Industrial Chem

Trinity Catholic College, Auburn SL#606238
HSC Chemistry Option Topic
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
2. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
3. PRODUCTION OF SULFURIC ACID
4. PRODUCTION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE
5. SOAP & DETERGENTS
6. THE SOLVAY PROCESS FOR Na2CO3
...all in the context of the applications of Chemistry in human society.
1. THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
The Invisible Industry
Sugar Cane Harvesting
Most people are familiar with some aspects of the

production and manufacture of the many goods we need
and use every day, but do not understand the vast chemical
industry which underlies it all.
Photo Robert Lincolne 2006

Used with permission
You might never have seen inside a paper mill, but you can
at least imagine that it is a big factory where wood chips go
in one end, and paper comes out the other. You are familiar
with paper itself, so you can get your head around the idea
that it is made in a factory somewhere.
Paper Mill
Burnie, Tasmania
Photo by Diana
You might never have visited a sugar plantation or wheatgrowing farm, but you eat bread and sprinkle sugar on your
breakfast cereal, so producing these foods seems quite
understandable.
What is hidden is that farming (in general terms) uses
vast quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals
which are the products of an invisible chemical industry.
We do not generally buy and use chemicals such as sulfuric
acid, sodium hydroxide, ammonia, or 1,3-butadiene, so we
dont appreciate that these chemicals are consumed in vast
quantities to manufacture the everyday things we use and
need.
What most people do not realize is that paper manufacture

uses not only wood chips, but huge quantities of chemicals
such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and chlorine (Cl2).
This topic will give you a glimpse of that invisible,

underlying industry which is vital to all the others...
Where do these come from?

They are supplied to the paper mill by the chemical industry.
HSC Chemistry Option Topic Industrial Chemistry
...the Chemical Industry.
Copyright 2006
keep it simple science
Replacement of Natural Chemical Resources

Case Study: Rubber
The Modern Day Issues
A Brief History of Changed Supply
In the modern world we have the Global Economy,

growing populations, increasing wealth and living
standards, and rubber continues to be a vital resource.
Natural rubber comes from the sap (latex) of a tree

which is native to tropical South America, but now widely
grown in plantations in tropical Asia, especially Malaysia,
Indonesia and Thailand.
Its major use is still the manufacture of vehicle tyres and

demand continues to grow. As well as tyres, its uses include
medical gloves and dressings, wetsuits, fittings for taps and
valves (e.g. tap washers), tool handles, foam cushions and
toy making.
While natural rubber continues to be grown in the tropics,
70% of world production is made synthetically from
petrochemicals, so the modern issues of rubber supply are:
It is unlikely that natural rubber production can be
significantly increased because the vast areas of tropical
land needed for rubber tree plantations are also vital for
food production in developing countries.
Petrochemicals for synthetic rubber are a non-renewable
resource and supplies are likely to fall below demand within
20-30 years. (It may be happening already)
Rubber Plantation
and Latex Harvesting
in Brazil
Photos courtesy of
Tiago Pantaleao
The chemical technology to replace many petrochemicals

with renewable chemicals such as ethanol is quite feasible,
but would require vast areas of land being devoted to
growing sugar cane (or similar crop).
Rubber became a vital resource for making tyres as motor

vehicles became more and more common and important in
the early 20th century.
These issues can be revised in the topic Production of

Materials.
Evaluation of Progress
In June 2006, a consortium of universities and companies
headed by the Mazda Motor Corporation, announced the
development of a new biopolymer suitable for replacing
various petrochemical polymers for motor vehicles. This
cannot replace rubber for tyres, but is progress towards that.
In World War II, the major rubber-growing areas of South

East Asia were conquered by Japan, so a major proportion
of world supply was suddenly cut off. This stimulated
major research projects in Germany and USA to develop a
synthetic substitute for rubber.
Today, most rubber products are made from various
synthetic rubbers (e.g. neoprene) which are polymers
made from petrochemicals. Even without the impetus of
WW II, this switch to synthetic rubber was inevitable
because:
Made from corn starches and sugars, with the involvement

of a type of bacteria, the biopolymer is Greenhouse
Friendly. The corn can be grown in temperate climates
where there is less
The major use of rubber
pressure to use land only
(over 60%)
for food production.
natural rubber production could never have kept up with

the accelerating demand as world population and
economies grew rapidly after 1950. Rubber plantations
require a lot of land which is needed for food production
in developing tropical countries.
is for vehicle tyres
This is progress, but not

yet a solution.
As discussed in a
previous topic, the key to
fully replacing
petrochemicals may lie in
developing the
technology to
economically convert
cellulose (from plant
wastes) into glucose.
natural rubber varies in quality, and cannot match the

versatility and hard-wearing properties of the various
synthetic polymers.
natural rubber can only be grown in the tropics, and
supplies (and prices) vary with the weather and the
uncertainties of political events and long-distance shipping.
Synthetic rubber supplies are based on petrochemicals and
can be made anywhere with much more reliability,
efficiency and predictable price structures.
Research continues...
2
Copyright 2006
2. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Effect of Temperature (continued)
An endothermic reaction will respond in exactly the
opposite way.
Equilibrium and Le Chateliers Principle
In previous topics you were introduced to the idea of

chemical equilibrium and how it can be affected by changes
in temperature, concentration and gas pressure.
Reactants + heat
Many chemical reactions do not just run forward and go to

completion. Instead, both forward and reverse reactions
may proceed. Eventually a dynamic equilibrium is
reached where the forward and reverse reactions are
running at the same rate.
Increasing the temperature will shift the equilibrium to the

right (more products). Decreasing the temperature will
shift the equilibrium to the left (more reactants).
Effect of Concentration
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, the
equilibrium will shift right, attempting to use up the
reactant and counteract the change.
For example, in the industrially important reaction to make

ammonia from its elements...
N2(g)+ 3H2(g)
2NH3(g) + heat
(exothermic)
...in a sealed container an equilibrium is reached

with both product (NH3) and reactants (N2 & H2) present.
At equilibrium, the concentration of all 3 gases does not
change; it seems the reaction has stopped. It has NOT really
stopped, but rather the forward and reverse reactions are
occurring at the same rate, so the concentrations remain fixed.
If the concentration of a product is increased, the

equilibrium will shift left, attempting to use up the product
and counteract the change.
Effect of Volume and Pressure Changes
In reactions involving gases, changing the pressure and/or
the volume of the reaction chamber may have the effect of
changing the concentration, and shift the equilibrium one
way or the other.
If certain reaction conditions are altered, the equilibrium

position can shift either forwards or in reverse. You are
reminded of Le Chateliers Principle:
Mixture of Gas Reactants & Product

at Equilibrium
Le Chateliers Principle:
If a system in equilibrium is disturbed,
the system will adjust itself in the direction which
counteracts the disturbance
Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium
The ammonia reaction above is exothermic, so heat energy
can be thought of as a reaction product.
Decreased
volume
If the temperature was increased, the equilibrium will shift

to the left (more reactants, less product) because this
absorbs heat and counteracts the disturbance.
New
Equilibrium at
o
400 C has less
product, more
reactants
N2
NH3
Temp increased to
400oC at this time
Time
Increased
Pressure
Moving piston
changes the
volume of the
container
The effect of increasing pressure this way is to shift the

equilibrium in the direction resulting in less gases,
according to Le Chateliers Principle.
Equilibrium has more product,

less reactants
(but takes longer to reach because
rate of reaction is slower)
Concentration of Chemicals
H2
The same number of molecules are now crammed

into a smaller volume, at higher pressure.
This means they all have a
higher concentration, in molL-1
If the temperature was decreased, the equilibrium will shift

to the right (more product, less reactants) because this
produces heat and counteracts the disturbance.
Initial
Equilibrium at
(say) 300oC
Products
For the ammonia reaction at left, increasing the pressure

will shift the equilibrium to the right, since there are less
total gas molecules on the product side.
NOTE:
If pressure was increased by pumping another, unrelated
gas (e.g. inert argon gas) into the chamber, this would
increase the pressure, but would not alter the concentration
of the reactant and product gases. This method of
changing the pressure would NOT affect the equilibrium.
Temp decreased to
200oC at this time
Copyright 2006 keep it simple science
Prac Work: Modelling an Equilibrium Reaction

You may have carried out an activity designed to model a
dynamic equilibrium. There are many ways to do this, but
one of the simplest is as follows:
Typical Results
It may take a while, but eventually the amount of water in
each cylinder reaches a (more-or-less) constant amount.
Despite water still being transferred back-and-forth, the
amount in each cylinder stays the same... a dynamic
equilibrium. The larger the diameter of the glass tube(s)
used, the faster the equilibrium will be reached.
Volume of water in cylinder

(simulates Concentration)
When the tube fills to the level in

the cylinder, the top is closed with
a finger, and the water transferred
to the product side. This
represents the forward reaction.
Then the tube is allowed to fill to
the level in the product cylinder,
and some water transferred back.
This represents the reverse
reaction.
Prac Work: Observing an Equilibrium Shift

Another experiment you may have done, is to observe
(qualitatively) an equilibrium shift occurring. This often
involves observing a colour change in an equilibrium
mixture, when reaction conditions are changed.
Two common examples are:
NO2
&
N2O4
nt
Cy
lin
der
The NaOH reacts with H

ions and lowers their
concentration. The
equilibrium shifts left,
according to Le Chateliers
Principle.
hot water bath

80oC
As temperature increases, the equilibrium shifts left,

which forms more (brown coloured) NO2 gas.
Results Graph, if :
begin with reactant cylinder
full, product cylinder empty.
use larger diameter tube for
transfer towards products.
(Simulates forward reaction
running faster than reverse)
You might start with a yellow solution of chromate ions in

-1
water. If a few drops of 2 molL sulfuric acid (H2SO4) are
added the solution becomes more orange; the equilibrium
+
has shifted right because the concentration of H ions
increased.
If a a few drops of NaOH
solution are added, the colour
changes to yellow again.
N2O4(g) + heat (exothermic)

colourless
water bath
40oC
C
ct
der
l in
If this equilibrium shifts, the colour will become more

yellow, or more orange.
Colour Darker as Temperature Increases
ice bath
4oC
r
nde
Concentration Effect on an Equilibrium

Another commonly studied reaction is
chromate ions
dichromate ions
222CrO4 (aq) + 2H+(aq)
Cr2O7 (aq) +H2O(l)
yellow
orange
Temperature Effect on an Equilibrium

Your teacher may have prepared a sample of the (toxic)
gas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) by reaction of concentrated
nitric acid on copper. This gas rapidly reacts to reach the
equilibrium:
NO2
&
N2O4
y li
Pro
du
Volume of water in cylinder

(simulates Concentration)
You can try using different diameter glass tubes

(representing different forward and reverse reaction rates)
and you can start with one cylinder full, one empty, or
begin with both half-full... lots of variations possible.
NO2
&
N2O4
C
ct
a
ct
Rea
After each back-and-forth cycle, the volume of water in

each cylinder can be recorded, and later graphed.
2NO2(g)
brown colour
nt
Cy
lin
der
No. of transfer cycles (simulates Time)
Product Cylinder
Reactant Cylinder
a
ct
Rea
The glass tubes must be allowed to fill to the level in each

cylinder before transfer... no sucking water up!
Results Graph, if :
begin with reactant cylinder
full, product cylinder empty.
use same diameter tube for
transfer in both directions.
(Simulates forward & reverse
reactions having same rate)
Pro
du
Use 2 measuring cylinders to represent reactants and

products. The quantity of water in each represents the
concentration of each. Water is transferred from one to the
other (using glass tubes or pipettes) to represent the
forward and reverse reactions.
Copyright 2006
Mathematical Analysis of Equilibrium
Interpreting the Value of K
In a closed chemical system, at a given temperature, a

chemical reaction may reach a dynamic equilibrium where
both forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the
same rate, and the concentrations of all species present
become constant.
Values for the constant K vary enormously from one

reaction to another, and also change with temperature.
What do high and low values mean?
If K is very large... e.g. K > 103 (more than 1,000)
This means that the concentrations of the PRODUCTS are
much higher than those of the reactants at equilibrium. The
products must be favoured in the equilibrium, which is said
to lie to the right.
Regardless of the amounts of chemicals you begin with,

the equilibrium will reach a point where the ratio of
concentrations of reactants and products becomes a
constant value.
If K is very small... e.g. K < 10-2 (less than 0.01)

This means that the concentrations of the REACTANTS
are much higher than those of the products at equilibrium.
Very little product has been made, and the equilibrium is
said to lie to the left, favouring the reactants.
Consider a generalized chemical equation:
aW + bX
cY + dZ
W & X are the reactant chemicals.

