest
north to about latitude 25 O N in the southwest monsoon season. Normally they move west or
northwest. In the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, some of them recurve north or northeast
and in the case of the Bay storms, strike the Bengal, Bangladesh or Burma coasts. In the case of the
Arabian Sea storms, the recurved storms may strike Maharastraha or Gujarat coast. In a few cases,
especially in the case of low latitude Bay cyclones, they cross the Tamil Nadu or south Andhra coast,
weaken over land and then emerge into the Arabian Sea. Here they may intensify and again become
cyclones and sometimes recurve northeast.
Frequency of Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea
19.
The number of cyclones and severe cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
during the period 1891-1969 is shown at Table 23-2.
177
Tropical Cyclones
Bay of Bengal
Months
Arabian Sea
All
Severe
All
Severe
Cyclones
Cyclone
Cyclones
Cyclone
January
06
02
01
February
01
March
04
01
April
19
08
05
03
May
42
24
15
10
June
43
05
16
08
July
58
08
02
August
41
02
September
51
09
05
October
79
24
19
05
November
72
28
25
18
December
36
05
05
01
Total
453
114
95
45
Table 23-2: Cyclones in India
Storm Warning Service
20.
India Met department has an adequate storm warning service various interests like railways,
telephones, telegraphs, public works, irrigation, and the general public. In the ports, various visual
signals are hoisted to indicate the warnings for the benefit of small craft. Storm surveillance radars
have been installed at several coastal stations and these help in the issue of the storm warnings in
time. However, though three warnings can help in minimizing loss of life and property the damage
itself cannot be prevented.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Fig 23-5: Insat 1D Images of June 1998
178
Q.1.
Cyclone means wind speed in circulation exceeds

(a)
Q.2.
(c)
120 kt
True
(b)
False
(c)
Cannot say
Eye
(b)
Hurricane core
(c)
Outer storm area
Oceans
(b)
Lakes
(c)
Seas
West wards
(b)
East wards
(c)
North wards
Storm centre is ahead
(b)
Storm centre is rear
Left half
(b)
Right half
(c)
Port
(d)
Every Cyclonic storm will have

(a)
Q.10.
63 kt
(c)
No idea
In order to avoid the inner storm area, deviation should be towards

(a)
Q.9.
(b)
Strong winds from port indicate that

(a)
Q.8.
47 kt
Cyclones move generally

(a)
Q.7.
47 kt
Cyclones form over

(a)
Q.6.
(c)
Worst weather area in a cyclone is

(a)
Q.5.
22 kt
In 'Eye', there is no clouding

(a)
Q.4.
(b)
A super cyclone has winds exceeding

(a)
Q.3.
17 kt
Eye
(b)
Hurricane core
(c)
Outer area
In a tropical cyclone, cyclonic circulation can be upto

(a)
25,000'
(b)
30,000'
(c)
35,000'
Starboard
179
CHAPTER 24
MICROBURST-WINDSHEAR
Introduction
1.
At the Dallas Ft Worth (DFW) airport on the afternoon of 02 1985, thunderstorms were in the
area of the airport as Delta Flight 191, a L1011 jumbo jet with 163 passengers and crew on board,
approached runway 17L for landing. There was a rain shaft and scattered lightning coming from a
thunderstorm cell in the airliner's final approach path, but the pilots decided that the weather was
passable and continued the approach. 15 to 30 seconds after the L1011 entered the weather, the rain
and lightning intensified, and the airplane was buffeted by a violent series of up and down drafts. The
headwind increased rapidly to 26 knots, and then, just as suddenly, switched to a 46 knot tailwind,
resulting in an abrupt loss of 72 knots of airspeed. The jet was only 800 feet above the ground when it
encountered the severe
weather, leaving the pilots
little room to manoeuvre
when the airplane began
to
lose
airspeed
and
altitude at the same time.

38 seconds later, Delta
Flight 191 crashed into
the terrain short of the
runway, killing all but 26
of those on board. In the
recent times microburst
windshear
contributed
has
to
many
accidents and hence it is

important to understand it
and avoid it.
Fig 24-1 Diagrammatic Representation of the Accident
2.
Microburst
may
be defined as a downburst which extends no more than 4.0 kms over surface. It may be said to be a
downburst in spatial scale of the order of runway length. Downburst is nothing but a localised intense
downdraft with vertical current exceeding a downward speed of 3.7 m/s at 100 m above surface. A
wide range of horizontal dimensions of downburst from 0.1 to 100 kms have been found. Some of the
very intense downdraft have a life of only few minutes.
3.
180
A microburst occurs when the precipitation in a column of rising air evaporates, cooling the air
very quickly. Since air becomes denser as it cools, the column of air falls rapidly, spreading out in all
directions with a great deal of force as it nears the ground. The phenomenon can occur in a variety of
conditions, and not all microburst have rainfall associated with them. However, the strong, convective
air currents in thunderstorms and towering cumulus cloud build-ups are particularly conducive to the
formation of microburst.
4.
Wind variations at low altitude have long been recognized as a serious hazard to airplanes
during takeoff and approach. These wind variations can result from a large variety of meteorological
conditions, temperature inversions, sea breezes, frontal systems, strong surface winds and
thunderstorms. Windshear is any rapid change in wind direction or velocity. Severe windshear is a
rapid change in wind direction or velocity causing airspeed changes greater than 15 knots (~17mph)
or vertical speed changes greater than 500 feet per minute (around 5-6 mph in the vertical direction).
5.
Low altitude encounters with microbursts are especially hazardous to aircraft because the first
effect a pilot would notice was a performance enhancing headwind (as the plane first encountered the
outflow of the burst). If an airplane was on a landing approach, the pilot would typically respond by
reducing the engine power to maintain the proper glide path angle and speed. As the plane
progressed into the centre of the microburst, however, the plane would be hit with severe downdrafts.
Then, as it passed into the far side of the burst, the headwind would be replaced with a strong
tailwind, causing a sudden loss of performance and airspeed. If the pilot had reduced power during
the first stage of the microburst, this loss in performance would be intensified even further. Turbine
engines take several seconds to spool up to provide additional power, and by the time a pilot realized
the nature of the problem, it was often too late.
6.
Another reason microbursts pose such a danger to pilots is that they are extremely difficult to
detect. A microburst is usually less than 2.5 miles in diameter and lasted only a few minutes. To help
give pilots better warning of potentially dangerous shear conditions, a Low Level Windshear Alert
System (LLWAS) was developed in 1976. LLWAS consisted of an array of wind velocity measuring
instruments that were installed at various locations around an airport. The LLWAS compared the wind
direction and velocity readings from the different sensors and, if a 15 knot or greater difference
existed, transmitted an alert to the air traffic controllers, who could then notify pilots in the area. The
system had a number of limitations, however. The instruments could not measure winds above the
ground sensors and could not record vertical wind forces. An extremely localized microburst on a final
approach path might not even be recorded by the sensors. Even alerts that were recorded took a
couple of minutes to reach the controllers.
Microburst as a Windshear Threat
7.
Identification of concentrated, more powerful downdrafts, known as Microbursts has resulted
181
Microburst -Windshear
from the investigation of windshear accidents and from meteorological research. Microbursts can
occur at places where convective weather conditions (thunderstorms, rain showers or virga) occur.
Virga is rain that evaporates before it reaches the ground and is associated with a dry microburst.
Observations suggest that approximately five percent of all thunderstorms produce a microburst.
8.
Downdrafts associated with microbursts are typically only a few hundred to a few thousand
feet across. When the downdraft reaches the ground, it spreads out horizontally and may form one or
more horizontal vortex rings around the downdraft. The outflow is typically 6,000-12,000 feet across
and the vortex ring may rise 2,000 feet above the ground. Fig 24-2 is a diagram of a microburst
where-in the microburst is coming straight down, which is a symmetric microburst.
Fig 24-2: Symmetric Microburst
9.
Thunderstorms are normally moving and the microburst can have an uneven shape. Fig.24-3
is an asymmetric microburst where the outflow is greater in one direction than the other.
Fig 24-3: Asymmetric Microburst
10.
182
The microburst can occur without rain ever reaching the ground as in the case of virga. The
rain will evaporate and cause a cooling in the air, which causes the downdraft.
11.
The life span of a microburst is around 15-20 minutes. Microburst winds intensify for about 5
minutes after ground contact and typically dissipate about 10 - 20 min after ground contact. Life cycle
diagram of a microburst is shown at Fig 24-4.
Fig 24-4: Evaluation of a Microburst

12.
If an airplane is trying to land and the microburst occurs, the airplane will first face a big
change in headwind. (Fig 24-5). The change will be into the airplane face and the airplane will
experience increased lift. Now if the pilot is trying to land, then extra lift is keeping the airplane from
descending to the runway. So the pilot, if unaware of the microburst, may decrease power to
counteract the increase lift suddenly being experienced. This will prove to be the wrong move,
because now the
airplane
has
flown through the

microburst and is
on the other side.
Here the wind is
at the tail of the
aircraft and the
wind
speed
subtracted
the
is
from
ground
speed and the

airplane may not
have
enough
Fig 24-5: Windshear Encounter during Approach
airspeed to stay
in the air. Remember that the pilot reduced the power, which reduced the ground speed also. Here is
the possible outcome of the airplane hitting the ground.
183
13.
Microburst -Windshear
The presence of convective weather near intended flight path vis--vis the probability of
microburst is shown at Table 24-1.
Phenomenon
Probability
Localised strong winds (tower reports/observed),

Blowing dust, tornado like features etc
High
Heavy precipitation
High
Rain / Showers
Medium
Lightning
Medium
Virga
Medium
Moderate / Greater turbulence
Medium
PIREP (Pilot report) of air speed (Loss/gain)

(i)
Of 15 kt or more
Medium
(ii)
Less than 15 kt
Low
Table 24-1: Probability of Microburst
14.
Associated with Microburst, three phase of flight where wind shear encounters have resulted
in accidents/incidents are:
15.
(a)
During take-off (Just after unsticking)
(b)
During take-off on runway
(C)
During approach
Analysis of past accidents/incidents teache valuable lessons regarding wind shear and flight
path control. Best defence against microburst is to avoid it altogether and should avoidance fail only
then pilot techniques should be applied.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Q.1.
Microburst Thunderstorm is largely caused by

(a)
Q.2.
Convective activity
(b)
Virga
Microburst has a spatial scale of

(a)
2 km
(b)
4 km
(c)
10 km
(c)
Showers
184
Q.3.
Microbursts are
(a)
Q.4.
(c)
Either dry or wet
Downburst
(b)
Downdraft
(c)
Updraft
100'/min
(b)
200'/min
(c)
500'/min
Life span of microbursts is

(a)
Q.7.
Dry
Microburst can cause a windshear of

(a)
Q.6.
(b)
Microburst is nothing but

(a)
Q.5.
Wet
5-10 min
(b)
10-15 min
(c) 15-20 min
Probability of microburst in precipitation is

(a)
Low
(b)
Medium
(c)
High
185
CHAPTER 25
THE MONSOONS
1.
The term monsoon refers to continental secondary circulations of thermal origin which exhibit
a periodic reversal. Monsoon circulations affect weather over vast areas.
Areas of Monsoons
2.
In the northern summer (July), monsoons are prevalent over a large part of Indian, Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans, with southern hemispheric air penetrating well into the northern hemisphere in India,
Southeast Asia and parts of Africa. In the northern winter (January), northern hemispheric air
penetrates
into
South
America
(Brazil), Eastern Africa and Northwest