Y & Z are the product chemicals.
a,b,c & d are the molar coefficients
(balancing numbers) for each of the chemicals.
If K is middle-sized... e.g. between 0.01 and 1,000

This means that the concentrations of the PRODUCTS
and REACTANTS are very roughly equal at equilibrium.
The reaction reaches an equilibrium in the middle.
Then, at equilibrium:
Equilibrium
Constant,
K = [Y]c x [Z]d
[W]a x [X]b
In example 1, the value for K was a middle-sized value,

and if you look at the concentrations of reactants and
products you will see that they were roughly equal.
You are reminded that, in chemical shorthand,

[square brackets] means concentration in molL-1
Now study example 2 for quite a different situation...
So, K= (Molar conc. of PRODUCTS) (raised to powers)

(Molar conc. of REACTANTS)(raised to powers)
Example Problem 2
Another Equilibrium
The reaction below has reached equilibrium at 0oC in a
5.00 litre container. The number of moles of each
species present in the container is given.
2NO2(g)
N2O4(g)
0.0173
0.213
mol
mol
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant, K and
interpret this value.
Solution:
K=
[N2O4]
Each chemical reaction has its own value for K,

which is constant at any given temperature.
The value of K changes at different temperatures.
Units of Measurement:
All concentrations must be in moles per litre (molL-1)
The units for the constant K vary from reaction to
reaction. The syllabus does NOT require you to use
any units for K... values only.
[NO2]2
You must NOT jump in and substitute the values given!
The values are mole amounts, not concentrations. Note
that it is a 5 litre container, so the concentrations are:
[NO2] = 0.0173 / 5 = 0.00346 molL-1
and
[N2O4] = 0.213 / 5 = 0.0426 molL-1
Example Problem 1
Calculating the Value of K for an Equilibrium
The reaction below has reached equilibrium at 200oC.
The molar concentrations of each species is shown.
N2(g)+ 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
K = 0.0426 / (0.00346)2
= 3.56 x 103
o
At 0 C, the value of K = 3.56 x 103, which indicates
that the equilibrium lies well to the right, favouring
the production of N2O4.
Now substitute:
0.100-1 0.20 -1
0.22
molL
molL
molL-1
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant, K.
Solution:
2
=
(0.22)2
K=
[NH3]
3
[N2] x [H2]
0.10 x (0.20)3
= 61 (2 sig. figs)
At 200oC, the value of K = 61
Try the WORKSHEET at the end of section
Copyright 2006
Reciprocal Values of K
Values of K Change with Temperature
A reaction can reach equilibrium from either direction, and

the equation can be written in either direction.
For any chemical reaction at equilibrium at a particular

temperature, the value of K is a constant regardless of the
quantities involved.
For example, imagine it was possible to begin with a pure

sample of NO2(g) at 0oC. Example 2 (previous page) tells
us what would happen:
With an understanding of Le Chateliers Principle, and

knowledge of the expression
K = [Products]
[Reactants]
you can predict the way that K changes with temperature.
Starting with pure NO2 (& no N2O4)

the reaction reaches equilibrium:
N2O4
2NO2
and
Concentration
O4
N2
However, the value will change at different temperatures.
K = [N2O4]
[NO2]2
Exothermic Reactions
In an exothermic reaction, heat is a product:
= 3.56x103
at 0oC
Reactants
Products + heat
As temperature increases, the equilibrium will shift left, so

at the new equilibrium the [reactants] is higher and
[products] is lower. Therefore, the value of K will decrease.
Time
Now, imagine starting with a pure sample of N2O4(g) at the

same temperature of 0oC.
Exothermic Reactions
K decreases as temperature increases
The exact same equilibrium will be reached, but

approached from the opposite direction.
Example:
4
Starting with pure N2O4 (& no NO2)

the reaction reaches the same
equilibrium from the other direction:
Concentration
2NH3(g) H= -92 kJmol-1
N2(g)+ 3H2(g)
N2 O
N2O4
o
Temperature ( C)
0
200
400
600
2NO2
2
and
KR = [NO2]
[N2O4]
NO 2
Endothermic Reactions
In an endothermic reaction, heat is a reactant:
Time
Notice that the expressions for the equilibrium constants

are reciprocals of each other:
KR = 1
K
Approx.Value of K
5.0x108
60
0.25
0.005
Reactants + heat
-4
Products
As temperature increases, the equilibrium will shift right, so

at the new equilibrium the concentration of products is
higher and concentration of reactants is lower.
1
= 2.81 x 10
3
3.56x10
If an equation is written in reverse

then the expression and value for K
is the reciprocal.
Therefore, the value of K will increase.

Endothermic Reactions
K increases as temperature increases
Kreverse = 1
K
Effect of Catalysts on Equilibrium
What about equilibrium?

Catalysts speed reactions up so that they reach equilibrium
sooner, but have no effect on the position of the
equilibrium, and do not change the value of K.
With catalyst,
Equilibrium reached faster
re
ac
tio
n
Concentration of product
You are reminded that catalysts:

lower the activation energy
and
speed up chemical reactions
ou
i th
w
a
tc
t
ys
tal
Equilibrium
Time
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 1&2
Chemical Equilibrium
Many chemical reactions do not go to completion, but
reach a l)................................... ............................................... in
which both forward and reverse reactions are running at
m).............................................................. According to
n)..........................................s Principle, if an equilibrium
system is disturbed, the equilibrium will shift in the
direction which o)........................................................................
The main factors which can disturb an equilibrium are
p).............................. and ......................................... If gases are
involved, a change in q)............................. or ............................
of the container will change the concentration and
therefore will shift the equilibrium.
Fill in the blanks. Check your answers at the back.

Rubber Supply Case Study
Natural rubber is made from the a)............................... of a
tree native to b)..................................................., but now
grown also in tropical c).................................. Since World
War II, rubber has also been made synthetically from
d)................................................ Synthetic rubber makes up
about e)................% of world production. Over 60% of
total production is used for f)....................................................
The issues/problems with rubber are that demand
continues to grow, but:
natural rubber production cannot easily be increased
because g)......................................................................................
........................................................................................................
synthetic rubber is dependant on petroleum, a nonh)........................................ resource.
For any reaction, the equilibrium can be described

mathematically by K, the r).................................................
If this value is very high, it means the equilibrium favours
the s)........................................, while if it is very low the
equilibrium favours the t).......................................... The
value of K for the reverse equation is the
u)............................................... of the original. The value of
K is constant only at a particular v)..........................................
The values of K for an exothermic reaction
w)........................................... as temperature increases. The
values for an x).............................................. reaction will
y)........................................... as temp. increases.
There has been some progress towards solving these

problems, including development of new i).............................
made by bacteria from sugars and starch derived from
j)......................... Ultimately we need to be able to use
k)................................................ from plant wastes to make
synthetic rubber (and other polymers).
Practice Problems for Section 2
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to challenge your basic knowledge and
understanding of the topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the K.I.S.S. principle level.
4. (5 marks)
A sample of pure hydrogen iodide gas (HI) was placed into
o
a container and heated to 400 C. It decomposed in the
reverse reaction to that described in Q2 & Q3, and the
mixture reached an equilibrium.
1. (5 marks)
Write the expression for the equilibrium constant for:
a)
PCl5
PCl3 + Cl2
b) 2H2O
2H2 + O2
c)
2NO + Cl2
2NOCl
3+
d) Al(OH)3(s)
Al (aq) + 3OH-(aq)
e)
2H2S
2H2 + S2
a) Write an equation for the reaction.

b) Write an expression for the equilibrium constant, and
predict its value for equilibrium at 400oC. (Use answer Q3)
c) At equilibrium, the concentration of hydrogen iodide gas
[HI]=0.0552molL-1. Find the concentrations of H2 and I2
gases. (Hint: they will be equal to each other)
2. (5 marks)
The reaction
H2(g) + I2(g) + heat
2HI(g)
reached equilibrium at 400oC.
Predict the effect on the equilibrium concentration of HI(g)
of:
i) increasing the temperature
ii) compressing the mixture to a higher pressure
iii) increasing pressure by pumping in extra H2(g)
iv) adding a catalyst
v) increasing pressure by pumping in argon gas
...explaining your answer in each case.
5. (5 marks)
Carbon monoxide reacts with steam as follows:
CO(g) + H2O(g)
CO2(g) + H2(g)
A mixture containing 10.0 moles each of CO gas and steam
was introduced at high pressure and temperature into a 4.00
litre container. After equilibrium was reached it was found
that there were 6.50 moles of CO2 in the container.
3. (4 marks)
In an equilibrium mixture as described in Q2, the
concentrations (at 400oC) were [H2]= 0.0195molL-1,
[I2] = 0.0211molL-1 and [HI] = 0.153molL-1.
a) Calculate the equilibrium concentrations of each reactant

and product.
b) Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this
temperature.
c) What would have been different if the reaction had been
carried out in the presence of a catalyst?
a) Calculate the value of K, the equilibrium constant.

b) The temperature of this same gas mixture was changed,
and the new value for K = 22.3.
Was the mixture heated or cooled? Explain.
3. PRODUCTION OF SULFURIC ACID

Extracting Sulfur from Mineral Deposits
The Uses of Sulfuric Acid
The basic raw material for the manufacture of sulfuric acid

is elemental sulfur. A lot of sulfur is collected as a byproduct of metal smelting and the petroleum industry, but
there are some places where mineral deposits of elemental
sulfur occur naturally, due to ancient volcanic activity.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is one of those hidden chemicals

described in the introduction on page 1. People do not
usually buy it, or use it, so its importance to industry is not
generally understood.
In fact, it is one of the most vital industrial chemicals and
is produced in greater quantities than any other
manufactured chemical in the world.
These deposits are mined by the Frasch Process, which

takes advantage of the properties of sulfur to extract it
from the Earth without the usual trouble and expense of
traditional mining methods.
Its major uses are:

Fertilizer production (over 70% of production)
The main world fertilizer is superphosphate, which is
made from rock phosphate by treating it with H2SO4.
The other important fertilizer is sulfate of ammonia
((NH4)2SO4) which is made by reacting ammonia with
sulfuric acid.
A triple pipe is drilled down into the sulfur deposit. Hot

o
water (160 C) is pumped down under pressure in one pipe,
and compressed air down another. The sulfur melts and the
air pressure forces the mixture of sulfur and water up
through the third pipe. Compressed air
injected
Molten Sulfur
and hot water
mixture
Superheated water
injected
Surface
Triple Pipe
drilled down
into sulfur deposit
Sulfur melts
in this zone
Deposit of
Sulfur
Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) production

Titanium dioxide is a white pigment used in huge quantities
in paint, paper, plastics, synthetic fibres and even cosmetics
and good-old zinc cream. Sulfuric acid is used to make
TiO2 from its ore.
The properties of sulfur which allow this process to work

efficiently are:
Cleaning of Steel
Before galvanizing (coating with zinc for corrosion
control) or electroplating any steel products it is essential
that any surface rust, grease or dirt is removed. This is
generally done by treatment with sulfuric acid which is very
corrosive and eats surface impurities away very
efficiently.
o
Low melting point: Sulfur melts at about 120 C, so
o
pressurized hot water at about 160 C is well able to liquify it.
Low density: Sulfur has a low density so that compressed

air is easily able to force it upwards.
Solubility: Sulfur is insoluble in water, so the mixture of
molten sulfur and water that rises to the surface is easily
separated without any need to evaporate the water. With
slight cooling, the sulfur solidifies and rapidly settles out.
The still-warm water can be re-cycled.
In addition to these uses, sulfuric acid is used as a reagent,

catalyst or solvent in a wide variety of other industries,
including petroleum refining, mining, and the production
of detergents, explosives, nylon and other synthetic fibres,
pharmaceuticals, dyes, etc, etc...
Sulfur Dioxide from Metal Smelting
Production of Sulfuric Acid from Sulfur
To produce H2SO4 from sulfur there are just 3 main

chemical steps:
In an earlier topic you learned that some metal ores contain

metal sulfide compounds. When these ores are smelted to
obtain the metal, the gas sulfur dioxide is also produced.
Step 1: Burn sulfur to make sulfur dioxide gas
Example: A common ore of lead is galena containing

lead(II) sulfide, PbS. This is roasted in a furnace with a blast
of air:
PbS(s) + O2(g)
S(s) + O2(g)
SO2(g)
+ heat
(This step is not needed if SO2 is supplied directly from a
metal smelter)
Pb(l) + SO2(g)
Step 2: Oxidize SO2 to SO3
In earlier years the SO2 was simply released into the air, and
caused a lot of environmental damage. These days it is
collected and either sent directly to an ajacent sulfuric acid
plant, or is chemically reduced to elemental sulfur.
2SO2(g) + O2(g)
Step 3: React SO3 with water
SO3(g) + H2O(l)
Sulfur from Petroleum & Natural Gas
However, its not quite that simple!
Petroleum and natural gas often contain small but

significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This must
be removed so that it will not end up being burnt with the
fuel to release polluting SO2.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g)
2SO3(g)
+ heat
H2SO4(l)
+ heat
2H2O(g) + 2SO2(g)
Often the first step in refining petroleum or natural gas is

to separate the H2S and convert it to solid sulfur.
Environmental Issues of Extracting Sulfur
While sulfur itself is not an environmental threat, the

various sulfur compounds, and other impurities, released
by the mining or smelting processes, are of great concern.
Sulfur dioxide gas is an acidic oxide which has the
potential for serious environmental damage, including the
acid rain phenomenon studied in a previous topic.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas more toxic than cyanide
and its release could have serious consequences in the
immediate vicinity of a mining operation.
Reaction Rate & Equilibrium Considerations
Step 1: No problem! The reaction proceeds rapidly (inside

a furnace) and goes to completion.
There may be soluble minerals which are brought to the

surface by the Frasch Process. For example, volcanic sulfur
deposits often contain small amounts of soluble arsenic
compounds. If any waste water is discharged into the
environment this could poison ecosystems or human water
and food supplies.
Step 2: This is the tricky one! The reaction reaches an

equilibrium, so to get maximum yield and rate it is necessary
to adjust the reaction conditions. By Le Chateliers Principle,
getting maximum yield should involve:
Reacting at low temperature should shift equilib. to right.
However, this slows down the rate, so use a catalyst.
High pressure should favour the products.
Increasing the reactant concentration and decreasing the
product concentration should drive the equilibrium to the
right.
Environmental Damage
Photo by Diana
In practice, (as is often the case) some compromises are

necessary... study the diagram, next page.
Step 3: Its not practical to simply combine SO3 gas with
water because the resulting fog of tiny droplets is
difficult to handle. In practice this is achieved in a different
way... this is explained on the next page.
Copyright 2006
The Contact Process

Industrial production of H2SO4 is called the Contact
Process because, during that critical second step, the
reactants must be in contact with a catalyst.
Further Explanations
Molten Sulfur
injected
Excess
of
dry air
S(s) + O2(g)
SO2(g)
The reaction is exothermic, so the

SO2 (and the unused air)
comes out at about 1000oC.
It must be cooled before the next
step. The excess heat is used to
make steam for other processes,
or to make electricity.
Sulfur
burning
furnace
SO2
Steam out
Heat
Exchanger
Catalyst bed.
Pellets of
vanadium(V)
oxide
(V2O5)
Cooling water in
Temperature = 550oC
2SO2(g)+ O2(g)
2SO3(g)
70% conversion to SO3

at fast reaction rate
Temperature = 400 C
(pushes equilibrium
to the right)
Multi-s
stage
Catalytic
SO2
Converter
steam out
heat
exchanger
Temperatures chosen for the Contact

Process are a compromise between yield
(higher at lower temperature) and rate of
reaction which is faster at higher temperatures.
water in
Passing the gases through the catalytic converter

a second time (at lower temperature) shifts the
equilibrium toward greater yield and achieves
about 97% conversion to SO3.
The Catalyst vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) speeds
the reaction up by lowering activation energy.
The catalyst is in the form of small pellets so
there is a huge surface area
for the gases to react on.
Although the equilibrium yield
would be favoured by
High Pressure, the conditions described above
achieve the desired yield and rate already, so
there is no need for the great expense of highpressure equipment. The entire process is
operated at just above atmospheric pressure,
sufficient to push chemicals through.
heat
exchanger
The Final Step:

Although SO3 will simply react with water...
SO3(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(l)
this results in a fog of sulfuric acid which
is difficult to handle.
97% conversion to SO3

at slower reaction rate
Temperature = 400oC
conversion of virtually all
SO3
remaining SO2
+
Sulfuric acid in
Oleum
diluted
Final
Product
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l)
H2SO4
=
H2SO4
Instead, the SO3 is absorbed by H2SO4

forming oleum:
H2S2O7
oleum
H2S2O7(l)
oleum
This is then diluted with water...

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)
2H2SO4(l)
... which achieves the same overall

result, in a way that is more convenient
Water in
Any unreacted SO2
returns to catalytic converter
Absorption
Tower
10
Copyright 2006
Reactions of Sulfuric Acid
In a previous topic you studied Acid-Base reactions, and know that H2SO4 is a common laboratory acid.
However, it is much more than just an acid. Its wide usage in industry is not just because of its acid properties.
Reactions as a Dehydrating Agent
Reactions as an Oxidising Agent
You are reminded of the concept of Oxidation-Reduction:
Sulfuric acid has a great affinity for water; it will absorb

water from other substances and so is used widely in
industry to remove moisture from gases and non-aqueous
liquids when these are needed in a totally dry state.
Loss of Electrons = OXIDATION

Gain of Electrons = REDUCTION
It will even suck water out of chemical compounds.
Reactions where this occurs are called

OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REDOX
For example, the dehydration of ethanol:

H OH
hot, conc.
H
H
H2SO4
C C
H C C H
H
H
H H
Concentrated sulfuric acid is an oxidising agent: it will

cause oxidation to other chemicals, while it undergoes
reduction.
ethanol
ethylene
+ water
(This reaction may become important in the future if plantderived ethanol is used to replace ethylene for the plastics
industry)
Examples: although copper metal (and others) will not

react with any dilute acid to form hydrogen gas, it will react
with hot, concentrated sulfuric acid as follows:
Copper oxidises
(loses electrons)
Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
You should also remember the condensation reaction

which is used to make esters:
conc. H2SO4
Sulfuric acid reduces (gains electrons)

2H2SO4(aq) + 2e-
SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + SO4
alkanoic acid + alkanol

ester + water
In this reaction the role of sulfuric acid is described as
being a catalyst, but whats really happening is a chemical
version of a mugging... H2SO4 is very aggresive at
dragging water molecules out of anywhere it can find
them!
2(aq)
So, the overall reaction is

2H2SO4 + Cu
SO2(g) + 2H2O + CuSO4(aq)
Concentrated sulfuric acid will also oxidise bromide (Br-)

or iodide (I-) ions to the respective element
Iodine oxidation:
2I-(aq)
In the laboratory you may have seen, or carried out, the

experiment where conc. H2SO4 is poured onto a sample
of ordinary sugar. The reaction is violent, spectacular and
very smelly... a chemical classic!
I2(aq) + 2e-
C12H22O11
sucrose (sugar)
Sulfuric acid reduces as above, so if it is added to (say)

sodium iodide solution the overall equation is
2NaI + 2H2SO4
+ H2O
12 C(s) + 11H2O(g)
carbon + steam
The result is the growth of a charcoal stalagmite.

H2SO4 can do the same to cotton, wood and paper,
because they all contain cellulose, a sugar polymer.
SO2(g) + 2H2O + I2 + Na2SO4
Prac Work:
Observing H2SO4 REDOX
You may have carried out one or more of the reactions
above in the laboratory.
Moist blue litmus paper turns pink

(SO2 is acidic)
A Risk Assessment will have indicated the need to take

all the usual acid precautions, but additionally you may
have used a fume cupboard because SO2(g) is acidic, toxic
and very nasty smelling!
The diagram shows the main observations you might make
if copper metal is reacted with concentrated H2SO4 in a
small beaker.
Bubbles of gas (SO2)

Copper eaten away
Solution turns blue
(CuSO4(aq))
11
Copyright 2006
Ionisation of H2SO4
Safety Precautions When Using

Concentrated H2SO4
To remind you of some basics: H2SO4 is an acid because it

readily donates a proton to other chemical species. When
mixed with water, it ionizes in 2 steps:
Concentrated sulfuric acid is extremely corrosive to skin

and clothing and its usage requires extreme care.
Then:
HSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
2-
SO4
(aq)
Photo by connman21
HSO4 (aq) + H3O+(aq)

hydrogenhydronium
sulfate ion
ion
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
+ H3O+(aq)
Sulfuric acid is classed as a strong acid because the first

ionization occurs to 100% of the H2SO4 molecules. The
second ionization reaches an equilibrium, so the
hydrogensulfate ion (HSO4 ) is a weak acid.
always wear safety glasses to protect the eyes.

wear safety gloves and laboratory coat/apron.
work near a supply of running water to dilute and wash
any slashes or spills.
have a supply of sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)
to neutralize floor spills.
The dissolving and ionization of H2SO4 in water is

strongly exothermic:
H= -75kJmol-1
HSO4 + H3O+
H2SO4 + H2O
The result is that a great deal of heat is liberated when

sulfuric acid is mixed with water, and this leads to some
important safety considerations.
Safe Storage and Transportation
Diluted sulfuric acid contains hydronium ions (H3O+)

which react corrosively with most metals. It must be stored
and transported in glass or plastic containers. These then
need careful packaging to avoid breakage.
Procedure for Diluting Concentrated H2SO4
If you pour water into concentrated sulfuric acid, the

sudden heat release in a small volume of liquid can easily
cause the liquid to boil. This can cause spitting of small
droplets of acid, or even cause the container to crack.
WATER
Pure sulfuric acid with no water in it, is molecular H2SO4

and therefore will not react with metals. This means that it
can be transported in steel tanks, which are strong enough
to provide safe transportation and storage.
Wrong!
Dangerous!
Photo courtesy of
Dave Gostisha
Never add
water
to the acid
ACID
The correct procedure is to add the acid (slowly, with

stirring) to the water. This way there is a relatively larger
volume of liquid to absorb the heat and keep the
temperature manageable. If spitting does occur, it is a
more dilute acid solution and less dangerous
Stir
ACID
Correct!
It is vital that the containers have air-tight seals, not just to

prevent leaks, but to prevent the acid absorbing water
vapour from the air. Remember that H2SO4 is a great
dehydrating agent and will readily absorb moisture. As
+
moisture is absorbed H3O ions will form, and these will
begin to corrode the metal container.
WATER
12
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 3
The industrial production of H2SO4 is done by the

o)................................ Process. Sulfur dioxide is produced
by burning sulfur in a furnace. This is catalytically
converted to p)................................... by the catalyst
q).................................................... The temperature chosen is
a compromise between r)............................... and ...................
of reaction. The equilibrium yield of product is favoured
by s).............................. (higher/lower) temperatures, but the
rate is faster at t)............................... (higher/lower)
temperatures.