Australia. The monsoon regions are
the areas where the air of the colder
hemisphere
penetrates
into
the
warmer hemisphere. The main areas

thus influenced include the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Japan,
Southeast China, West Africa, Eastern
Africa, Northwest Australia, Southeast
USA. (Fig 25-1).
Fig 25-1: Areas of Monsoons
Asian Monsoons
3.
The Asian monsoon region stretches from latitudes 10OS to 50ON. On close examination, it is
seen that three distinct circulations hold sway over this region. These can be termed as Indian,
Malayan and Japanese monsoons. The seasonal reversal of winter continental winds and summer
maritime winds gives rise to changes in temperature and precipitation patterns. The countries affected
are India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaya, Singapore,
China, and Japan.
Indian Monsoons
4.
To the layman, monsoon means the rainy season. In the Indian subcontinent there are two
monsoons, the Southwest Monsoon which affects practically the whole subcontinent and the
northeast monsoon which causes rainfall only in the Peninsula, in the eastern portions and the
extreme south. The life and economy of the subcontinent is to a large extent dependent on the
186
vagaries of the Southwest Monsoon. The Indian monsoon is a part of the Asian monsoon and as such
has to be viewed in the context of the entire Indian Ocean.
5.
The Indian Ocean area can be considered to be an enclosed region with the Asian mass on
the north and extending to the icy Antarctica in

the south. The African land mass encloses it on
the west while it is partly enclosed by Australia
and the Malayan archipelago to the east.
6.
The unique build up of the monsoon is
caused by this geography with open seas from

the Tropic of Cancer to the Antarctic and the
Himalayan and Burmese mountain ranges to the
north and the east. The Asian monsoon systems
Fig 25-2: Asian Monsoon Systems
are shown at Fig 25-2.
7.
The monsoons were known to the ancient sailors, who came for trade with Kerala. It is
believed that as far as back 47 AD, a Greek sailor Hippalus discovered that the seasonal winds of the
Arabian Sea were very regular. The sailor merchants could leave Arabia in June-July so that the
Southwest Monsoon trade winds would take them to the pepper bearing Kerala with-in 40 days. The
northeast monsoon winds of December would then take them back on the return journey.
Southwest Monsoon
8.
The
sub-tropical
highs
of
the
southern hemisphere shift northwards by

April and carry with them the southeast
trades to the north of equator. Increasing
insolation lowers the pressure over the
Indian subcontinent and by June a low
pressure area gets established over the
north extending from Baluchistan to the head
Bay of Bengal. (Fig 25-3). The lowest
pressure is over Baluchistan. This trough of
low covering the Indo-Gangetic plain is
referred to as the Monsoon Trough. In the
meantime, the southeast trades which have
crossed the equator get deflected due to the
Coriolis force and advance northwards as
southwesterlies. By the end of May these
Fig 25-3: Seasonal Pressure Pattern

of Monsoon
187
The Monsoons
southwesterlies strike the Kerala coast. The southwesterlies constitute the Southwest Monsoon. As
the southwesterlies progress north and east, they get caught up in the circulation round the monsoon
trough.
9.
The box-like nature of the Bay
of Bengal with the Indian Peninsular

Coast to the west and the Burmese
coast
to
the
east
deflects
the
Southwest Monsoon current and rolls

it up into a vortex. This deflected
current then gets channelled by the
massive Himalayas. The flow pattern
thus shows up as southwesterlies to
the south of the Monsoon Trough
and
deflected
easterlies
or
southeasterlies to the north of it. (Fig

25-4)
Fig 25-4: Southwest Monsoon
Onset of Southwest Monsoon
10.
There has been quite a bit of controversy on fixing the date of the onset of Southwest
Monsoon over different parts of the country for describing the strength of the monsoon over the sea,
the strength of the prevailing surface winds is taken into account whereas rainfall is used as a criterion
for this purpose over land areas.
Before the onset of the Southwest
Monsoon,
the
southern
portions
subcontinent
eastern
and
of
the
experience
fairly
violent thundershowers. If there is

large
influx
of
moisture,
the
thundershowers may be prolonged

and
the
significant.
rainfall
amounts
The thunder-rain is
treated as the precursor to the

onset of monsoon, some times
such situations being described as
a
temporary
advance
of
the
monsoon. One main difference in

the
pattern
noteworthy.
of
The
rainfall
is
pre-monsoon
Fig 25-5: Normal Dates of Onset of Southwest Monsoon
188
thundershowers are sudden, violent, short lived and of convectional origin whereas monsoon rainfall
is of a steady and continuous nature, more out of stratiform clouds than from cumuliform ones.
11.
A satisfactory and at the same time fairly objective method of fixing date of onset of monsoon
is by means of statistical analysis of the rainfall pattern. The month is divided into five day units or
pentads and the normal rainfall of each pentad computed from climatological data. The normal rainfall
over a particular pentad exhibits a sudden marked and some times even sharp increase over its two
or three preceding pentads and further, this increase is thereafter maintained. The dates of the onset
is fixed as the mid point of the pentad and thus worked out for the whole country. Isolines of these
dates have been drawn and the onset charts constructed as in Fig 25-5.
Progress of the Southwest Monsoon
12.
The progress of the Southwest Monsoon current over the subcontinent can be seen in Fig 25-
5. The monsoon current reaches Sri Lanka, Andaman Sea and Tennasserim coast towards the third
week of May. It advances into south Kerela, mid Bay of Bengal, eastern Bangladesh and Tripura by
the beginning of June. From here on, the monsoon current progresses into two distinct branches.
13.
The Arabian Sea branch moves up and reaches Maharashtra by the 10th June and upto
Saurashtra and Madhya Pradesh by 15th June. Meanwhile, the Bay branch spreads over Bay of
Bengal, Bangladesh, Maghalaya, Assam and central and north Bengal by the 15th June. From there
on the Bay branch is channelled by the Himalayas and the deflected current extends westwards over
the Indo-Gangetic plains.
14.
Later both the branches merge in the Gangetic basin and gradually extend to Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. In the Punjab and Rajasthan it is often difficult to say as to whether
the Arabian Sea or Bay branch will reach first, ushering in the first welcome showers. By July the
current extends to Jammu and Kashmir.
Monsoon Front
15.
A discontinuity, referred to as the monsoon front is established along the axis of the trough of
low over the Gangatic basin. This is the meeting place of the fresh monsoon air (Em) from the Arabian
Sea (west/ southwesterlies) and the deflected monsoon air (nEm or EmTm) from the Bay of Bengal
(east/southeasterlies). There is some difference between the two air masses, the fresh monsoon air
(Em) being slightly cooler and more moist. In the northwest, the surface heated continental air (Tc)
also flows into the trough. The axis of the monsoon trough or the monsoon front more or less
coincides with the position of the ITCZ.
189
16.
The Monsoons
In the northeastern portions of the subcontinent, in the Brahmaputra valley, a subsidiary or
secondary front between the Bay branch of the monsoon air (nEm) and Himalayan katabatic
easterlies (nTm) also exists. This can often be seen separated from the main monsoon front, which
may not extend to this area. On some occasions, these two coincide.
17.
The orientation, position and intensity of the monsoon front and the secondary front determine
the distribution and intensity of the rainfall in the northern portions of the subcontinent.
Withdrawal of the Southwest Monsoon
18.
The Southwest Monsoon
starts
withdrawing
northwest
from
the
of
the
portions
subcontinent by the beginning of

September and then gradually
recedes southwards. In the wake
of this withdrawal, the Northeast
Monsoon sets in. The change
over, however, is not sharp and
well
defined.
withdrawal
of
This
dates
of
the
Southwest
Monsoon for the subcontinent is

shown in Fig 25-6.
19.
By the middle of October,
the Southwest Monsoon retreats

to the Peninsula and by the end
of November, Practically out of
the
country,
except
for
the
extreme southeastern tip of the

peninsula.
This
period
of
Fig 25-6: Normal Dates of withdrawal of SW Monsoon
withdrawal of the Southwest Monsoon is sometimes referred to as retreating monsoon.
Monsoon Depressions
20.
During the prevalence of the Southwest Monsoon, tropical depressions form in the northern
portions of the Bay of Bengal, enter land across the Andhra and Orissa coasts and travel west or
northwest. The tracks of these depressions are mostly along the monsoon trough. (Fig 25-7). The
number and intensity of these depressions determine the delineation and intensity of the monsoon
front which in turn governs the rainfall pattern over the area. In the beginning and towards the end of
190
the season, the depressions re-curve north

or northeastwards in the
Bengal area
causing heavy rain in the eastern subHimalayan regions. The recurvature is linked
with the eastward movement of westerly
troughs of the higher latitudes.
21.
Absence or decrease in the number
of these depressions in any year may give

rise
to
deficit
in
rainfall
and
drought
conditions. Deep depressions often cause

storm surges and tidal waves when they
strike coast.
Fig 25-7: Storm Tracks of
Strength of Monsoon
22.
Lows / Depression
There are large variations in rainfall from day to day, place to place and year to year in this
season. These variations give rise to floods in some places and droughts in others. The Southwest
Monsoon varies from day to day. It is classified as weak, moderate or strong according to the wind
strength, depth of the current and amount of rainfall. It has been postulated that the monsoon
oscillates in discontinuous pulses or surges which depend upon the volume, strength and depth of
southern hemispheric air transported across the equator and reaching the subcontinent.
Breaks in the Monsoon
23.
During the monsoon, particularly in July and
August there are spells of a week or more when the

rainfall ceases and clouding decreases over the major
portion of the country, particularly the central parts.
During this period, the monsoon front shifts north to the
foot hills of the Himalayas and the pressure over most
parts of the country are above normal. (Fig 25-8) The
easterlies over the northern parts of the country are
replaced by westerlies. This is termed as Breakmonsoon condition.
24.
Under
break-monsoon
conditions,
heavy
rainfall is experienced along the Himalayan foothills,
Fig 25-8: Axis of Monsoon Trough
particularly in the Nepal and Eastern Himalayan sectors. Rainfall occurs also in southeast peninsula.
Heavy rainfall in the catchment areas often gives rise to high floods in the Assam, North Bengal and
191
The Monsoons
Bihar rivers. The break is terminated when the monsoon front swings back southwards with the
formation of a low or depression in the head Bay or the progression of an easterly wave in the Bay.
Southwest Monsoon Rainfall Pattern
25.
The Southwest Monsoon regime is taken to be from June to September, though the
withdrawal is slightly later in eastern India. This is the main rainfall season for most of the country.
The general pattern of rainfall is as follows. On the west coast of the peninsula, the monsoon current
encounters the Western Ghats and cause moderate to heavy rain in the coastal belt (average of about
100 cm) due to the orographic ascent. The rainfall falls off rapidly on the leeward side of the Ghats.
The interior of the Peninsula is thus a rain shadow region. The northern portion of the monsoon
current blows across Gujarat, Saurashtra and Rajasthan giving small amounts of rain in the coastal
areas, frequent rains over the Aravalli ranges(again due to orographic effect) and very little rain over
Rajasthan. Moderate to heavy rain occurs along the monsoon front. The Bay current gives heavy
rains in the coastal belt of Burma with a shadow region in interior Burma. In Meghalaya also, there is
heavy rain when the Bay current undergoes Orographic ascent over the Assam ranges. The peculiar
orography of this region bestows upon it the distinction of being the area with the highest rainfall in the
world in the Cherrapunji - Mawsynram area, where the average is about 1140 cm.
Northeast Monsoon
26.
The prominent feature of the northern winter is the cold Siberian anticyclone. The outflowing
cold continental air from the Asian heartland is the Northeast Monsoon. (Fig 25-9) The Siberian
anticyclone however is shallow and extends to about 700 mb only. The influx of the outflow from this
to India is blocked by the Himalayan massif. In the lower levels, northerlies in the north and
northeasterlies over the Peninsula prevail. This is just the reverse of the summer monsoon low level
circulation . The continental circulation
progressively extends south wards in the
wake
of
Monsoon,
the
which
retreating
recedes
Southwest
from
the
southeastern tip of the Peninsula by