The biggest single use of sulfuric acid in industry is to make
a).........................................., such as b).......................................
and ............................................................ Other important
uses include the production of c)..............................................
(which is used as a white pigment in paper, paint, etc) and
in the d).......................................... of steel prior to
galvanizing or electroplating.
The SO2 is passed through the catalytic converter a second

time at u)................................. (higher/lower) temperature,
which gives a total conversion of about 97%.
Sulfuric acid is often made from elemental e).........................

in 3 main chemical steps. Firstly, the sulfur is reacted with
oxygen to make f)......................................... gas. This is then
converted to g)............................................ Finally, this is
reacted with h)....................................... to form H2SO4.
Instead of reacting the SO3 directly with water, it is first

absorbed into sulfuric acid to form v).................................
(H2S2O7). This is then reacted with water to form sulfuric
acid.
Sulfur is sometimes found in its elemental state in mineral

deposits which can be mined by the i)..................................
Process. This involves drilling a triple pipe into the
deposit, then pumping down hot j).............................. and
compressed k)............................... The sulfur melts, and is
forced to the surface. It is easily separated from the water
mixture because it is l)................................................................
As well as being a strong acid, H2SO4 is also an

w).......................................... agent and (because it has a great
affinity for water) a x)............................................. agent.
The ionization of H2SO4 in water is strongly y)...............thermic. Therefore, when diluting the concentrated acid,
always add the z).............................. to the ...............................
to avoid dangerous spitting.
Other major sources of sulfur include the smelting of some

m).................................................., and from the refining of
n)......................................... and ................................................
which usually contain small amounts of sulfur compounds
as impurities.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Practice Questions 3
When you have confidently mastered this level,
it is strongly recommended you work on questions from past exam papers.
4. (4 marks)
In the Contact Process of industrial production of
sulfuric acid, explain why:
a) the gas stream containing SO2 and O2 is passed through
the catalyst twice, the second time at a lower temperature.
b) SO3 gas is absorbed into sulfuric acid and later reacted
with water, rather than being directly reacted with water.
1. (3 marks)
Describe 3 properties of elemental sulfur which allow its
extraction from mineral deposits by the Frasch process,
and briefly relate each property to the extraction process.
2. (4 marks)
a) Apart from mining elemental sulfur, name 2 other major
sources of sulfur for industrial use.
b) Outline any environmental issues associated with the
extraction of sulfur from these sources.
5. (4 marks)
Write balanced chemical equations for:
a) the oxidation of bromide ions.
b) the reduction of sulfuric acid.
c) the dehydration of ethanol, and explain the role of
concentrated H2SO4 in the reaction.
3. (5 marks)
An important industrial reaction is
2SO3(g) + heat
2SO2(g) + O2(g)
a) Predict the temperature and pressure conditions which
might maximize the yield of SO3 and explain your answer.
b) Explain why, in practice, the temperature requirement
may have to be compromised.
6. (5 marks)
Identify 4 safety precautions you should take when using
concentrated H2SO4, and outline the method for diluting it.
13
4. PRODUCTION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE

Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH
Review of Galvanic Cells
Sulfuric acid is the most important industrial acid, and the

most important base is sodium hydroxide, NaOH. It is
used in huge quantities in the paper industry and in the
manufacture of soap, detergents and various synthetic
polymer fibres, to name just a few uses.
In a previous topic you studied Galvanic Cells... heres a

quick revision:
Galvanic cells are the basis of electrical cells and batteries
which produce electricity from REDOX reactions.
electrons flow from
Anode to Cathode in
the external circuit
The industrial production of NaOH involves electrolysis:

the process of using electricity to cause a chemical change.
All electro-chemistry processes involve OxidationReduction (REDOX) reactions, which were revised
earlier in this topic.
Voltmeter measures
cell potential
Salt Bridge allows

ions to migrate
In a previous topic you learnt about Galvanic Cells, which

are the basis of electrical cells and batteries. At the right is
a quick revision, and an outline of Electrolytic Cells. As
you will see, the production of NaOH involves an
electrolytic cell.
Electrodes
may be
reactants, or
may be inert
electrical
contacts
e.g. graphite
Reactants
in
Electrolyte
solutions
Production of NaOH in Outline
ANODE
is where
OXIDATION
occurs
The overall reaction used to make NaOH is:

2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)
salt
water
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)

sodium chlorine hydrogen
hydroxide
gas
gas
CATHODE
is where
REDUCTION
occurs
The reaction is spontaneous, and exothermic. (Energy

release is mostly electricity rather than heat.)
(The Cl2 and H2 gases are produced as by-products, but are

very useful and valuable in their own right.)
o
The sum of the Standard Half-Cell Potentials (E ) is +ve.
Electrolytic Cells
As usual, the actual process is not as simple as the equation

suggests... theres no way you can just mix salt and water
and expect to get the reaction above to occur.
These are, in energy terms, the opposite of galvanic cells.
To get a better idea, consider the reaction in ionic form:

2Na++ 2Cl- + 2H2O
2Na+ + 2OH- + Cl2 + H2
Electrolytic cells:
do not run spontaneously, and cannot produce electricity.
are endothermic, and must be supplied with energy (in
the form of electricity) to force the reaction to occur.
Now you can see that the sodium ions (Na+) are spectators
and are not changed. The real changes are:
Electrical
source
chloride ions are oxidized (lose electrons) to chlorine

2Cl-(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2eand
water is reduced (gains electrons)
to hydroxide ions & hydrogen gas
2H2O(l) + 2 e2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
+
At the ANODE,
electrons are
sucked out,
forcing OXIDATION
to occur
The real trick is to carry out these reactions in such a way

that the products are separated from each other so they
cannot react to produce other, unwanted products.
Electron flow
At the CATHODE,
electrons are
pushed in,
forcing REDUCTION
to occur
The Standard Cell Potential (Eo) is negative, and

indicates the minimum voltage which needs to be
applied for the reactions to proceed.
Historically, there have been 3 main industrial processes to

achieve this:
the Mercury Process
the Diaphram Process
the Membrane Process
Each is detailed a little later... first revise REDOX
Ions can
migrate in
electrolyte
solution
Electrolytic Cells are often constructed in a

single container to allow easy ion migration
14
Electrolysis of an Aqueous Solution
Refer to a Table of Standard Potentials

for Half-Equations and Eo Voltages
In an aqueous Electrolytic Cell, such as applying electricity

to a salt solution, the reactions may be very different
because the water molecules can also react, and often do so
in preference to other possible reactions.
Electrolysis of Pure, Molten Electrolytes

If electricity is passed into (say) pure, molten sodium
chloride, the result is the decomposition of the compound
into its elements.
Molten sodium
metal
For example, at the CATHODE...

Na+(aq) +
and...
H2O(l) + e-
contains
+
Na & Cl
Electrical
At the ANODE, chloride ions are OXIDIZED:
+
(l) +e
Cl2(g) + 2e
E
-1.36 V
In this case there is no clear winner because the voltages

are quite similar. Which reaction predominates will depend
on the concentrations of the reactants.
Na(l)
-2.71 V
Cell Potential = - 4.07 V
In a very dilute salt solution (i.e. lots of water) the water

reaction would predominate, and the gas produced would
be oxygen. In a more concentrated salt solution there
would be a mixture of oxygen and chlorine gases
produced. In the industrial process, the salt solution used is
a highly concentrated brine, so the chloride oxidation
predominates, and the gas produced is pure chlorine.
This means that the cell requires at least 4.07 volts (under
standard conditions) for the reactions to occur.
In this cell there are only 2 chemical species present,
so it is quite easy to predict what will happen.
Prac Work: Electrolysis of Salt Solutions
You may have carried out experiments in which you
electrolysed aqueous salt solutions, perhaps using a
voltameter, as shown in the photo at right.
For a more concentrated salt

solution:
the reaction runs faster.
at the negative electrode,
same result... OH and H2
An acid-base indicator can be added to detect the

+
production of either H ions or OH ions in the solution
around each electrode. The starting solution is neutral.
2H2O+ 2e-
Any gas produced can be collected and subjected to simple

tests, such as a flame test, or tested with wet litmus paper.
If you use a very dilute salt solution you may observe:
H2
the reaction is very slow (because the solution is not

a good electrolyte).
at the negative electrode the indicator shows a base
(OH- ions) being produced, and the gas collected will
pop when ignited... hydrogen.
at the positive electrode the indicator shows production
of acid (H+ ions) and the gas re-ignites a glowing
ember... oxygen. Overall, water is being decomposed.
O2 or Cl2
depending
on
concentration
H2(g) + OH-(aq) -0.83 V
Meanwhile, at the anode there are also 2 possible

oxidations that can occur:
o
E
2Cl (aq)
Cl2(g) + 2e
-1.36 V
and
+
H2O(l)
1/2 O2(g) + 2H (aq)+ 2e
-1.23 V
At the CATHODE, sodium ions are REDUCED:

Na
1/2
(If any sodium metal did form, it would instantly react with
the surrounding water anyway!)
voltage
-v
ve
+ve
CATHODE
ANODE
(both inert electrodes)
2Cl (l)
Na(s)
However, the water reduction is far more likely because of

its lower voltage requirement. These 2 half-reactions are
competing with each other, and the water reaction wins
the competition by having a significantly lower
energy/voltage requirement.
The salt needs to

be molten so it is
an electrolyte,
and ions can
migrate
molten
NaCl
E
-2.71 V
...are both theoretically possible.
Cl2(g)
forms at cathode
- +
15
2OH-+H2
at the positive electrode, the

gas collected may be found
to bleach the colour from
moist litmus, and the odour
of chlorine may be noticed.
2Cl-
Cl2(g) + 2e-
These are the same reactions

that occur in the industrial
production of NaOH.
Copyright 2006
Industrial Production Techniques for Producing NaOH

There are 3 different processes to know about.
The Mercury Process
Reactions Occurring
Flow of mercury-s
sodium amalgam
Hydrogen
gas
out
Chlorine gas
out
+ve
Cl2
SODIUM
REACTOR
Salt
Brine
in
Graphite Anode
NaOH
solution
out
Water
in
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
Cathode: Na+ + e-
Mercury Pump
Normally in an aqueous solution the sodium ions will not be reduced to sodium metal.
However, with mercury present (and sufficient voltage) this does occur. Sodium metal
combines with mercury to form a liquid alloy called an amalgam. The sodium is carried
away by the flowing mercury before it gets a chance to react with water in the cell.
Then, the mercury-s

sodium
amalgam is sprayed into a
reactor tank of water. The
sodium reacts:
2Na + 2H2O
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
NaOH is collected in water solution.