December.
27.
The northeasterlies, during their
travel over the Bay of Bengal and later on

over the Indian Ocean pick up moisture.
Finally, after they cross the equator, the
northeasterlies become northwesterlies
due to the geostrophic effect and get
drawn into the low over north Australia
Fig 25-9: Northeast Monsoon
192
and constitute the northwest monsoon there.
Upper Air Structure
28.
The main features of the upper air circulation associated with the two monsoons are:
(a)
Southwest Monsoon
(i)
West/Southwesterlies up to about 2 to 3 Km to the south of the monsoon
trough and east / Southeasterlies to the north of it.
(ii)
Northeasterlies in the north becoming easterlies below about latitude 20O N
above 2 to 3 Km.
(iii)
There are strong easterlies above about 9 Km over the entire subcontinent.
The tropical easterly jet stream is seen at about 16 km in the latitude belt 8O to 20 O N
with core speed over 80 Kt.
(b)
Northeast Monsoon
(i)
Winds are comparatively light north / northeasterlies.
(ii)
There is an anticyclone near about latitude 25O N, which governs the low
level circulation.
(iii)
From about 3 Km to 16 km north of latitude 20O N westerlies prevail; speeds
increase with height. The westerly subtropical jet stream is seen north of latitude
23ON
with core speeds over 100 Kt at about 12 km. South of latitude 20O N,
easterlies / Southeasterlies 20/30 Kt prevail.
Monsoon Forecasts
29.
Since the monsoon is a vital factor in Indias economy, there is a great demand for the
seasonal monsoon rainfall forecast. This has been attempted with some success by the India Met
Department since 1886, using statistical techniques.
193
The Monsoons
194
195
CHAPTER 26
AVIATION CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA

Physical Features
1.
The climate of India is determined by its geographical position in the south of the great Asiatic
continent and to the North of the Indian Ocean, and by the striking features of relief of the land
masses outside as well as within the country. India proper is separated from the rest of Asia by high
mountain walls. The great Himalayas stretch for about 20,000 km between the gorges of the Indus on
the West and the Brahmaputra on the East. The width of the Himalayas is 200 to 5000 km. North of
the ranges is the extensive plateau of Tibet with an average elevation of 15,000'. Towards the
northwest the Hindu Kush Mountains and the Pamir plateau act as climatic barriers. In the northeast
hill ranges of elevation 6000' to 12000' separate the country from Myanmar.
2.
Within the country itself there are important features of relief, which exert a dominant
influence on its climate. Broadly speaking, the country can be divided into three physical regions:
(a)
The plains of Northern India comprise, in main, the valleys of the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra.
3.
(b)
The great Deccan plateaus comprising peninsular India.
(c)
The western and eastern Ghats, which enclose the Deccan plateau.
Owing to the great size and diversity of relief there are many striking contrasts of climatic
conditions in different parts of the country. Towards the northwest lies the Rajasthan desert with an
annual rainfall of less than 12.5 cm, in the northeast in the Khasi Hills, Cherrapunji has an annual
rainfall of over 1000 cm. Dras in Ladakh has recorded a temperature of -40 C while many stations in
the Northern plains have summer temperatures of over 45C.
Monsoons
4.
In spite of all these diversities, the climate of India is, broadly speaking homogeneous on
account of the Monsoons. Monsoons are seasonal winds whose direction more or less reverses
twice a year. Lying largely in the tropics and with the great Asiatic continent to the north and the wide
expanse of the Indian ocean to the south, India provides the most spectacular example of a monsoon
country.
During the winter season of the year when the sun is at its zenith in the southern
hemisphere, the general flow of surface air over India is from north to south-northwesterly in the
northern plains, northerly in central Indian and northeasterly in the south of the peninsula and the
neighbouring seas.
196
The air is of continental origin and hence of low humidity. The season is known
as the Northeast monsoon season. In the summer months (June to September), the general flow of
winds is from the opposite direction, that is from sea to land. The season is one of high humidity,
thick clouding and of rain. In the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal the general direction of the
winds is southwesterly. The season is hence known as the Southwest monsoon season.
5.
Between these two principle seasons are the transition seasons:
(a)
Pre-monsoon season comprising the hot weather months from April to May.
(b)
Post-monsoon season comprising October and November, when the Southwest

monsoon retreats to the extreme South of the country.
6.
The causes of the spectacular burst of the monsoon are many and complex; however, the
fundamental cause is undoubtedly the periodical excess of heating of the land masses of Asia in
summer and of cooling in winter compared to the waters of the Indian Ocean. The monsoons are
actually land and sea breezes on a continental scale.
7.
In the succeeding paragraphs a survey is made of the climate of India in the different seasons
with special emphasis on its suitability or otherwise for flying.
Southwest Monsoon Season (June - September)
8.
The Southwest monsoon circulation commences abruptly in the beginning of June in the
extreme South and extends to the entire country by the middle of July. Fig. 25-5 in the previous
chapter shows the normal dates of onset of the monsoon.
9.
This is the rainy season for the greater part of India. The exceptions are the Tamilnadu state
(which is a pronounced rain-shadow area) and the J & K where the rain in the winter season due to
disturbances exceed the monsoon rain.
10.
The pressure and wind distribution in the month of July is shown at Fig 25-3. A trough of low
pressure (known as the Monsoon trough) extends from west Pakistan to the head of the Bay. Its
axis marks the ITCZ. To the South of the ITCZ is the Em air whose direction is west or west
southwest and average strength 15 kts. To the north of the axis the winds are mainly easterlies to
east-southeasterly. On the average chart this comes out as Tm air. In reality this is made up of a
larger number of occasions of Tm air and a smaller number of occasions when mixed TE air is
present at least up to long 85E.
197
11.
The average chart represents moderate monsoon conditions when there is no easterly wave
or depression present, and Tm air prevails to the north of the ITCZ. Three types of departures can
occur from this average pattern:
(a)
The ITCZ is pushed further north upto the Himalayas and is scarcely discernible on
surface charts. This happens when the supply of Tm air is entirely cut off. The monsoon is
said to be "weak" because the rainfall over the greater part of the country decreases
considerably. A prolonged spell of this type is known as break in the monsoon.
(b)
As Easterly wave arrives in the North Bay and a well marked low pressure area forms
and moves along the ITCZ.
The pressure gradient south of the ITCZ increases, winds
strengthen and general rainfall increases. The monsoon is then said to be strong.
(c)
An Easterly wave arrives in the north Bay and simultaneously a surge of Em air
reaches the ITCZ a depression forms at the head Bay and moves west-northwest wards.
The pressure gradient becomes steep south of the ITCZ, the winds are strong and gusty or
squally and the rainfall is copious specially along the west coast and in the southwestern
sector of the depression. The monsoon is then said to be vigorous.
12.
It must be emphasised that the terms weak, moderate etc, in connection with the monsoon is
not used here strictly in the sense that is implied in official weather bulletins. It must also be realised
that the general speed of the monsoon current is not necessarily an index to the type of weather that
is likely to be associated with it. Nevertheless the broad aspects of clouding and weather can be
differentiated for the different degrees of strength of the monsoon.
13.
In weak monsoon conditions the clouding is cumuliform with scattered Cb building up in the
afternoon and giving light to moderate showers. Flying conditions are reasonably good except over
hilly terrain where the density as well as vertical extent of clouding is high, specially in the afternoon
and night. In moderate monsoon the clouding continues to be cumuliform, but Cb clouds have a
greater density distribution. Any stratiform clouding that may be present is actually remnant from
dissipating Cb clouds. In the Peninsula extensive Cirrus and Cirrostratus is present above 30,000 ft.
Flying conditions are reasonably good in the forenoon, but may be difficult on some routes in the
afternoon. The region of the ITCZ has generally towering clouds and severe bumpiness. In strong
and vigorous monsoon conditions layer clouds may be mixed up with large Cu and Cb especially
along the west coast and in the south-western sector of lows and depressions. Flying conditions may
be difficult, though not impossible, on many routes.
14.
Worst flying weather in the monsoon season is along the west coast (including the Western
Ghats) and in Northeast India where rainfall occurs on more than 20 days in a month. The best
conditions prevail in west Rajasthan and southeast Tamilnadu with rainfall on less than 5 days.
198
Elsewhere rainfall occurs on 15 days, and

flying conditions are reasonably good for a
larger part of the season.
The weather
likely to occur in the monsoon season is

shown in Fig 26-1.
15.
The monsoon starts withdrawing
from the extreme north in September. By

the end of October the withdrawal is
practically complete except for the extreme
south where it lingers on though not as a
continuous current.
The normal dates of
withdrawal are shown at 25-6.
16.
Weather in the monsoon season in
some regions of interest for operational

flying is given below in somewhat greater
Fig 26-1: Weather during Monsoon Season
detail:
(a)
Northwest India.
This region comprising Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi,
Rajasthan and West UP is in a zone where the weather is controlled by the fluctuations of TE
and Tm air. In the absence of Tm air, the eastern part of ITCZ dissipates (or more popularly
'moves to the hills). In the western part the ITCZ is somewhat diffuse with weak Em air to the
south and Tc air to the north, but there is a good deal of mixing across the diffuse zone.
Mixed Tc air thus prevails over northwest India in such a situation. The surface winds are
from west or northwest, speed 10-12 kts during day and 5-8 kts at night. Visibility is 5-10 km
but if the spell is prolonged to more than 3 or 4 days, slight dust haze with lesser visibility (3-5
km) may set in. In a belt about 100 miles from the hill ranges thunderstorms may occur in the
early morning hours, but they clear by about 0900 hrs. Clouding is of scattered cumulus type
with base at 3,000 ft. and tops 6-10,000 ft. There is little or no rain except over the Himalayan
ranges where heavy thundershowers occur chiefly at night.
(i)
The arrival of Tm air is rather sudden and the changes may be brought about
overnight.
Winds are from East or Southeast 8-10 kts, and there is remarkable
improvement in visibility. High altostratus and Cirrostratus are seen and the density of
cumulus clouding increases considerably. Fairly widespread thundershowers occur
in the night and early morning with comparatively clear afternoons in the districts
nearer the hills. Further away from the hills the afternoon maximum of rain holds
good. Most of the thunderstorms are concentrated near the ITCZ, but orographic
features prevent a clear-cut pattern. Cb tops may reach 40-45,000 ft., but there are
199
no squalls. West Rajasthan is, however, unaffected because Tm air does not reach
there except through a monsoon low or depression.
(ii)
Both the type of clouding and the intensity of weather of the area are affected
when it comes into the field of well-marked low or depression. In particular, Punjab
and Delhi get locally heavy or very heavy rain with ceilings as low as 4-500 ft. AGL,
when a depression recurves over Northwest Madhya Pradesh and moves towards
the Punjab hills.
(b)
Northeast India.
This region comprising West Bengal, Orissa, Assam and
NEFA is in an area where Tm air is almost always present except for very short spells. The
main characteristic of the region is the large number of days on which rain occurs. There is,
however, a distinct fluctuation in the rain belt associated with the movement of the ITCZ.
When the ITCZ moves to the North Bay and a low pressure area or depression has formed
there, the weather of West Bengal and Orissa deteriorates with frequent rain or showers and
low ceilings (600 ft. AGL). At this time the weather over Assam improves and there are only
scattered showers or thundershowers.
As the depression moves further west or west -
northwest inland. The weather over West Bengal and Orissa improves but over Assam and
NEFA widespread thundershowers occur.
(i)
In this region also the stations near the hills have a maximum of
thunderstorm activity in the night and morning with comparatively clear afternoons.
Away from the hills this is not the case.
(ii)
Surface winds are mainly from southeast to east in this area. In West Bengal
and Orissa winds of gale force associated with deep depressions are not uncommon.
Visibility is good except in precipitation. General cloud base is 1,500 ft. but in heavy
showers may reduce to 600 ft. AGL in the plains and less than 600 ft. over hilly
terrain. The clouding is mainly Cu and Cb, but in the field of depressions widespread
layer clouds of thick variety may be present. Cb tops may reach 40 - 45,000 ft.
(iii)
The hilly areas of the north are sometimes affected by Westerly troughs,
especially in the late August and in September. Even though they are very weak,
orographic ascent may give copious precipitation over hills and valleys.
(c)
Peninsular India.
This region comprises areas to the south of Lat. 20N. It has
three fairly sharp divisions - the West Coast and the Western Ghats with rainfall on most of
the days, the Deccan Plateau which is on the leeward side and comparatively sheltered, and
the southeast parts of Tamil Nadu which get very little rain in this season. The state of
clouding and the intensity of weather in all these three divisions depend on the strength of the
monsoon as described in paragraph 11. On the west coast and the Western Ghats the
changes in weather associated with surges and shear lines are very well marked. In the
200
interior the changes are not so spectacular. The Deccan and Mysore plateau are subject to
strong and gusty surface winds in strong monsoon conditions. In the morning hours (i.e. up to
about 1000 hrs) airfields on these plateaus have extensive low stratus cloud not associated
with precipitation. On the West Coast, rainfall is mostly in the form of sharp showers at very
frequent intervals, with a morning maximum of occurrence. Thunderstorms are rare except in
the beginning and end of the season.
On the leeward side thundershowers are more
common than plain showers; the frequency is greater in the evening and night.
(i)
The districts of Tamilnadu State have comparatively good weather.
Scattered thundershowers may occur in the evening when the monsoon is weak and
a quasi-stationary troughline runs along or close to the East Coast. In spite of strong
Westerlies in the season, sea breeze circulation prevails on the East Coast, entailing
a complete reversal of surface wind in afternoon.
(ii)
Except along the West Coast flying conditions are reasonably good at least to
the South of Lat. 15N. Further North the direct effect of monsoon depressions may
be felt. Best flying conditions prevail between 1000 and 1500 hrs.
Post-Monsoon Season (October - November)
17.
With the commencement of
the withdrawal of the monsoon from