Solid NaOH can be collected by
evaporation.
The Cl2 and H2 gases are collected as
valuable by-products for sale to
various industries.
Environmental Problems with the Mercury Process

The Mercury Process is very efficient and economical, but has been almost entirely phased out because of its serious
potential to cause environmental problems. Despite all efforts, there is always some escape of mercury from a factory.
Mercury vapours escape, and leakages occur. Any mercury which escapes into the environment enters the food chains
and accumulates in living things. It causes serious health problems in animals and humans. The infamous case of the
many deaths in Minamata, Japan, in the 1950s was due to mercury pollution from a Sodium Hydroxide plant.
Mercury poisoning is actually called Minamata disease from this tragic episode.
The Diaphram Process

Chlorine gas
out
+ve
Graphite Anode
Hydrogen
gas out
Asbestos
Diaphram
Steel
Mesh
Cathode
NaCl
brine
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
-v
ve
Steam is sprayed on
the cathode mesh.
Some condenses and
washes the NaOH off,
so that it accumulates
in the bottom of the
reactor vessel.
How it Works
At the Anode:
2Cl-
Cl2(g)+ 2e-
Meanwhile, the Na+ ions are attracted to

the negative cathode and, with some water,
can seep through the asbestos diaphram.
At the Cathode:
2H2O+ 2e
H2(g)+ 2OH-
In an aqueous environment, and low

voltage, the reduction of sodium ions does
not occur.
The Na+ ions are spectators, and are
washed off the cathode mesh along with
the OH- ions which form. Thus NaOH
solution collects in the tank.
Problems:
Some Cl- ions seep through the diaphram,
so the NaOH is contaminated with salt and
must be purified
Asbestos is carcinogenic and a serious
health hazard. Its use is now
NaOH
solution
banned, so diaphram plants have
out
been phased out.
NaOH solution accumulates

by dripping from cathode
Na
The mercury is re-cycled back

through the electrolytic cell.
Flowing Mercury Cathode
-v
ve
In the Electrolytic Cell

Cl2(g)+ 2eAnode: 2Cl-
16
Copyright 2006
The Membrane Process
Anode Reaction:
In most countries, both the Mercury Process and the

(asbestos) Diaphram Process have been replaced by the
Membrane Process. This relies on a modern, hight-tech.
polymer membrane (Teflon) which allows positive ions
(Na+) to flow through, but will not allow negative ions
(Cl-, OH-) to pass.
Such membranes are said to be semi-permeable.
+ve
Cl2(g) + 2e-
Cathode Reaction:
2H2O+ 2e-
H2(g)+ 2OH-
Sodium ions diffuse through the membrane toward the

negative cathode. The water flowing around the cathode
carries away Na+ and OH- ions, which can be collected (by
evaporation) as pure NaOH.
H2 gas
out
-v
ve
Semi-p
permeable Membrane
Water in
Inert Anode
depleted
NaCl
brine out
(concentrated
&
re-c
cycled)
Inert Cathode
Cl2 gas
out
2Cl
Na+ ions
diffuse
through the
membrane.
Cl- & OHcannot get
through
NaCl
brine in
NaOH
solution
out
A Final Summary
You need to understand that the 3 different processes for making NaOH all achieve the same overall reaction:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)
salt
water
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)

sodium
chlorine hydrogen
hydroxide
gas
gas
The details of the different processes are simply 3 different ways to separate the oxidation product (Cl2 gas) from the
reduction products (H2 gas and OH-). If these are not kept apart, they will react to produce undesirable by-products.
You must also understand the impact that developing technologies, and growing awareness of environmental and health
issues, have had on the changes from one process to another. Study each process carefully to see:
How the chemical reactions always add up to the
same overall result. (example given at right)
How each process separates the products.
The environmental and health issues associated
with changing from one process to another.
How modern technology has contributed to
changing from one industrial process to another.
Example:
Finding the Overall Reaction for the Mercury Process
The Mercury Process involves 3 distinct equations:
2Cl-
2Na+ + 2e2Na + 2H2O
2Na++ 2Cl- + 2H2O
Cl2(g)+ 2e-
2Na
(multiplied x2 so
electrons cancel)
2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
2NaOH + Cl2 + H2
The overall equation is found by simply adding all species

on the left side, and all species on the right, but cancelling
any species which occur on both sides.
17
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 4
In the Mercury Process a salt brine is electrolysed with

liquid s)...................................... as the t)....................................
This allows sodium ions to be u).................................... to
sodium metal, which immediately combines with the
mercury to form an (v)........................................ This is
carried away to be reacted with w).............................. to form
hydrogen and x)................................................... solution.
Meanwhile, at the anode, y)................................... gas is
produced. Although quite efficient, this process has been
phased out, mainly because of z)............................................
concerns about the impacts of escaped aa).............................
The industrial production of NaOH starts with the 2 raw

materials a)................................... and .......................................
It uses an b)...................................................... cell to cause
c)............................................................ reactions to occur. The
3 final products are d)............................................. solution,
plus the gases e)................................. and ...................................
which are valuable by-products. It is vital to keep the
products apart so that they cannot f).......................................
........................................................................................................
Electolytic cells are (in energy terms) the opposite of
g)............................................ cells. An electrolytic cell is
h)....................-thermic and will never run without the input
of i).............................. in the form of j)..................................
The Standard Cell Potential is k).................................. and the
value indicates the minimum l).....................................
required under standard conditions.
In the Diaphram Process anode and cathode are

separated by a diaphram made of ab).......................................
This keeps the products apart while allowing
ac)..................................... ions to seep through to the
ad)....................................... where they combine with the
ae).................................... ions being formed by reduction of
water. Steam is used to wash the af).........................................
product off the steel mesh. While this process is more
acceptable environmentally, the use of ag)...............................
is a serious health concern, and the process is less efficient
because the NaOH is contaminated with ah)........................
If pure, molten salt is electrolysed, the products are

m)........................ gas at the n)..................................(electrode)
and o).............................. metal at the p)...................................
However, in aqueous solutions of salt, the water may react
in preference to the salt. In a dilute solution this results in
q).............................. and ............................ at the cathode, and
r).................................. and ............................. at the anode.
The modern ai).................................. Process uses a semiaj).................................... membrane to separate anode and
cathode. This membrane allows ak)............................. ions to
flow through, but does not allow al)................................ or
....................................... ions through. This is both efficient
and (relatively) environmentally friendly.
Mark values shown are suggestions only, and indicate the depth of answer required.
2. (6 marks)
Outline, giving relevant equations, the different results
obtained by electrolysing molten sodium chloride,
compared to electrolysing a dilute solution of sodium
chloride.
4. (4 marks)
Historically, there have been 3 industrial processes used to
manufacture NaOH. The key difference between them was
the way in which the products were kept apart as they
formed.
a) Why is it desirable to keep the products apart?
b) Outline how each (named) process attempts to keep
products apart as they form.
3. (4 marks)
Write an equation (or half-equation) for
a) the oxidation of chloride ions
b) the reduction of sodium ions
c) the reaction of sodium metal with water
d) the balanced, overall sum of these 3 reactions
5. (4 marks)
a) Briefly discuss any environmental and/or technical
problems which have contributed to the phasing out of the
Mercury and Diaphram Processes.
b) give an outline of how a modern technology contributed
to the Membrane Process replacing other processes.
1. (5 marks)
Compare and contrast Galvanic and Electrolytic cells.
18
5. SOAP & DETERGENTS

Soap, and the Chemistry of Fats
While we all may have difficulty appreciating the industrial production of ammonia, sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide, soap
is something we can understand. Soap is one of the most common and best-known household chemicals. Its production is
one of the oldest industrial chemical processes, dating back several thousand years and practiced by ancient civilizations.
Soap is made from fat (oil) and a strong base such as NaOH or KOH, and the process is called Saponification.
Before you can understand soap, you need to learn about fats and oils... the chemistry of the triglycerides.
Chemistry of Triglycerides
Triglyceride is the general name given to a compound made from 3 molecules of fatty acid joined to a glycerol molecule.
Fatty Acids are long-chain, hydrocarbon molecules with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) on one end.
Example:
H
H C
H H
H H
This long, non-p

polar, hydrocarbon section
is hydrophobic (=water-h
hating)
Note these properties...
they become important later.
There are many different fatty acids;

some have more (or fewer) carbon atoms in the chain;
some have one or more double (-C=C-) bonds
(and less hydrogen atoms) within the hydrocarbon chain.
To keep it simple (K.I.S.S. Principle!) all the fatty acids can
be represented schematically by the diagram at right
C O H
C O H
C O H
These atoms form

water, and the 2
molecules join
R1
The -C
COOH group is
polar and hydrophilic
(=water-lloving)
This represents the

hydrophilic -C
COOH
end of each molecule
Water
CH2 R2
+
Ester
(R1 represents the

rest of the molecule)
Triglycerides are molecules in which 3 fatty acids are

bonded to a glycerol molecule.
Alkanol
(R2 represents the

rest of the molecule)
O
O-H
H H-O
Alkanoic acid
R1
H
O H
O CH2 R2
O
Whats the difference between fats and oils?

Fats are simply triglycerides which are solid at room
temperature (like beef fat), while oils are liquid at room
temperature (like olive oil). The difference is simply the
melting point. This in turn is due to the different fatty acids
in the triglyceride... animal fats tend to contain saturated
fatty acids (all single C-C bonds like stearic acid above)
while the vegetable oils often contain unsaturated fatty
acids containing many double C=C bonds and less
hydrogen.
Schematically, it can be depicted as follows:
Glycerol
This is stearic acid,

CH3(CH2)16COOH
Triglycerides are Esters

The chemical link between each fatty acid and the glycerol
molecule is formed by esterification. You are reminded that
esters form by a condensation reaction between an
alcohol and a carboxylic acid.
Schematic Diagram
3 fatty acids
O H
This represents the hydrophobic

hydrocarbon chain
Glycerol is a triple alcohol molecule containing 3 OH

-ol groups. Its systematic name is propanetriol.
Structural Formula
H
19
Saponification
Laboratory Reaction Compared to

Industrial Saponification
The making of soap involves reacting a triglyceride with a

strong base such as NaOH. It can be depicted
schematically as follows:
How does your little soap-making experiment compare

with the industrial process? The overal chemical reaction is
the same, but there the similarities end.
Obviously, on an industrial scale, the quantities of soap
being made are measured in tonnes rather than grams. In
the laboratory you probably used just one type of fat or oil,
but in industry a blended mixture of several fats and oils
are usually used. For example, Palmolive brand soap is
made from a blend of palm oil and olive oil.
+ 3 NaOH(aq)
The main difference, however, is that your experiment was

a batch process with one reaction step taking place at
normal pressure and a temperature between 50-100oC.
The hydroxide ions

(OH-) attach to
re-fform
the glycerol
molecule
Na
In contrast, the most common industrial process uses a

continuous through-put process, with the reaction taking
place in 2 distinct stages, one of which occurs at high
pressure and temperatures, in the presence of a catalyst.
Each fatty acid

molecule becomes a
sodium salt.
This is soap.
A Common Industrial Saponification Process

Na
Na + -
Fatty acids
Hydrolysis
Tower
Triglyceride (fat)
+
3NaOH
glycerol
+
3 salts of fatty acid
(soap)
Fats/oils
injected
Prac Work:
High
Pressure
steam
injected
Saponification
You may have carried out a simple experiment in the

laboratory to make some soap from vegetable oil and
NaOH.
(Strong base... use risk analysis & safety precautions!)
Water &
Glycerol
Simply mixing the ingredients in hot water, then stirring or

shaking for a few minutes is enough to make the soap.
Soap
Neutralization
Chamber
Fatty acids
react with
base to
form soap
base added
(NaOH
or
KOH)
Glycerol separated
by distillation
Under high pressure and temperature, in the presence of

water (steam) and a ZnO catalyst, the triglyceride molecules
are hydrolysed (=split with water) to form fatty acids and
glycerol. This step is the exact reverse of esterification.
Adding some salt and allowing the mixture to cool is

usually effective in causing a layer of soap to separate into
a solid layer on top. This is best washed to remove NaOH
residues before handling.
The fatty acids flow upwards, while glycerol flows down

with the water and is collected as a valuable by-product.
This is how soap has been made for thousands of years.
After drying, the fatty acids are reacted with precise

amounts of base to form soap... the sodium or potassium
salt of a fatty acid. This step is an acid-base neutralization.
Your crude cake of soap can be tested by shaking a piece

in warm water to see it lather and form a soapy foam.
ZnO
catalyst
Fat is
hydrolysed
(split with
water)
If the fatty acid was stearic acid, CH3(CH2)16COOH,

then the soap molecule would be sodium stearate,
CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+.
Vacuum Drier
20
Copyright 2006
The Range of Fats & Oils

Used to Make Soap
Prac Work:
Any fat or oil can be used to make a soap. Traditionally,

animal fats from meat wastes and scraps were used. The fat
collected by boiling beef scraps is known as tallow, while
pork scraps gives lard. Tallow and lard have been the
main sources of soap for centuries. Whale oil was used
extensively until about the mid-20th century.
Soap as an Emulsifier
A simple experiment is outlined by the following photos:
If a little vegetable oil is

shaken with water, then
allowed to stand, the oil
droplets rapidly join
together and 2 layers
separate.
In modern large-scale industry, vegetable oils are

predominantly in use because they can be more reliably
supplied in large quantities at consistent quality and price.
The main oils used include palm, olive, coconut and
soybean oil.
Oil
Water
Soap as an Emulsifier
The reason that soap works for washing and cleaning is

that it is able to emulsify fats in water... it is an emulsifier.
However, if a small
amount of soap is
added and the mixture
shaken again, the oil is
emulsified.
You need to realize that water by itself will often not wash
away dirt because usually there is some fatty material in
the dirt. This is not water soluble, and tends to cling to
skin and fabrics and resist being simply washed away.
As you know, when water and oil are mixed, they rapidly
separate with the oil forming a layer on top. This is because
oils (triglycerides) are large, non-polar molecules which are
immiscible with water.
Even after several

minutes the emulsion
remains quite stable,
and the oil does not
separate.
However, if water, oil and soap are mixed and agitated, the
oil becomes broken up into tiny droplets which remain
mixed into the water, and tend to separate more slowly or
not at all. Why?
Prac Work:
Na+ -
Property
Water-based
Each droplet of fat becomes

surrounded by soap molecules.
These suspend each droplet in
the water and prevent droplets
joining together
Water
Water
Fat
Fat
Water
How Property Relates to Usage

Convenient for washing brushes
and rollers, etc.
Emulsion is very
stable and does not
easily separate
Remains uniformly liquid &

coloured for easy application
and attractive appearance.
As water evaporates
polymers & pigments
form a solid film on
the wall.
The layer of dried paint is

durable and washable and lasts
for many years.
Other common, everyday

emulsions include
milk
mayonnaise
sorbolene cream and
other cosmetic lotions.
Notice how the non-polar end of each soap molecule

dissolves in the fat droplet, with the ionic, hydrophilic end
sticking out into the water.
This is how emulsification works.
Properties & Uses of an Emulsion
Acrylic paints are a mixture of colour pigments and

polymer compounds emulsified in water.
This end is non-p

polar and hydrophobic.
It will readily dissolve in oil.
If each soap molecule is represented by

then what happens when soap emulsifies a fat is shown in
this diagram.
Fat
Oil-w
water
emulsion
Acrylic Paint (e.g. house paint) is a good example to study

and relate properties to uses.
Remember that soap is the sodium salt of a fatty acid.
This end is ionic,

hydrophilic and
water-s
soluble.
Foam
21
Common Emulsions
Copyright 2006
Detergents
Effect of Hard Water
Detergents are artificial soaps. They were first invented

during the 1940s and have largely replaced soap in many
cleaning roles because they are more powerful as
emulsifiers, can be made to have various properties suitable
for specialist tasks, and work well in a wider variety of
applications.
Some water supplies contain significant concentrations of

Ca2+ and/or Mg2+ ions. This water tends to cause mineral
deposits to build up in pipes and kettles and so has come to
be called hard water.
Apart from clogging up water pipes, hard water has one
other major problem... soap will not work in hard water.
Chemistry & Molecular Structure

There are many different detergents, but one of the most
common types has a structure as shown. Note the basic
similiarity (in general terms) to a soap molecule, but also
the differences in detail
If you attempt to use soap in hard water, it will not lather,

and a greasy scum forms. It does not cause emulsification
and will not clean anything.
A Typical Sodium Alkylbenzene Sulfonate Detergent Molecule
H C
H H
The long hydrocarbon chain is non-p

polar
and hydrophobic.
It is derived from an alkane from petroleum.
C
H
O
S
C
C
The ring structure comes

from benzene, derived
from petroleum.
O- Na+
This end group is

derived from
H2SO4 and is ionic
& water soluble.
The molecule can be represented schematically as:

SO3- Na+
2+
The problem is that Ca or
Mg ions will combine with the
fatty acid ions to form an
insoluble compound. The
molecules precipitate and cling
together forming the scum.
2+
An important characteristic of
detergents is that their ion (alkylbenzene sulfonate ion) remains in
solution, so detergents will work
quite normally in hard water.
Ca2+
This molecule acts very efficiently to emulsify fats into

water, so that greasy dirt is cleaned off or washed away.
Ca2+
Definition of an Emulsion
In hard water, soap molecules become

insoluble and will not emulsify
What exactly is meant by an emulsion anyway?

Ca2+
Two liquids which will not dissolve in each other and

always separate when mixed together are said to be
immiscible... like water and oil.
SO 3
Ca2+
An emulsion is when 2 immiscible liquids are

combined so that they form a stable, uniform
mixture which does not separate.
Ca2+
It is NOT a solution. The molecules are not intimately

associated at all. In an emulsion, one of the liquids is
broken up into tiny, microscopic droplets which are
spread uniformly throughout the other liquid.
Ca2+
SO 3
To achieve an emulsion, another chemical (emulsifier)

is required to keep the droplets dispersed, and stop
them joining together.
In hard water, detergent

molecules remain in
solution and still work as
emulsifiers
This is one of the reasons that detergents have mostly

taken over from soap as cleaning products.
For each pair of immiscible liquids there are 2 possible

types of emulsion. For example, with cosmetic creams:
a sorbolene (or vanishing cream) is an emulsion
where the oil phase is dispersed throughout the water.
a cold cream is an emulsion where the water phase
is dispersed throughout the oil.
Ca2+
You can test this effect yourself by trying to produce a soap

lather in seawater, or bore water. Then try with some
dishwashing detergent or hair shampoo... big difference!
22
Copyright 2006
Different Types of Detergents
Environmental Impacts of Detergents
The Alkylbenzene Sulfonate detergents are the most

common and widely used. They are referred to as...
Soap is made from natural biological chemicals... fatty

acids... which bacteria can use as food. Therefore, soap is
biodegradable meaning that when it enters sewerage
works or waterways, it is rapidly eaten by bacteria and has
no negative impact on the environment.
Anionic Detergents because the hydrophilic end of the

molecule forms a negative ion (anion) in water.
SO3
The early detergents were made from branched-chain

hydrocarbons which were difficult for bacteria to
decompose... they were non-biodegradable.
The result was that many waterways became filled with

foam, and the emulsifying power of detergents built up
until it caused environmental damage to plants and animals.
This mimics the soap molecule which also forms a negative

anion in water.
Part of the reason that anionic emulsifiers work well as
cleaners is that glass, ceramics and fabrics tend to have
some negative charges on their molecules. These repel the
anions of the soap or detergent, which then rinses away
easily (carrying the emulsified dirt) leaving glassware or
clothing clean, and having no soap or detergent residue.
This problem was solved in the 1970s by introducing

straight-chain molecules which are biodegradable.
This, however, was never the main environmental impact!
It was discovered early on, that any detergent works better
if small amounts of certain additives are used. Particularly
effective are certain phosphate compounds.
For this reason, anionic detergents are used for

dishwashing, laundry and general cleaning uses as well as
personal cleaning in liquid soaps, shampoo and toothpaste.
Eutrophication
The problem of eutrophication was studied in a previous
topic. Heres a quick revision...
Cationic Detergents are a different group of emulsifiers

which form a positive ion (cation) in water.
Photo by Ken Kiser
Cl-
This type of molecule can emulsify fats quite well, but is

not suitable for (for example) dishwashing because the
molecules cling to glass and ceramics and dont easily wash
away. The residue feels greasy.
However, when added to laundry rinse water, or rubbed
into hair after shampooing, a cationic detergent clings to
fabrics or hair. When dried, the fabric feels fluffy, and
hair looks shiny and is more manageable. These are
common uses of cationic detergents... as fabric softeners
and hair conditioners.
Eutrophication is a process where water plants and algae
are over-fertilized and grow excessively. This clogs
waterways, and leads to masses of dead, rotting algae which
takes all oxygen from the water... ecosystem dead!
Non-Ionic Detergents are a third group which have

molecules which do not form ions in solution at all.
Instead, they contain polar sections within the molecule
which form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
water molecules
The human activities responsible are mainly agricultural

fertilizer run-off from farmland, and discharge of human
sewerage into waterways.
+
+
Non-p
polar, hydrophobic
section of molecule
emulsifies fats
hydrogen bonds
O
-
O
-
The use of phosphate compounds as additives to

detergents was also a major contributor to eutrophication.
Since the 1980s, phosphate use in detergents has been
greatly reduced or eliminated, so detergents are no longer
part of this environmental problem.
Polar, hydrophilic
section of molecule
bonds to water
Non-ionic detergents do not form froths or foam up. This

makes them useful in dishwashing machines and for floor
cleaning, where foaming is not desirable.
23
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 5
Detergents are s)......................................... soaps. They also

have a long-chain, non-t)........................, hydro-u)...................
end which attaches to fats, and an v)........................................
end which is hydro-w).......................................... This allows
them to act as excellent x)................................................

Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a a)................................
Fats and oils are chemically b)..................................................,
made up of a molecule of c).................................... joined to
3 d)................................................. molecules.
The most important and common detergents are

chemically alkyl-y)..................................................................
These are Anionic, meaning that they form
z)..................................... ions in solution. There are also
aa).......................................... detergents which form +ve ions
in solution. These tend to cling to ab)............................ so are
not suitable for dishwashing. They are used as
ac).................................... and ...................................................
Non-ad)....................................... detergents do not form
ions, but have ae)............................................ regions in their
molecules which form af)....................................... bonds with
water molecules. These detergents do not foam, so are used
in applications such as ag).................................................
Soap is made by the process of e)............................................