the North, the trough of low, and with it
the ITCZ, shifts Southwards until
October when it lies roughly along Lat.
10N. The pressure pattern becomes
diffuse with a shallow trough over the
Southwest Bay and weak and variable
winds over the country as a whole. In
November the winter high begins to
appear over Northwest India.
The
pressure and wind pattern is shown in

Fig 26-2.
18.
The northern parts of the
country have little or no clouding in

this season. In the Peninsula, rainfall
Fig 26-2: Pressure and Wind in Post-Monsoon Season
in the form of thundershowers occurs

on 5-10 days per month, the frequency decreasing sharply from October to November. The rainfall is
mainly due to the so-called retreating monsoon which withdraws in irregular jerks.
201
19.
Another reason for rainfall in the South
peninsula is the formation and movement of

tropical cyclones. They usually form over the
Southeast
Bay
and
move
west,
north-
westwards across the Tamilnadu or Andhra

Coast, giving heavy rainfalls and strong gales.
On rare occasions they cross the Peninsula
and revive in the Arabian Sea. Sometimes the
cyclones re-curve in the Bay itself and strike
the Bangladesh Coast.
On an average 1-2
tropical cyclones form in this season.
20.
In the second half of November the
extreme North of the country (Punjab and the

Himalayan areas) may be affected by one or
two Western disturbances which give scattered
Fig 26-3: Weather in Post-Monsoon Season
rain or thundershowers.
21.
In the post-monsoon season flying conditions are good over Northern India. Even over the
Peninsula flying conditions are reasonably good in the forenoon but may become difficult in the
afternoon on some days. No flying is possible in areas affected by a cyclone. Weather in this season
is illustrated in Fig 26-3.
Winter Season (December - March )
22.
January is a typical month for this
season and Fig. 26-4 gives a distribution of

pressure and prevailing winds over India
during this month. A high pressure is situated
in the Northwest and relatively low pressure in
the South and the Indian Ocean. The winds
blow mainly from the quadrant between North
and East.
23.
The dry North or Northeasterly winds
are known as the 'Northeast Monsoon. They

are a result of the seasonal cooling of the
great landmasses of Asia as compared to the
Indian Ocean.
Fig 26-4: Pressure and wind distribution in

January
202
24.
In the extreme South the ITCZ infrequently protrudes due to a surge of Southern hemispheric
maritime air and the formation of an Easterly wave. Thundershowers occur on 2-4 days in a month,
being most frequent in December.
25.
To the north of Lat. 25N the weather is usually fine with clear skies or light Cirrus clouding.
However, it is occasionally disturbed due to the passage of Western disturbances. The track of these
disturbances progressively moves Southwards during the season.
On an average about 5
disturbances affect the area in each month. Some of them give only clouding, but if they are well
developed a good deal of rain can occur. In fact, Punjab gets more rain in the winter than during the
Southwest monsoon season.
26.
The Western disturbances can be traced from the East Mediterranean Sea. Their rate of
movement is about 5 longitudes per day. Occasionally an induced low may form over Rajasthan
when a deep Western disturbance is moving across the Punjab. These induced lows move across
UP towards northeast India where they are responsible for rain or thundershowers. The induced lows
draw moist air from Arabian Sea as well as the Bay of Bengal when they are between longitudes 70
to 80 E.
Convergence of the Arabian Sea current and the Bay current can give rise to
thundershowers for a day or two over central India.
27.
On the approach of a Western
disturbance pressure falls steadily and

Cirrus clouds increase.
days
thick
After one or two
cirrostratus
is
followed
by
altostratus from which light rain may fall.

Meanwhile the winds turn southeast and
strengthen to 15 kt.
The final stage is a
thundershower, at times with hail. Thereafter

the sky clears rapidly, pressure rises sharply
and the winds become northwest and
slightly gusty. Since the air in the rear of a
disturbance is cold, radiation fog in the
morning is common for a day or two after the
disturbance has moved away.
28.
In
weak
disturbances
no
precipitation may occur, but the cloud
Fig 26-5: Weather in Winter Season
sequence of the warm frontal type may be kept up. Disturbances which do not show any closed low
on the surface chart are commonly termed Westerly troughs.
203
29.
The weather likely to occur in the winter season is shown in Fig. 26-5. Flying conditions are
generally good in this season except in the field of very active Western disturbances where, apart
from thunderstorms, icing in altostratus between 10,000 and 15,000 ft. is a hazard to be reckoned
with. Mention may be made of moist haze or smoke haze is common in the morning at airfields in
Northwest India and of the very high frequency (more than 20 days in a month) of morning for in the
river valleys of Assam.
Pre-Monsoon Season (April - May)
30.
The pressure gradient set up in the
winter months gets disrupted during this

season. With increasing elevation of the sun,
land gets heated up and the pressure
becomes diffuse. Consequently the prevailing
winds are light and variable, as shown in Fig.
26-6. Along the coast land and sea breeze
circulations have maximum play.
31.
The ITCZ moves to the North of the
geographic equator and by the third week of

May the monsoon make an incursion into the
extreme Southeast Bay.
32.
The season is characterised by dust
storms and dust-raising winds in Northwest
Fig 26-6: Pressure and Wind Distribution in
India and by thundershowers in Northeast,
Pre-Monsoon Season
Central
and
South
India.
These
are
convective and instability phenomena, which arise out of intense, daytime heating as well as the effect
of feeble disturbances in the Westerlies in the North and Easterlies in the South.
33.
Another feature of this season is the cyclones, which form in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea. Their tracks resemble the ones of the post-monsoon season.
34.
The weather over India during this season is shown in Fig.26-7. The weather over Northwest
and Northeast India is given below in somewhat greater detail:
204
(a)
Northwest India.
In this region
the pre-monsoon season extends into the

greater part of June. Between March and June
the general visibility progressively deteriorates
due to dust haze. In May and June the heat
low
over
Northern
India
begins
to
get
established and the pressure gradient over the

semi-arid area of Rajasthan increases.
This
leads to gusty winds, which raise loose dust

upto more than 5,000 ft. The haze may spread
as far as Northeast India. When a Western
disturbance
pressure
moves
gradient
across
Punjab,
becomes
the
further
accentuated and very poor visibilities (less than

1 km) may be reported during daytime by
stations in this area. The vertical extent of the
haze may be as much as 15,000 ft. The
Fig 26-7: Weather during Pre-Monsoon
Western disturbances of this season move

across Punjab; unlike the winter disturbances, these are associated only with cumuliform clouding altocumulus followed by cumulus or small cumulonimbus. The latter give rise to dust storms, which
have an average frequency of about 4 days in a month. In May and June they are more frequent and
particularly severe. A little before the onset of the monsoon they are followed by light thundershowers
which clear the air and improve the general visibility for a day or two. Dust storms are more frequent
in the afternoon and early part of the night. Nearer the hills mild dust storms may occur in the early
morning hours also. Flying conditions are reasonably good in March and April, but in May and June
they are difficult on 10 -15 days in each month due to thick dust haze or dust storm. Bumpiness is
pronounced in these months, especially after 1100 hrs.
(b)
Northeast India.
The main feature of weather of this region in the pre-
monsoon season is the pronounced thunderstorm activity in the afternoon. A majority of

these thunderstorms originate in the Chota Nagpur hills bordering Bihar and Orissa. By a
process of regeneration the thunderstorms occur in quick sequence over West Bengal and
Assam. They are associated with violent squalls, heavy showers (at times with hail) and roll
type of clouds of the cold front variety. Since they usually approach from the Northwest, they
have acquired the name "Norwesters". Locally they are known by the name "Kalbaisakhi".
They occur with a frequency of 5 - 10 days in a month, being most frequent in May.
35.
The foregoing summary of weather conditions over Indian in the different seasons is
necessarily of a sketchy nature.
It is included for the sake of giving the pupil aviator a mental
background of climatology against which daily Met briefings on the synoptic situation can be easily
205
assimilated by him. For each airfield exhaustive climatological summaries with relevant tables on
adverse weather phenomena have been prepared. All aviators are advised to make a through study
of the aviation weather summaries pertaining to the airfields where they normally operate.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Q.1.
Monsoon is defined as
(a)
Q.2.
(c)
15 July
West coast
(b)
NE India
(c)
Tamilnadu
Monsoon
(b)
Winter
(c)
Post monsoon
Fair weather
(b)
Rain
(c)
Cb and bumpiness
Monsoon
(b)
Winter
(c)
Post monsoon
Northwesterly winds
(b)
Clouds from NW
(c)
Thunderstorms from NW
NW India
(b)
Chhota Nagpur
(c) NE India
Monsoon withdraws from country by end of

(a)
Q.10.
30 June
'Norwesters' occur over

(a)
Q.9.
(b)
'Norwesters' are
(a)
Q.8.
31 May
WDs affect maximum in

(a)
Q.7.
Periodic reversal of winds
ITCZ is an area of
(a)
Q.6.
(c)
Cyclones form in
(a)
Q.5.
Movement of ITCZ
During monsoon rain shadow area is in

(a)
Q.4.
(b)
Monsoon covers entire country by

(a)
Q.3.
Rainy season
July
(b)
August
(c)
September
Which is not a type of monsoon

(a)
SW Monsoon
(b)
SE Monsoon
(c)
NE Monsoon
206
207
CHAPTER 27
SURFACE WEATHER CHARTS

Introduction
1.
The main weather chart prepared in a Met Section is the surface chart on which SYNOP
messages and messages from ships are plotted. This chart is also known as synoptic chart. It is
usually prepared five times a day corresponding to observations at 0000, 0300, 0600, 1200 and 1800
hours UTC. At busy airfields, charts for 0900 & 2100 hours UTC also may be prepared. At cyclone
warning centres, surface charts may be prepared at more frequent intervals from special observations
sent by coastal stations and ships in the field of a cyclone.
Base Maps for Surface Chart
2.
The area of coverage of a surface chart depends on the requirements of the particular Met
Section.
Air Force Met Sections usually prepare charts covering India and the immediate
neighbourhood. On the other hand, Met Offices, which have to deal with trans-continental air traffic,
prepare charts covering larger areas, on a hemispherical scale.
3.
For charts covering Indian area and immediate neighbourhood, Mercator projection is used,
with true scale at the standard parallel of 22 degrees. For charts covering much larger areas, one of
the following two projections are used:
(a)
Polar stereographic projection on a plane cutting the sphere at the standard parallel
of 60 degrees.
(b)
Lambert conformal conic projection, the cone cutting the sphere at the standard
parallels of 30 degrees and 60 degrees.
4.
The locations of observatories are printed as small circles with the station name in
abbreviated form (or the international index number of station) alongside.
Generally the ground
contours, lakes, rivers etc. are also printed on the charts.
SYNOP Code
5.
The following brief explanation of the code form, which is used for surface weather, reports
from land station illustrates the general principles on which all meteorological figure codes are based.
208
6.
The symbolic form of the SYNOP code consists basically of six groups to which
supplementary group (shown in parentheses) may be added.
The METAR, SPECI and TAF Codes
7.
The sets of figures passed to the pilot pre-flight, which have been received over the teleprinter
network, are very similar for the two codes as basically they are conveying information on much the
same meteorological elements i.e. surface wind, cloud, weather, visibility, etc. They are however
prefixed METAR, SPECI or TAF as applicable.
8.
To illustrate the use of the codes, the following are the typical messages:
METAR
MRTS
300520Z
33015G37KT
300V000
1200NE
9999S
+SHSNRAGR
SCT008
BKN010TCU 03/M01 Q0998 WS RWY26D RETS BECMG AT 0600 9999 NSW SCT020
BKN120=
and
TAF EGKK30
BKN010
0615Z
TEMPO
33015KT
1214
1000
9999
DZRA
SHRA
BKN015TCU
OVC004
FM1400
BECMG
0911
00020G35
4000
9999
-RA
-SHRA
BKN0I5TCU=
9.
The prefix denotes:

METAR
Aviation routine weather report (With or without a trend forecast)
SPECI
Aviation selected special weather report (With or without a trend),
TAF
Aerodrome forecast.
The codes for METAR and SPECI are identical. The code for TAF differs slightly from them in some
elements as described below as we decode the messages:
MRTS
ICAO station location indicator.
300520Z
For 30th of the month, time of observation: 0520 h UTC.
0615Z
In a TAF it means the period of validity is from 0600 to 1500 h UTC and this
would not appear on a METAR or SPECI.
33015G37KT
Surface wind: mean 330O T, 15 kt gusting to 37 kt.
300V360
Surface wind direction varying between 3000 and 0000T. If the wind is fairly
steady the G and V are omitted. If only 30015 kt had been given in METAR,
it would mean that the mean surface wind over 10 min is 3300T/15 kt. 360 is
used for north, 000 for calm and VRB means variable.
1200NE
The next group gives visibility and if it is fairly uniform in all directions, it will
consist of only four figures. The visibility code is the visibility in metres with up
209
to 500 m, visibility rounded down to the nearest 50 m, 500 m to 5000 m,

visibility rounded down to the nearest 100m, 5000 m to 9999 m, visibility
rounded down to the nearest 1000 m, and 10 km or greater is indicated by
9999.
In METAR/SPECI there is provision, however, to cover marked variation in visibility. The minimum
visibility is given first, together with one of the eight cardinal/quadrantal points indicating the direction
of worst visibility.
1200NE
Indicates minimum visibility 1200 m to the north-east (True).
9999S
indicates maximum visibility 10 km or more to the south.
Also on METAR and SPECI the visibility may be followed by a Runway Visual Range group, e.g.
R12L/1000U would report that at an aerodrome the mean RVR measured at the threshold of runway
12 Left is 1000 m and showing an upward trend. A downward trend of decreasing RVR would be
shown by a D instead of the U. A double-size RVR group could appear if the RVR is varying
significantly (i.e. by 50 metres or by more than 20% of the mean value, whichever is the greater). The
enlarged group starts with R and the minimum and maximum values are separated by a V, e.g.
R24/0050V0200 means that on runway 24 the RVR is varying between less than 50 m and 200 m.
Weather Group
10.
+SHSNRAGR denotes the significant weather. It is common to METAR, SPECI and TAF. -, +
are intensity indicators and their absence means that the significant weather is moderate. Provided
that the visibility is greater than 3 km (3000), it is not necessary for stations to report BR, DU, FU, HZ,
IC and SA. The weather group is compiled from left to right across the table, using such of the entries
as are applicable, e.g. VCBLSA, meaning 'in the vicinity blowing sand'. In the METAR above,
+SHSNRAGR thus means heavy shower(s) of snow, rain and hail while in the TAF, SHRA means
moderate rain shower(s).
Cloud Group(s)
11.
Cloud information may be given in. up to four groups, working from the lowest cloud upwards.
Each group begins with either FEW (meaning 1 or 2 oktas), SCT (scattered: 3 to 4 oktas), BKN
(broken: 5 to 7oktas) or OVC (overcast: 8 oktas). Then comes the height of the cloud base agl in
hundreds of feet, which in turn is followed by Cb or TCU, if appropriate. The only cloud types given
are the significant convective clouds of either cumulonimbus cloud (CB) or cumulus congestus of
great vertical extent (TCU: towering cumulus) SKC means 'clear sky' and is only used following a
change group. For example, in the METAR message:
SCT008
Cloud 3 to 4 oktas base 800 feet above ground level, and
BKN0I0TCU
5 to 7 oktas towering cumulus, base 1000 ft AGL.
CAVOK
210
This group is used instead of the visibility, weather and cloud groups when
simultaneously:
(a)
Visibility is I0 km or more.
(b)
There is no cloud below 1500 (5000 ft) or below the highest sector attitude
whichever is the greater.

(c)
12.
No significant weather phenomena at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome.
It should however be pointed out that, under the tolerances allowed by ICAO, a METAR
including CAVOK with also a TREND of NOSIG does not necessarily imply that the above conditions
will still prevail. This is because changes in Visibility and cloud base height from the above values are
only counted as significant changes when, for example, the visibility is expected to fall below 5000 m
or the cloud base height of more than 4 oktas of cloud is expected to fall below 1500 ft.
13.
Highest minimum sector altitude is defined in ICAO PAN-OPS as the lowest altitude which
may be used under emergency conditions which will provide a minimum altitude of 300 m (1000 ft)
above all objects located in an area maintained within a sector of a circle of radius 46 km, (25 nm)
centred on a radio aid to navigation.
NSC
Means no significant cloud, being used only when CAVOK and SKC are
inappropriate.
14.
NSW
Means the end of any significant weather.
NOSIG
Means no significant change.
The group following the weather, instead of giving cloud information can alternatively give the
vertical visibility in hundreds of feet. The subsequent groups then differ between METARs/SPECls
and TAFs anyway.
Plotting of Surface Charts
15.
The plotting of the surface chart is done according to a standard scheme involving the plotting
of figures as received in the SYNOPs message, for such elements as pressure, temperature, visibility
etc. and the laid down standard symbols for elements such as the kind of cloud and present weather.
The arrangement of these figures or symbols around the station circle also follows a standard pattern,
which is known as the station model.
16.
Plotting is done in a three-colour scheme, some elements being plotted in black, some in red
and a few in green ink.
17.
The station model for SYNOP from land is shown in Fig 4-1. Detailed instructions for plotting
the various elements are also indicated.
211
Fig 27-1: Station Model in Plain Language and Numerical Values

18.
Total Amount of Clouds.
The total amount of clouds is plotted by shading the station circle
according to the scheme shown in Table 27-1. Black shading is done when low clouds predominate
and red shading when medium and high clouds predominate.
Nil
3/8
6/8
1/8
4/8
7/8
2/8
5/8
8/8
Sky obscured due to Fog, Haze etc.
Table 27-1: Cloud Amount

The choice of black or red is easily determined by comparing the code figures reported for N and Nh.
For example, when N is 8 and Nh is 3, the medium and high clouds predominate (their amount being
5 oktas), then red shading is given.
19.
Wind Direction.
This is shown by a short line in black ink ending at the station circle
making an appropriate angle with true north. True Speed (ff) is plotted by barbs at the free end of this
line. A long barb represents 10 kt and a short barb 5 kt. For purposes of plotting, the wind speed is
rounded off to the nearest multiple of 5. When the wind speed is 50 kt, a shaded triangle (
) or
pennant is drawn instead of five long barbs. Wind speed greater than 50 kt is therefore, represented
by a pennant and suitable number of long and short barbs. Barbs and pennants are drawn to the left
of the direction line in the Northern Hemisphere and to the right in the Southern Hemisphere.
20.
Visibility.
21.
Present Weather.
Table 27-2.
This is plotted in black ink in code figures as received in the message.
This is plotted in black ink according to standard symbols as shown in
212
Present Weather
No Cloud
Mist
Clouds decreasing
Shallow fog in patches
Clouds unchanged
Shallow fog
Clouds increasing
Lightning
Smoke haze
Rain not reaching ground
Moist haze
Rain at a great distance
Dust haze
Rain close to station
Dust raising winds
Thunderstorm without rain
Dust devils
Squall
Distant duststorm
Funnel Cloud
Weather phenomena during last one hour but not at the time of observation
Drizzle
Shower of rain
Rain
Shower of snow
Snow
Shower of hail
Rain and snow
Fog
Freezing drizzle
Thunderstorm
Duststrom, Snowstrom or Blowing Snow at the time of Observation

Slight duststorm-decreasing
Severe duststorm - increasing
Slight duststorm -no change
Slight drifting snow-low level
Slight duststorm increasing
Heavy drifting snow-low level
Severe duststorm-decreasing
Slight blowing snow-high level
Severe duststorm - no change
Heavy blowing snow-high level
Fog at the time of observation

Distant fog
Fog, Sky invisible - no change
Fog in patches
Fog, Sky visible thickening
Fog, Sky visible thinning
Fog, Sky invisible thickening
Fog, Sky invisible thinning
Fog depositing rime, sky visible
Fog, Sky visible -no change
Fog depositing rime, sky in visible
213
Drizzle at the time of observation

Slight intermittent drizzle
Heavy continuous drizzle
Slight continuous drizzle
Slight freezing drizzle
Moderate intermittent drizzle
Moderate freezing drizzle
Moderate continuous drizzle
Moderate freezing rain mixed
Moderate or heavy drizzle and rain

mixed
Rain at the time of observation
Heavy intermittent drizzle
Slight intermittent rain
Heavy continuous rain
Slight continuous rain
Slight freezing rain
Moderate intermittent rain
Moderate of heavy freezing rain
Moderate continuous rain
Slight rain and snow mixed
Heavy intermittent rain
Moderate or heavy rain and snow

mixed
Solid precipitation
Slight intermittent snow
Heavy continuous snow
Slight continuous snow
Ice prisms
Moderate intermittent snow
Snow grains
Moderate continuous snow
Isolated star-like snow crystals
Heavy intermittent snow
Ice pellets
Shower at time of observation