In this process, a fat is reacted with a f)....................... such
as g)...................... or ......................... The products are 1
molecule of h).................................. and 3 molecules of soap.
The process can be done very simply in the laboratory, but
the industrial reaction is often done as a continuous process
in 2 stages. Firstly, the fat is i)................................................
(split with water) at high j)............................................. and
........................................, using a ZnO k)....................................
This splits the fat into l)............................................... and
.................................................. These are dried, then
m)................................................ with a base to form the soap.
Soap is quickly eaten by bacteria, so it is ah).............................

Early detergents were ai)..................................................... and
caused foaming and environmental problems in waterways.
The use of aj)....................................... additives was a serious
contributor to ak).................................................. which is
when water plants and algae are over-fertilized.
Soap molecules n)............................................ in water so they

have a hydro-o)................................. end which dissolves in
water. The other end is non- p).................................. and
hydro-q)................................ This attaches to droplets of
insoluble greasy dirt and r).............................................. them
in water. This is how soap acts as a cleaner.
Mark values shown are suggestions only, and indicate the depth of answer required.
3. (5 marks)
a) What is an emulsion?
b) Explain how emulsification results in cleaning things.
c) Explain, with the aid of simple diagrams, how soap acts
as an emulsifier.
d) Relate the properties of a familiar emulsion to its uses.
1. (5 marks)
a) Describe the chemical structure of a fatty acid.
b)Give the systematic name, and draw the structural
formula, for glycerol
c) Use a labelled, schematic diagram to explain the structure
of a triglyceride. (fat or oil)
4. (marks)
Compare a soap molecule with a typical detergent molecule
to outline
a) any basic similarity in structure and properties.
b) precise chemical structure.
c) performance as emulsifiers in hard water.
2. (7 marks)
a) Name the process by which soap is made, and write a
word equation for the process.
b) Give an outline of a simple procedure by which soap
could be made in the laboratory.
c) List 3 differences between the laboratory process and a
modern industrial soap-making process.
5. (6 marks)
Distinguish the 3 different types of synthetic detergents in
terms of an important chemical property, and list uses of
each type.
24
6. THE SOLVAY PROCESS FOR Na2CO3

Sodium Carbonate, Na2CO3
Sodium carbonate is another important industrial chemical

needed in large quantities for purposes including:
The Solvay Process for making Na2CO3
The process was developed in the 1860s by Ernest Solvay

in Belgium. The process involves many chemical steps,
many of which are simply tricks to re-cycle an expensive
chemical, or make use of a particularly cheap one.
Glass Making. Common window and bottle glass is

made by melting a mixture of sodium carbonate, calcium
carbonate and silicon dioxide (silica).
The Raw Materials are

sodium chloride (NaCl) (salt) from seawater, and
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from limestone, a rock which
is abundant in many places.
Ammonia (NH3) is also involved, but it is re-generated
during the process, so there is no net usage.
Water Treatment. When a small amount of Na2CO3 is

added to water, it precipitates Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions which
softens the water. This prevents build up of mineral
deposits in industrial equipment such as steam boilers, and
helps soaps and detergents to emulsify more efficiently.
Pollution Control in coal-burning power stations. Coal
contains small quantities of sulfur which results in SO2 gas
when the coal is burned in a power station. SO2 is a serious
pollutant (e.g. Acid Rain) and its release is unacceptable.
Na2CO3 is used to scrub the exhaust gases to remove the
SO2
Na2CO3 + SO2
Na2SO3 + CO2
The Products are

sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) the desired product, and
calcium chloride (CaCl2) which is a waste product of no
value, and is usually disposed of in landfill or in solution
into the ocean.
The overall reaction is
2NaCl + CaCO3
Na2CO3 + CaCl2
but, as usual, it is nowhere near as simple as this suggests.
Additionally, sodium carbonate acts as a base in water

solution
2CO3 + H2O
HCO3 + OHand, since it is very cheap, it is used as an
alternative to NaOH, wherever a base is need.
Chemical Steps in the Solvay Process
Step 1: Brine Purification
Step 2: Hydrogen Carbonate Formation
Impurities are removed by ionic precipitation:

Ca2+ ions are removed by adding Na2CO3
2Ca2+(aq) + CO3 (aq)
CaCO3(s)
Meanwhile, the purified brine (from Step 1) has

ammonia dissolved in it, and then the CO2 from the
limestone is bubbled in:
Mg2+ ions (and others) are removed by adding NaOH

Mg2+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Mg(OH)2(s)
NaCl +NH3 +H2O +CO2
Step 4: Ammonia Recovery
Step 3: Sodium Carbonate Production

o
Crushed limestone is heated in a kiln to produce CO2(g)

CaCO3(s)
CO2(g) + CaO(s)
(The CaO is used later)
The calcium oxide (from the limestone kiln, Step 2) is

reacted with water to form calcium hydroxide:
CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(aq)
The mixture formed in step 2 is cooled to 0 C so that

the sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
precipitates... it is only slightly soluble at low
temperatures: NaHCO3(aq)
NaHCO3(s)
When the ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) from Step 2 is

added, the reaction releases ammonia, to be re-cycled.
2NH4Cl +Ca(OH)2
The solid is collected by filtration, then heated in a kiln

to 300oC so it decomposes:
2NH3(g) +2H2O +CaCl2(aq)
This is vital because NH3

is relatively expensive.
NH4Cl +NaHCO3
WASTE
PRODUCT
25
2NaHCO3(s)
Na2CO3(s) + H2O + CO2(g)
FINAL
PRODUCT
re-u
used
Seawater is pumped into shallow ponds and allowed to

evaporate until it becomes a concentrated brine
containing about 30% NaCl.
Flowchart of the Solvay Process

Re-u
used
Carbon dioxide
CO2
Carbonating Tower
Brine
NaCl
Ammonia
NH3
NaCl +NH3 +H2O +CO2

NH4Cl +NaHCO3
Filtration
2NaHCO3
NaHCO3
Ammonium
chloride
NH4Cl
Limestone
CaCO3
Heating Kiln
CaCO3(s)
CO2(g)+CaO(s)
Water ad
dded
d
Calcium
hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Ammonia
recovered
and re-u
used
A perfect opportunity to revise mole calculations and apply

them to an industrial scale!
A typical Solvay plant might produce around 500,000
tonnes of sodium carbonate per year. In the following
series of examples, the chemical quantities involved to
produce 1 tonne are calculated.
Ammonia Recovery
2NH4Cl +Ca(OH)2
2NH3 +2H2O +CaCl2
Calcium chloride
CaCl2
NaCl +NH3 +H2O +CO2

NH4Cl +NaHCO3
(all chemicals react in equal molar quantities)
You are reminded that 1 mole of any gas occupies 24.79 L
at 1 atmosphere of pressure and 25oC.
(molar mass = 106.0g)
n = m /MM = 1x106/106.0
= 9,434 mol
For the quantity of NaCl at left (18,868 moles) the volumes

of gases required is:
Quantities of Reactants and Products

The overall equation for the Solvay Process is:
2NaCl + CaCO3
Na2CO3 + CaCl2
n(NH3 & CO2) = 18,868mol

vol(NH3 & CO2) = 18,868 x 24.79 = 4.677x105L
Overall
A typical Solvay Plant produces about 1,000 tonnes of
Na2CO3 per day. This means that every day:
approx. 1,100 tonnes of NaCl are consumed.
(requiring over 30,000 tonnes of seawater. Thats
about 20 olympic swimming pools full!)
1,047 tonnes of CaCl2 waste must be disposed of.
almost 500 million litres each of NH3 & CO2
gases are re-cycled through the plant.
over 1,000 tonnes of limestone is consumed.
Mass NaCl Required

From equation, n(NaCl) = 2 x 9434 = 18,868 mol
m(NaCl) = n x MM = 18,868 x 58.44
= 1.103 x 106g (i.e. 1.103 tonne)
(Since seawater is about 3% salt, it follows that about 30
tonnes of seawater will need to be concentrated by
evaporation, and the brine purified.)
Sodium carbonate
Na2CO3
Volumes of NH3 and CO2 Gases

At the Carbonating stage, CO2 gas is added to the brine,
which has already had NH3 gas dissolved in it.
1 tonne = 1,000 kg = 1,000,000g = 1x106g

Moles of Na2CO3 in 1 tonne
Na2CO3 +H2O +CO2
Mass of CaCl2 Produced

From equation, n(CaCl2) = 9,434 mol
m(CaCl2) = n x MM = 9,434 x 111.0
= 1.047x106g (i.e. 1.047 tonnes)
(This is a waste product which must be disposed of)
Quantitative Aspects of the Solvay Process
No. of moles,
Sodium carbonate Production
Sodium
bicarbonate
26
Copyright 2006

Hose from cylinder
of compressed CO2
Prac Work:
Steps in the Solvay Process
The syllabus requires that you carry out one of the
chemical steps of the Solvay Process, including assessing
the risks and identifying the practical difficulties.
Saturated
NaCl
brine with
added
NH4OH
solution.
There are 5 or 6 different chemical steps you may have

carried out, but the one discussed here is the carbonating
reaction in which NH3 is first dissolved in salt brine and
then CO2 is bubbled through it. The reaction is:
NaCl +NH3 +H2O +CO2
NH4Cl +NaHCO3
If the
solution is
chilled in the
fridge before
use, a white
precipitate of
NaHCO3 will
form as the
CO2 is
bubbled
through it
Filtration
to collect
solid
NaHCO3
Risk Analysis
NH4OH solution is corrosive and produces irritant NH3
fumes. Use rubber gloves, safety glasses and carry out all
procedures in a fume cupboard.
Practical Difficulties in the Laboratory

It is difficult to obtain or manufacture NH3 gas.
(and it is seriously dangerous!) Instead, add NH4OH
solution to the saturated brine. This is the equivalent of
dissolving NH3 gas, because it would dissolve in water to
form NH4OH anyway:
+
NH3(g) + H2O
NH4 (aq) + OH-(aq)
Many laboratories may have access to a gas cylinder of
compressed CO2... much simpler than rigging glassware to
make CO2 and deliver it into the reaction apparatus.
The use of a pressurized gas cylinder to inject gas into a

liquid could result in splashing of the liquid. You should
practice gas release into a sample of water to get the
technique right. The actual procedure should be done in a
fume cupboard with the safety window down, in order to
contain any splashing.
Environmental Issues of the Solvay Process
Criteria Used to Locate a Chemical Plant
Disposal of Calcium ChlorideWaste Product

Although there are a few uses for small amounts of
calcium chloride, the production of 1,000 tonnes a day is in
huge excess to any demand. If discharged in solution into
the ocean it seems to have no environmental impact.
Discharge into rivers or lakes increases the concentration
of ions to such an extent that plants and animals are
affected.
The location of a Solvay Plant is a good example of the

way that the location of any chemical plant is decided.
In general terms, a chemical plant is best located:
close to the supply of necessary raw materials.
close to the markets for the product
(or connected to the main transport links to the market)
close to a population centre which provides a labour
force, and the infrastructure (schools, shops, etc) needed.
close to disposal sites for waste materials.
In some places the solution is evaporated to form solid

CaCl2 which is disposed of in land-fill. This seems OK, but
future effects on underground water supplies are not
known.
In Australia, the biggest Solvay Plant is located just north of

Adelaide, South Australia.
Thermal (Heat) Pollution

Some reactions of the Solvay Process are exothermic and
the precipitation of NaHCO3 requires cooling, so there is
a need to remove heat. This has traditionally been done by
using river water as a coolant and simply discharging hot
water back into the river or lake.
It is on the coast where sea water can be easily pumped

into evaporation pans for brine concentration.
(Adelaides hot, dry summer climate is ideal for this, too.)
A large limestone deposit is located only about 50km
away, and a rail line allows daily delivery of limestone by
train.
In water environments this can be a disaster because even

just a few degrees of increased temperature can drastically
reduce the levels of dissolved oxygen which aquatic plants
and animals breathe.
Proximity to Adelaide means there is a reliable work force

and the necessary schools, shops, etc for families.
Modern plants use air-cooling towers and recycle the water.
Development occurring in the region means there is

demand for landfill to dispose of the non-toxic wastes.
Limestone wastes are also being used in brick manufacture.
Some disposal of CaCl2 to the ocean seems to have no
environmental impacts.
Solid Wastes
The roasting of limestone in a kiln produces large amounts
of waste clay and silicates. Traditionally these were
discharged into waterways where they cause problems of
silting-up.
The plant has excellent harbour, rail and road connections

to supply Na2CO3 (mainly) to Australian glass makers in
cities throughout Australasia.
More acceptable practice is to use this waste for brick

manufacture or simply as landfill.
27
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 6
When the mixture is chilled to 0oC, the

m)........................................................... precipitates and is
collected by n).......................................... When heated to
300oC this decomposes to give o).........................................
and p)........................................ gas which is recycled back to
the first step.