Slight shower
Slight snow shower
Moderate of heavy shower
Moderate or heavy snow shower
Violent shower
Slight shower of ice pellets
Slight shower with snow mixed
Moderate or heavy shower of
ice
pellets
Moderate or heavy shower with
Slight shower of hail without thunder
snow mixed
Thunderstorm with precipitation
Moderate or heavy shower of hail
Light thunder storm with rain, snow
after thunder has ceased
or hail
Slight
rain
after
thunder
has
Light thunderstorm with hail
ceased
Moderate
or
heavy
rain
after
Heavy thunderstorm with rain or
thunder has ceased
snow
Slight rain, snow or hail after
Thunderstorm and duststorm
thunder has ceased

Moderate or heavy rain snow or
hail after thunder has ceased
Heavy thunderstorm with hails
214
22.
Past Weather (W).
This is plotted in red ink according to standard symbols already
described above.
23.
Sea Level Pressure (PPP).
This is plotted in black ink in three figures as received in the
coded message. For high level stations the reported figures (which do not pertain to sea level) are
not plotted. The wind for such station is plotted in red to indicate that they are high level stations.
24.
Temperature (TT).
This is plotted in black in two figures as received in the message.
Negative values of temperatures are reported by adding 50. While plotting, 50 is subtracted and the
value plotted with a minus sign.
25.
The amount and height of base of low cloud (Nh and h) are plotted in black in code figures as
received, with an oblique stroke in between. Kind of low cloud (CL) and of medium cloud (CM) are
plotted in black and Kind of high cloud (CH) is plotted in red according to standard symbols given
below:
The clouds corresponding to the symbols are:
26.
Kind of low cloud
Kind of Medium Cloud
Kind of High Cloud
(CL)
(CM)
(CH)
Fair
weather
cumulus
Cumulus of large
vertical development
Cumulonimbus
without anvil
Thin Altostratus
Cirrus in filaments
Thick
Altostratus
or
nimbostratus
Altocumulus at single level
Dense Cirrus
Stratocumulus with
Cumulus with bases
at same level
Stratocumulus
Altocumulus
level
Stratus
weather
fair
Altocumulus resulting from

spreading of Cumulus
Stratus
of
bad
weather
Stratocumulus and
cumulus at different
levels
Cumulonimbus with
anvil
Altocumulus
with
Altostratus or nimbostratus
Altocumulus with turreted
structure
of
at
different
Altocumulus in bands ;
thickening and spreading
Altocumulus in chaotic sky
Dew Point Temperature (TdTd).
Dense cirrus remnant ;

dissipated
Cumulonimbus
Cirrus
becoming
denser
Cirrus and Cirrostratus
progressively
increasing
Cirrus and Cirrostratus
progressively
increasing,
covering
most of the sky
Cirrostratus covering
entire sky
Cirrostratus
not
covering entire sky
Cirrocumulus
predominant
This is plotted in red ink in two figures as received in the
message, negative values being preceded by a minus sign, as in the case of temperature (TT).
215
27.
Pressure Change in 24 hours (P24P24).
This is plotted in black when it is positive and in
red when it is negative. When P24P24 is negative, it is reported by adding 50 to the figure. Thus,
before plotting negative values in red, 50 has to be subtracted from the reported code figures. Values
of P24P24 reported at 0300 and 1200 hours UTC, are usually plotted on a separate auxiliary chart, to
enable their begin studied more carefully. They are hence not plotted on the synoptic chart. For other
hours (0000, 0600 hours UTC etc) they are plotted on the surface chart itself.
28.
Rainfall (RR).
This is plotted in green ink in figures as received in the message. Usually
values of RR reported in the 0300 and 1200 hours UTC messages are plotted on a separate chart,
while the values for other synoptic hours are plotted on the surface chart itself.
29.
The station model discussed above, is a simplified one and omits such elements as direction,
period and height of sea waves etc. reported by coastal stations and ships
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
Choose correct answer/answers:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
In station model values are plotted from:

(i)
Pilot Balloon.
(iii)
SYNOP.
(ii)
Temp.
Pressure value plotted in station model is:

(i)
QNH.
(iii)
QFF.
(ii)
QFE.
(ii)
Red.
(ii)
03 & 12 UTC.
(ii)
Last 12 hours.
Dew point temperature is plotted in:

(i)
Black.
(iii)
Green.
Main SYNOP hours are:

(i)
00 & 12 UTC.
(iii)
06 & 12 UTC.
Rainfall reported in SYNOP is of:

(i)
Last 24 hours.
(iii)
In 03 UTC it is of last 24 hours and 12 UTC it is of last 09 hours.
216
217
CHAPTER 28
SPECI AND WEATHER WARNING

Introduction
1.
At any flying station, aircraft of different types are flown by aircrew of varying experience. It
is, therefore, not practicable for the Met Section to warn individual aircraft or individual aircrew
whenever threshold values pertaining to them are reached in the Met elements. Met services have,
therefore, worked out a common denominator whereby all aviation interests are cautioned whenever
the values of weather elements reach certain critical stages. How far these critical stages affect flying
has to be determined by the pilot or his Flight Commander in the case of each individual flight,
depending on the type of aircraft and aircrew category rating.
Criteria for Issue of SPECI on Deterioration
2.
METARs are Met aviation reports taken at fixed hours where as SPECI are selected special
aviation reports taken when weather condition deteriorate / improve as per laid down criteria.
3.
SPECI messages are issued whenever the following criteria (given in simplified form) are
satisfied:
4.
(a)
Wind speed (exceeding 30 kts, in squall or gale) changes by more than 10 kts.
(b)
Visibility reduces to 5000 m.
(c)
Visibility further reduces to 3000 m.
(d)
Visibility still further reduces to 1500 m.
(e)
Visibility still further reduces to 800.
(f)
Base of cloud whose amount exceeds 4 okta and lowers to 300 m AGL.
(g)
It further lowers to 150 m. AGL.
(h)
It still further lowers to 60 m. AGL.
(j)
Thunderstorm or duststorm affects the station.
(k)
Snowfall commences.
It may be noted that if the cloud amount is 4 okta or less, a SPECI is not issued even if the
cloud base is lower than 300 m.
Issue of SPECI on Improvement
5.
As soon as the conditions under which SPECI for deterioration was issued improve or cease,
a fresh SPECI is issued indicating the improved conditions.
It may be noted that a SPECI for
218
improvement is not issued as long as dangerous conditions in one form or other continue to exist.
SPECI for improvement is issued after 10 minutes, whereas SPECI for deterioration is issued
immediately.
Weather Warning
6.
Whenever a Met Officer anticipates that weather conditions at an airfield may deteriorate to
the extent of SPECI criteria, he may issue a Weather warning / CMR in advance of the actual
deterioration. A weather warning is transmitted on R/T and W/T channels.
7.
A weather warning is usually issued about an hour or so in advance of the anticipated
deterioration. It specifies the extent to which the elements are likely to deteriorate and the period
during which the deterioration is expected to persist. Weather warnings are usually not kept valid for
durations longer than 2 hours at a time. If necessary, they are renewed. At times they are cancelled
if the hazardous phenomenon has passed off or is no longer considered a threat to the airfield.
Cautionary Met Report (CMR)
8.
At many airfields, the type of flying undertaken may be seriously affected even when criteria
for issue of SPECI are not reached. In such cases the issue of weather warnings (which are based
on SPECI criteria) would not always serve the purpose. To regulate flying, by informing squadrons /
flying units about such type of deterioration, a system of "Cautionary Met reports" is used at these
airfields. CMR means warning of less severe activity and does not mean that it will be followed by a
warning and during the period of CMR adverse weather will not occur.
9.
10.
The criteria for the issue for such cautionary reports are follows:
(a)
Visibility reducing to 5 km but not less than 3 km.
(b)
Cloud amount > 4 okta, reducing to less than 450 m AGL but not less than 300 m.
(c)
Possibility of rain, shower or drizzle not associated with convective activity.
(d)
Mean wind speed exceeding 15 kt.
SPECI reports are reports of actual deterioration / improvement. Weather Warnings and
Cautionary Met Reports are forecasts of anticipated deterioration. An aviator should not confuse
between these. Nor should he take it for granted that flying automatically ceases on the issue of
SPECI or Weather Warning.
219
SPECI and Weather Warning
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
SPECI is:
(i)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(ii)
Forecast.
(ii)
4000 m.
SPECI will be issued if visibility reduces:

(i)
5000 m.
(iii)
2000 m.
If sandstorm commences, SPECI will be issued:

(i)
(d)
Observation.
True.
(ii)
False.
Weather warning will be issued when visibility is likely to reduce to:

(i)
5,000 m.
(iii)
2,000 m.
(ii)
4,000 m.
CMR can be issued, if snowfall is expected:

(i)
True.
(iii)
May be.
(ii)
False.
(ii)
Flying continues.
If weather warning is issued, at station:

(i)
Flying will stop.
(iii)
COO will decide.
Weather warning for thundershowers is issued at 0800 h, valid from 0830 h, this
period of 30 minutes ie 0800 h to 0830 h is for:
(h)
(i)
Continue flying till 0829 h
(iii)
Launching fresh sorties of less than 30 minutes.
True.
(ii)
False.
(ii)
Weather warning will be issued.
If the cloud base is 100 m:

(i)
(k)
Recovery of aircrafts at base
Before weather warning is issued, a CMR should be issued earlier

(i)
(j)
(ii)
SPECI will be issued.
If light rain is expected from fair weather Cumulus:

(i)
SPECI will be issued.
(ii)
Weather warning will be issued.
(iii)
CMR will be issued.
(iv)
None of the above.
220
221
CHAPTER 29
ELEMENTS OF WEATHER FORECASTING

Introduction
1.
An aviator is not required to become an accomplished forecaster; but it has long been
recognised that he should have sufficient acquaintance with basic ideas on forecasting to enable him
to derive the maximum benefit from met briefings and to utilise his knowledge in increasing his
efficiency in the training of pupil aviators on long cross-country flights.
2.
In this chapter a few elementary rules of forecasting are given. Application of these rules in
day-to-day forecasting has to be studied through critical appreciation of Met briefings.
Movement of Lows, Depressions and Cyclones
3.
Since lows and depressions are responsible for adverse weather, a correct forecast of their
movement results in successful weather prediction. The following rules are usually applied:
(a)
A low or depression moves towards the area of highest pressure fall and away from
the area of highest pressure rise.
(b)
It moves approximately in the direction of winds at levels immediately above cyclonic
circulation. If these are easterly, the low moves westwards while if they are westerly it moves
eastwards. When the high level winds are weak and variable, the low stagnates or may
change direction of movement.
Deepening of Lows
4.
A low deepens if pressures at the centre are falling rapidly. On the other hand it fills up if
pressures at the centre are rising.
Forecasting Local Weather
5.
In the preceding paragraphs we have touched upon the forecasting of synoptic scale features.
While this can lead to a broad picture of future weather patterns over large areas, the forecasting of
local weather features has to take many more factors into account. We shall now briefly discuss the
more important factors used in local forecasting.
222
Surface wind
6.
The general direction and speed of the surface wind may be estimated from the run of the
isobars and the gradient of pressure. However, the following points should be borne in mind and the
forecast modified appropriately:
(a)
Time of the day and lapse rate near the ground.
(b)
Land and sea-breeze circulations (if near coast).
(c)
Katabatic/ Anabatic wind (if there are hills in the neighbourhood).
(d)
Roughness of ground or presence of obstacles.
Visibility
7.
In general, visibility is determined by the type of air mass that is likely to prevail. However,
many local factors influence visibility such as:

(a)
Strength of wind and prevalence of dust in the area.
(b)
Existence of smoke sources viz., industrial area.
(c)
Availability of moisture for local formation of mist or fog from water bodies in vicinity.
(d)
Topographical features, which favour or inhibit fog formation.
Clouds
8.
While the amount and type of clouding are largely governed by the type of air mass and the
existence of troughs or discontinuities in the vicinity, cloud formation is very intimately related to
topography and the time of the day. Thicker formation should be forecast on the windward side of
high ground especially in the afternoons, while comparatively clearer skies prevail on the leeward side
and at night.
Thunderstorms
9.
The forecasting of thunderstorms is intimately connected with the forecasting of convergence
zones or discontinuities and their slope. In addition, the following rules may be applied:
(a)
Instability, real, latent or potential as indicated by the latest T- gram should be
present in a sufficiently deep layer.
(b)
Suitable trigger for releasing the instability (like ground heating in the afternoon,
ascent of air over hill, localised cold front, like sea breeze) should be available.
10.
Once formed, the movement of thunderstorm may be forecast by the following methods:
223
11.
Elements of Weather Forecasting
(a)
Tracking by weather radar.
(b)
Direction of upper winds at 10 - 25,000 ft.
The strongest squall from a thunderstorm is in the direction of movement. Other things being
equal, the strongest squalls occur between 1500 and 1800 hrs. Squall speeds are highest in summer
(May - June) and lowest in the monsoon season.
12.
The rules summarised above and other detailed rules framed by experienced forecasters for
each station cannot by themselves lead to successful forecasts. For achieving success in weather
prediction, the following pre-requisites are essential:
(a)
Careful analysis of charts.
(b)
Knowledge of models of weather associated with synoptic features like monsoon
depressions, tropical lows and cyclones, easterly waves, WDs etc.

(c)
Thorough knowledge of climatology, especially for tropical areas.
(d)
Interpretation of Satellite Imageries.
(e)
A balanced synthesis of theoretical know-how with practical experience.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Lows move towards area of maximum:

(i)
Pressure fall.
(iii)
Temperature fall.
(ii)
Pressure rise.
The movement of lows is governed by steering currents which are winds at:
(i)
25,000 - 30,000'.
(ii)
30,000 - 40,000'.
(iii)
Winds above circulation associated with low.
Movement of Cb can be estimated by winds at:

(i)
Base of Cb.
(iii)
Top of Cb.
(ii)
Middle portion of Cb.
(ii)
Strength of upper winds.
Visibility depends upon:

(i)
Strength of surface winds.
(iii)
Prevalence of dust in the area.
Amount of clouds will be more, generally in the:

(i)
Morning.
(iii)
Night.
(ii)
Afternoon.
224
225
CHAPTER 30
PRE-FLIGHT, IN-FLIGHT AND POST-FLIGHT PROCEDURES

PRE-FLIGHT PROCEDURES
Introduction
1.
The crew of an aircraft intending to make a cross-country or transit flight is to obtain a
meteorological briefing for the area or route to be traversed. This briefing is to include a written
forecast if:
(a)
The flight is planned to last for more than two hours.
(b)
A flight is planned to reach a point more than 200 miles from the departure airfield.
(c)
Provided that if the flight is to be undertaken in IMC, a written forecast is to be
invariably obtained irrespective of sub-paras (a) and (b) above.
Visual Met Conditions (VMC)
2.
Visual Met Conditions is defined as:

(a)
In Flight.
Visibility more than 8 km, aircraft separated from nearest cloud by at least
1000 ft (300 m) vertically & 6000 ft (1850 m) horizontally.
(b)
At Airfield.
Visibility more than 5 km, cloud ceiling 2000 ft (600 m), cloud base
1000 ft (300 m) above highest obstruction with not more than 3 oktas of broken clouds
between 1500 ft (450 m) & 2000 ft (600 m).
IMC is said to exist when VMC does not.
3.
A crew requiring a written forecast should give the Met Section of the departure airfield as
much prior notification as possible giving the following information:

(a)
Name of Captain.
(b)
Type and call-sign of aircraft.
(c)
Route.
(d)
Diversionary airfields and intermediate transit halts.
(e)
Range of flight level for which winds and temperatures are required.
(f)
Period for which forecast is required.
(g)
Special requirements, if any.
(h)
ETD (s) & ETA (s).
226
4.
The notice required by Met Section is as follows:

(a)
(b)
For Met Section maintaining 24 hrs forecasting watch:

(i)
1 hr for flight < 500 nm.
(ii)
3 hr for flight > 500 nm < 1000 nm.
(iii)
6 hr for flight > 1000 nm.
For Met Section not maintaining 24 hrs forecasting watch:

(i)
3 hr for flight < 500 nm.
(ii)
6 hr for flight > 500 nm.
Preliminary Briefing
5.
For flights of long duration it maybe sometimes better to do a preliminary rough flight planning
well in advance (say, 12-24 hours in advance). For such flight planning, winds and temperatures at
required flight level may be obtained from the Met section either in person or over telephone.
Pre-Flight Briefing
6.
The final pre-flight briefing will be obtained in the Met Section one hour before ETD. (In the
case of VIP flights it should be obtained 2 hours before ETD). The briefing is carried out with the aid
of the latest analysed charts and available METARs, SPECIs and weather warnings of relevant
airfields.
Documentation
7.
For flights covering more than 200 nm or for flights under IMC, written forecasts are issued by
the Met section at the time of pre-flight Met Briefing. The various forms in use are:
(a)
Flight Forecasts.
T-4 is used for flights over 500 nm. This contains pictorial
representation of clouds and weather apart from information on winds, temperature etc. For
flights of less than 500 nm a simpler form, T-3 is used.
(b)
Terminal Forecasts.
These are issued on T-10 if the flight forecast is on T-4. For
shorter flights when T-3 is used, this form contains provision for inclusion of the terminal
forecasts. The terminal forecasts given is the one originated by the destination airfield. If this
has not been received, the Met Officer will include his own version, but caution the crew
suitably. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts of 2 or 3 diversionary airfields are also included.
227
8.
Whenever there is a change of more than 1 hour in the time of departure, the crew should
invariably ascertain from the Met Section whether any amendments are required to be made in the
written forecasts.
Briefing at Short Stops
9.
When an aircraft makes a short stop of insufficient duration, a fresh briefing and
documentation may not be practical. The crew should, however, obtain recent METARs, SPECI and
weather warnings for relevant airfields from the Met Section before take-off for the next stage of his
flight. The original forecast available with him for this stage of the flight should be interpreted in the
context of these reports.
10.
At certain airfields a qualified Met officer may not be available. However, the duty Met Asst in
the Met section would be able to obtain a forecast from the nearest station having a full-fledged Met
section if adequate notice is given.
IN-FLIGHT PROCEDURES
11.
While in flight, an aviator of an aircraft has two responsibilities:

(a)
To keep himself posted with the latest weather information pertaining to the route /
area and of airfields of destination / diversion.
(b)
To make careful and detailed observations of weather, record them in AIREP form
and transmit them to the nearest ATC.
In-Flight Information
12.
While in flight, the crew of an aircraft can obtain Met Information of various categories as
follows:
(a)
SIGMET.
This is a message giving information on significant weather hazards
(actual as well as forecast) in a particular FIR. It is issued every 3 hours or more frequently, if
necessary, and can be obtained from Approach / Area Control.
Before crossing a FIR.
boundary, the crew should obtain the current SIGMET for the next FIR so that he / she is
forewarned.
(b)
METARs.
These are broadcast on the National METAR Broadcast in code on W/T.
The frequencies and timings for different stations are published by the DGCA in Aeradio.
Metars can also be obtained on W/T or R/T from ground stations on request / reply basis.
228
RAREPs.
(c)
Observations of weather radar are available with Approach / Area Control
and can be obtained on request / reply basis.
Landing Forecast.
(d)
These are short range local forecasts of 2 hrs duration. They
may be either in plain form or in the form of a trend of the actual weather conditions. A trend
forecast is given at the end of an actual weather report like METAR or SPECI. A sample of
trend forecast is given below:
Vis may reduce to 1500 m . When no significant change is expected the trend is
given as NO SIG.
Weather Warnings & CMRs.
(e)
These are generally passed by Approach /
Aerodrome Control on R/T.
13.
Current Weather.
This can be obtained on R/T from Approach / Aerodrome Control while
making an approach for landing. It can be in plain language or in Q- Code. A few important items of
the Q-code are given below:
QAN
Surface Wind.
QNT
Maximum speed of gusts.
QBA
Visibility.
QBB
Cloud amounts and heights of base.
QAM
Weather.
QAO
Upper wind at specified level.
QFE
Pressure at airfield level.
QFF
Pressure altitude of airfield (i.e. altitude on landing when altimeter is set to

1013.25 hPa) ).
QNH
Altimeter setting.
AIREP
14.
Observations of weather encountered in flight are of great value to Met officers as they
supplement the information available from ground sources. In many cases these observations prove
useful in planning other flights and preventing accidents. It is, therefore, essential that aircrew should
make detailed and accurate observations and communicate them expeditiously.
15.
The observations are recorded in the AIREP form (T-6) in the manner specified on the
reverse of the form. They are to be transmitted to the nearest ATC by W/T or R/T as applicable.
229
16.
Captains of all transport aircraft on routes exceeding 500 nm should record and transmit
observations at least once in an hour. In addition, special AIREPs should be recorded under the
following circumstances:
(a)
Whenever hazardous weather phenomena are encountered.
(b)
When briefed by the Met Officer at the departure airfield to make a special
observation at any specified point on the route.

(c)
Whenever a request is received from the ATC (such AIREPs should be transmitted to
ATC as AIREP urgent).

(d)
Whenever the weather encountered differs significantly from the weather forecast.
(e)
Whenever the crew feels that the phenomena observed may be of special interest to
the Met Officers or other aircrew.
17.
Observations under (e) will not, however, be transmitted but will be brought to the specific
notice of the Met Officer at the destination airfield on landing.
POST-FLIGHT PROCEDURES
18.
On landing at the destination airfield (whether it be civil or Air Force), the crew should hand
over the completed AIREP form personally to the Met Officer drawing his special attention to extra
observations. He should also hand over to the Met Officer the flight forecast issued at the departure
airfield provided he has any complaints on the forecast. If the forecast has been satisfactory, he
should show it to the Met Officer for scrutiny and then retain it with himself for attaching it to the log
and chart.
19.
While handing over the AIREP form the crew should discuss with the Met Officer the weather
experienced on the route. Debriefing of this type helps the Met Officer as well as the crew in getting
more insight into the subject.
Chart Form of Documentation
20.
At busy airfields with a good deal of international traffic, it is inconvenient for the Met Office to
prepare forecast for individual flights, Many countries have, therefore, resorted to what is known as
chart type of documentation. In this procedure no written forecast is issued for the route. Charts of
forecast weather, winds and temperature at different constant pressure surfaces are supplied to the
crew.
This type of documentation is done at International airport for international flights. Terminal
and alternate forecasts are, however, issued as usual. Chart type of documentation has not yet been
introduced in the Air Force, but it would include the following:
(a)
Surface prognostic charts.
(b)
PRONTOURS* for 700,500,300 & 200 hPa & higher levels if required.
230
(c)
Significant weather chart.
(d)
Aerodrome forecasts in form T-10 or T-10 (a).
*PRONTOURS are prognostic contour charts for relevant levels.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
Written briefing is must if flight is covering a distance more than:

(i)
200 km.
(iii)
200 nm.
(ii)
200 m.
VMC requires that in-flight visibility should be equal or more than:

(i)
5 km.
(iii)
8 nm.
(ii)
8 km.
For a flight covering less than 500 miles, notice required to be given to a Met Section not
keeping 24 hrs forecasting watch is:
4.
5.
6.
7.
(i)
1 hr.
(iii)
6 hr.
(ii)
3 hr.
How many hours before VIP flights Met briefing is conducted:

(i)
1 hr.
(iii)
3 hr.
(ii)
2 hr.
(ii)
Local forecast.
(ii)
T-4.
(ii)
Temperatures.
In flight aircrew can receive:

(i)
Satellite picture.
(iii)
SIGMET.
Chart form of documentation includes:

(i)
T-3.
(iii)
T-10/T-10 (a).
PRONTOURS are used for:

(i)
Upper winds.
(iii)
Thunderstorms.
231
CHAPTER 31
METEOROLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS

Introduction
1.
In this chapter the general Met requirements for aircraft as well as certain specialised
requirements for different categories of aircraft are listed in the form of a questionnaire.
The
questionnaire is not exhaustive but covers most of the salient requirements. The purpose of some of
the questions is explained in those cases where the subject matter has not been treated in previous
chapters. Many of the answers to these questions would be provided by the Met officer as a routine
measure in his oral briefing or in the written forecasts. A pilot should, however, satisfy himself on all
points before being cleared.
General Situation
2.
The questions listed below pertain to the general situation as seen on latest charts in so far as
it affects the particular flight:

(a)
What are the prominent lows, fronts, discontinuities or convergence zones that are
affecting weather on the route?
(b)
Are they in a stage of development (intensification) or dissipation?
(c)
What is the direction and speed of movement or displacement?
(d)
Would postponement of the flight by a few hours reduce the chances of hazardous
weather encounters?
(e)
What deviations from the normal route would reduce the chances of hazardous
weather encounters?
3.
Take-Off Conditions.
Take-off conditions are important especially for light aircraft and for
helicopters. The questions listed below cover the important aspects for various categories of aircraft:
(a)
Are the surface winds too strong for safe take-off?
(b)
Does the crosswind component exceed the critical value laid down for the aircraft?
(c)
If so, when is it likely to reduce to safe limits?
(d)
232
What would be the temperature at the time of take-off? The answer to this question
gives an indication of the length of runway required for getting airborne under the given load
conditions. The higher the temperature the lower is the density of air. Hence the lift available
for an aircraft becomes less and a greater take-off runway is needed for getting airborne. For
jet aircraft high surface temperatures may lead to critical take-off conditions when the runway
length is limited.
(e)
What is the forecast density altitude of the airfield at the time of take-off ? This
question leads to a more refined answer on the length of runway required for getting airborne.
Air density depends not only on temperature but also on pressure. The lower the pressure,
the lower is the density. The pressure itself varies according to elevation of the airfield and
synoptic and diurnal factors. Density altitude is a parameter, which combines the effects of
temperature and pressure on air density. It is defined as the altitude in the ISA at which air
density is the same as over the airfield. A higher density altitude means lower air density and
hence longer runway for take-off. All aircrafts manuals give nomograms for working out
runway lengths required for take-off under given load conditions for different values of density
altitude.
Critical conditions may prevail in summer over airfields and landing grounds in
mountain areas because the runways at these airfields are usually of restricted length due to
terrain difficulties.
(f)
Is there a Met warning in force in respect of visibility and cloud ceiling?
(g)
Are the expected conditions falling below the rated minima? The Met Officer will
provide the expected values. Whether they fall below the rated minima should be determined
by the pilot according to his instrument rating/category and the provisions of the current AFO
on the subject.
(h)
If the visibility and cloud ceiling are below the prescribed minima and when will they
improve?
(j)
Are there Cb clouds in the vicinity and is a thunderstorm expected? The crew should
have a good look at the radarscope or the latest weather radar report plotted in polar diagram
form. At stations where weather radar facility is not available, a thorough briefing should be
obtained on the basis of Met observations or recent aircraft reports.
4.
In-Flight Conditions.
this chapter.
It is not possible to cover all aspects of in-flight weather conditions in
Much depends on the route, season and the purpose of the flight.
After some
experience a pilot develops a nose for trouble in regard to weather and frames his questions with a
view to elicit all the information he requires. The following questionnaire is intended as a guideline for
less experienced aviators:
233
(a)
Meteorological Requirements for

Aircraft Operations
What are the types of clouds and their coverage, bases and thickness in different
sectors of the route?
(b)
Is there a likelihood of Cb clouds in the route? If so, are they scattered or would they
be presenting a solid wall difficult to penetrate? What are the estimated tops of the Cb
Clouds?
(c)
What is the height of the freezing level and the level at which temperature is -12C?
(Level at which aircraft icing is expected to be max)
(d)
What are the chances of moderate or heavy icing? The answer to this question is
more important for helicopter operations than for operations of fixed wing aircraft. Even a
small amount of icing on the rotor blades of a helicopter can lead to imbalance and
unacceptable strain on the hub.
(e)
Apart from areas of convective clouds, what are the region and height bands in which
moderate or severe CAT is likely?
(f)
Are Met Condition favourable for pronounced mountain wave activity?
(h)
Is the air on the lee side sufficiently humid to result in wave clouds and give visual
indication of the wave?
(g)
At what level would the most favourable tail wind conditions obtain?
(h)
Is a traverse of the jet stream axis likely? What is the wind speed at the jet stream
core and what is the altitude of the core?
(j)
What is the half-width of the jet stream? For an upwind flight in jet stream area, the
answer may provide a clue to the deviation required towards port or starboard to avoid very
strong head winds.
(k)
What is the alticor at the flight level?
(l)
What is the mintra level in different sectors of the route and are contrails likely to be
persistent?
(m)
Apart from clouds and precipitation are there factors which may restrict in-flight
visibility?
234
Landing Conditions
5.
An assessment of terminal weather conditions is very important in determining whether a
particular flight is feasible or not. An aviator should, therefore, get thoroughly briefed on the following
aspects of weather at the terminal airfield and designated alternates:
(a)
Would the surface wind be too strong and gusty for landing?
(b)
Will the crosswind component exceed the critical value?
(c)
Will visibility and cloud ceiling be below the prescribed minima at ETA? If so when are
they likely to improve?
(d)
If conditions are likely to remain bad or marginal, which among the designated
alternates would offer the most favourable weather for landing?
(e)
Does the terminal airfield lie in a zone of pronounced thunderstorm activity?
(f)
Is the runway likely to be wet? The Met Officer may provide only a partial answer to
this. A forecast of frequent or continuous rain can be taken as an indication that the runway
may be wet. A wet runway offers less friction to the wheels than a dry one; as a result, with
normal braking action, some types of aircraft may not come to a halt within the available
length of runway. In such cases effective additional braking is provided by opening tail
parachutes. The danger of a skid (or hydroplaning) should also be kept in mind.
(g)
Is the runway likely to be snowbound? Here again the Met Officer will provide only a
partial answer by way of a forecast of frequency and intensity of snow.
The remaining
information is to be obtained from Snotams or by contacting the terminal airfield. Airfield do

not accept an aircraft if the runway is actually snowbound or likely to be snowbound at ETA.
(h)
What is the forecast QNH of the airfield at ETA? This information is helpful in case of
R/T failure at the time of approach. Forecast QNH values are subject to errors upto + 2 hPa.
It must be remembered that the forecast is valid only for ETA as specified at the time of Met
Briefing. If the take-off is delayed a fresh forecast of QNH is invariably required.
6.
There are certain questions which a Met Officer is not authorised to answer them. He is not
an aviator and it is unfair to expect him to assess the strength and weakness of an aircraft or the
ability of the crew. Avoid asking him the following types of questions:
(a)
Do you think we can make it?
(b)
Are your clearing us for a take-off?
235
Meteorological Requirements for

Aircraft Operations
(c)
Why don't you declare the airfield as unfit?
(d)
I do not understand all this jargon of yours. Why don't you just say go or no go?
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Q.1.
Q.2.
Q.3.
Q.4.
Q.5.
Q.6.
Q.7.
What is the indication for intensity of low-pressure area?

(i)
Number of Isobars.
(iii)
Pressure at centre.
(ii)
Change of pressure.
A low will move towards areas of pressure showing:

(i)
Fall.
(iii)
No change.
(ii)
Rise.
(ii)
Higher than dry air.
(ii)
Presence of ice particles.
Air density of moist air is:

(i)
Same as that of dry air.
(iii)
lower than dry air.
Why icing is more near freezing level?

(i)
Temperature is low.
(iii)
Presence of supercooled droplets.
Half width of Jet stream means distance at which:

(i)
Length of Jet stream becomes half.
(ii)
Width of Jet stream becomes half.
(iii)
Speed of Jet stream becomes half.
Visual indications of mountain wave are provided by:

(i)
Wave clouds.
(iii)
Cumulonimbus.
(ii)
Cumulus.
(ii)
Maxtra (Dry air).
CONTRAILS cannot form above:

(i)
Mintra level.
(iii)
Maxtra (Saturated air).

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FIS HANDBOOK

Met services for aviation

Met Charts, Forecasts and Briefing

Met observations and elements

Structure of the Atmosphere

Lapse rate, Stability and Instability

Clouds and Precipitation

Clear Air Turbulence

General Circulation over the globe

Fronts and Depressions of Middle latitudes

Tropical Discontinuities & Convergence zones

Aviation Climatology of India

Surface Weather Charts

SPECI and Weather warning

Elements of weather forecasting

Pre-Flight, In-Flight and Post Flight Procedures

Meteorological requirements for aviation

MET SERVICES FOR AVIATION

Aim and Scope of the Book

Some weather manifestations can be awe-inspiring as we feel uncertain when we encounter

Value of Weather Knowledge

FIS Book 5: Meteorology for Aviators

to your local meteorological office.

By discussions with the forecaster you can clear up many

problems and also gain an insight into his difficulties.

importance for different people.

A pilot may be chiefly interested in the weather at base and

Importance of Meteorology in Aviation

Meteorological information is useful to aviation in the following ways:

Met Services for Aviation

temperature and turbulence characteristics of the atmosphere at various levels.

It assists in accurate planning and correct execution of take-off, climb, cruise,

descent/diversion, approach and landing etc. of an aircraft.

World Meteorological Organisation

Atmospheric processes occur on a large scale.

To understand them it is necessary to

India Meteorological Department

The function of IMD in regard to aviation can be broadly classified as follows:

Maintenance of IMD observatories for taking observations of meteorological

Maintenance of IMD communications network to exchange meteorological data

Maintenance of forecasting offices at civil airfields.

Collection and statistical analysis of meteorological data and their periodical

FIS Book 5: Meteorology for Aviators

publication in the form of climatic summaries, tables and atlases.

These observe meteorological elements from a ground

Current Weather Observatories.

These are located at airfields and important

Pilot Balloon Observatories.

These observe and report the direction and speed of

These measure the upper winds by radio methods twice a

Radio Sonde Observatories.

These observe the pressure, temperature and

Weather Radar Observatories.

These are located at the major civil airfields. The

Met Services for Aviation

Another important sources of meteorological observations are aircraft on routine or non-

Rockets and Satellites

The broadcasts can be received by any

Met Information Centre

FIS Book 5: Meteorology for Aviators

Main Met Offices (MMO).

These maintain 24 hours-forecast watch, prepare

Dependent Met Offices (DMO).