The main industrial uses for sodium carbonate are in
a)..................................-making, for softening b)..................
and in scrubbing the pollutant gas c).....................................
from the exhaust at a coal-burning power station.
To recover the ammonia for re-use, the CaO from the

limestone kiln is slaked with water to produce
q)...................................................... When this is added to the
NH4Cl solution it releases r).......................................... gas
(re-used) and the waste product s).............................................
The Solvay process for making Na2CO3 uses the raw

materials d)....................................... and ....................................
Products are sodium carbonate and e)......................................
The gas f)................................ is also involved, but it is
regenerated during the process so there is no net usage.
The main environmental concerns are:

disposal of the t).......................................... waste. If
discharged into lakes or rivers this would affect living things
by increasing the concentration of u).......................................
v)........................... pollution which can lead to decreased
levels of dissolved w)....................................... for aquatic
animals to breathe.
Salt is usually obtained by evaporating g).................................

Impurities such as h)............................. and ...........................
ions are removed by precipitation. Ammonia is dissolved in
the concentrated salt brine.
Meanwhile, the rock i)................................ has been roasted
in a kiln to produce solid j)................................................. and
the gas k)......................................... This gas is added to the
ammonia-brine solution. The reaction produces 2
compounds l).................................................. and .....................
.................................................
Ideally, any chemical plant should be located close to:

the supply of x)...........................................
the y)..................................... for the product.
disposal sites for z).......................................................
a population centre to provide aa).........................................
Re-u
used
Gas C
Raw
Material A
Carbonating Tower
Reaction J
Filtration
Sodium
bicarbonate
NaHCO3
Product X Production
Reaction L
Gas D
Product X
Ammonium
chloride
NH4Cl
Raw Material
B
Heating Kiln
Reaction K
Water ad
dded
d
Calcium
hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
1. (15 marks)
The flowchart represents the Solvay Process.
a) Identify compounds A, B, C, D, X and Y.
b) Write balanced equations for reactions J, K, L and M.
c) Explain the necessity of recovering gas D from reaction M
Gas D Recovery
Reaction M
3. (4 marks)
You have carried out a chemical step involved in the Solvay
Process in the laboratory. Identify the step, and then:
a) identify a difficulty associated with the lab. procedure and
explain how it was overcome.
b) identify a risk factor associated and the safety
procedure(s) used.
2. (4 marks)
Outline one environmental issue associated with the Solvay
Process and explain how it is addressed.
Waste
Product Y
28
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

In all the Core Topics you were given examples of a Mind Map
as a way to summarize the content of the topic.
If you have found this a useful way to summarize and learn, then you may want to do it again.
By now you should have developed the skills to do it yourself...
Chemical
Equilibrium
The Chemical
Industry
Production
of
Sulfuric Acid
INDUSTRIAL
Production
of Sodium
Hydroxide
CHEMISTRY
The Solvay
Process
Soaps
&
Detergents
29
Copyright 2006
Answer Section
Worksheet 3
a) fertilizers
b) superphosphate & sulfate of ammonia
c) titanium dioxide
d) cleaning
e) sulfur
f) sulfur dioxide
g) sulfur trioxide
h) water
i) Frasch
j) water
k) air
l) insoluble
m) metal ores
n) petroleum & natural gas
o) Contact
p) sulfur trioxide, SO3
q) vanadium(V) oxide
r) yield and rate
s) lower
t) higher
u) lower
v) oleum
w) oxidising
x) dehydrating
y) exothermic
z) acid to the water
Worksheet 1 & 2
a) sap (latex)
b) S. America
c) Asia
d) petrochemicals
e) 70%
f) vehicle tyres
g) it requires a lot of land, needed for food production.
h) renewable
i) biopolymers
j) corn
k) cellulose
l) dynamic equilibrium
m) the same rate
n) Le Chateliers
o) counteracts the disturbance
p) temperature & concentration
q) volume or pressure
r) Equilibrium Constant
s) products
t) reactants
u) reciprocal
v) temperature
w) decreases
x) endothermic
y) increase
1.
Low melting point allows it to be melted by hot water.
Low density, so is easily forced up by compressed air.
Insoluble in water, so easily separated from water mixture.
2.
a) Produced by the smelting of metal sulfide ores.
Produced by the refining of petroleum and natural gas.
b) These sources not only provide a source of sulfur, but it
is important to collect it to prevent the release of SO2 gas
from the smelter, or when the fuel is burned. SO2 gas is
environmentally very destructive, contributing to acid
rain for example.
3.
a) Higher yield would be favoured by high pressure which
would shift the equilibrium to the right (lower pressure
side). High yield would also be favoured by low temp., since
the reaction is exothermic, so product formation is
favoured at low temp.
b) Low temp. causes slower reaction rates. Although low
temp. favours high yield, the slow rate takes too long to
reach the equilibrium. Therefore, a compromise achieves
reasonable yield much faster.
4.
a) The first pass at high temp. achieves some yield of
product very rapidly. The second pass at lower temp. (low
temp favours higher yield equilib.) achieves higher yield,
although slower.
b) If reacted directly with water a fog of tiny droplets
forms which is difficult to collect and manage. Dissolving
first in H2SO4 to form oleum and then reacting with
water, keeps everything in liquid form and more easily
handled.
5.
a) 2Br-(aq)
Br2(aq) + 2e2b) 2H2SO4(aq) + 2e
SO2(g) + 2H2O + SO4 (aq)
c) CH3CH2OH
C2H4 + H2O
Sulfuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent and sucks the
water out of the ethanol. Technically it is a catalyst because
it causes the reaction, but is unchanged at the end of it.
6.
safety glasses gloves, coat or apron
work near water to wash/dilute any splash or spill
have NaHCO3 available to neutralize major spills.
When diluting, always add the acid to the water, slowly with
stirring, to avoid spattering.
Practice Problems & Questions 1 & 2

1.
a) K = [PCl3] x [Cl2] / [PCl5]
b)
K = [H2]2 x [O2] / [H2O]2
2
c) K = [NOCl] / [Cl2] x [NO]2
d)
K = [OH-]3 x [Al3+] / [Al(OH)3]
2
e) K = [H2] x [S2] / [H2S]2
2.
i) [HI] would increase as equilibrium shifts to the right in
an attempt to use heat to counteract temp. increase.
ii) no effect, since there are equal gas volumes on each side
of the equation... compression increases all concentrations
equally.
iii) [HI] would increase as equil. shifts right to counteract
greater [H2].
iv) Catalysts have no effect on equil... only shorten the time
to reach equil.
v) No effect. Increasing pressure with another gas has no
effect on concentrations of reactants or product.
3.
a) K = [HI]2 / [H2] x [I2] = (0.153)2/(0.0195x0.0211)
= 56.9
b) K has decreased. Endothermic reactions increase K
with temp. increase. Therefore, temp. must have decreased.
4.
a) 2HI(g)
H2(g) + I2(g)
b)
K = [H2] x [I2] / [HI]2
Its value will be the reciprocal of 56.9 = 0.0176
c)
0.0176 = [H2] x [I2] / (0.0552)2
[H2] & [I2] = 5.78 molL-1
5.
a) Since all species react in equal molar quantities, then the
molar quantities at equilibrium are:
n(CO2) = 6.50 mol (given) and n(H2) = 6.50 mol
n(CO) = 3.50 mol (since 6.50mol must have been used up)
n(H2O) = 3.50mol (as above)
Since in a 4.00L container, and c = n/V
c(CO2) and c(H2) = 6.50/4.00 = 1.625molL-1
and c(CO) and c(H2O) = 3.50/4.00 = 0.875molL-1
b)K=[CO2]x[H2]/[CO]x[H2O]= 1.625x1.625/(0.875x0.875)
= 3.45
c) Equilibrium would have been achieved faster. The equil.
itself would be exactly the same, with same value for K.
30
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 4
5.
a) Mercury process always resulted in some escape of
mercury into the environment. This enters the food chains
and accumulates in bodies of living things, causing heavymetal poisoning. Diaphram process involved asbestos
which is carcinogenic and an extreme health hazard for
workers in the plant... use now banned.
b) The Membrane process uses a modern high-tech
polymer with semi-permeable properties. This allows the
desired ions to flow through, but effectively separates final
products. This is both highly efficient and environmentally
friendly.
a) sodium chloride (salt) & water

b) electrolytic
c) REDOX
d) sodium hydroxide
e) chlorine and hydrogen
f) react with each other to form other products
g) galvanic
h) endothermic
i) energy
j) electricity
k) negative
l) voltage
m) chlorine
n) anode
o) sodium
p) cathode
q) hydrogen gas & hydroxide ions
r) oxygen gas and hydrogen ions
s) mercury
t) cathode
u) reduced
v) amalgam
w) water
x) sodium hydroxide
y) chlorine
z) environmental
aa) mercury
ab) asbestos
ac) sodium
ad) cathode
ae) hydroxide
af) sodium hydroxide
ag) asbestos
ah) salt
ai) Membrane
aj) permeable
ak) sodium (positive)
al) chloride or hydroxide
Worksheet 5
a) fatty acid
b) triglycerides
c) glycerol
d) fatty acid
e) saponification
f) base
g) NaOH or KOH
h) glycerol
i) hydrolysed
j) temperature & pressure
k) catalyst
l) glycerol & fatty acids
m) neutralized
n) ionize
o) hydrophilic
p) non-polar
q) hydrophobic
r) emulsifies
s) synthetic
t) non-polar
u) hydrophobic
v) ionized
w) hydrophilic
x) emulsifiers
y) alkylbenzene sulfonates z) negative
aa) cationic
ab) glass/ceramic
ac) fabric softeners & hair conditioners
ad) ionic
ae) polar
af) hydrogen
ag) dishwashers/floor cleaners
ah) biodegradable
ai) non-biodegradable
aj) phosphate
ak) eutrophication
1.
(Compare & Contrast means to point out both similarities
and differences. For 5 marks, try to find 5 points)
Similarity: both cells involve chemical changes occurring
and electrical energy is involved.
Differences:
Galvanic
Electrolytic
Energy change
make electricity Elect. must
be put in.
Sum of half-cell
potentials
positive
negative
Reaction spontaneous?
yes
no
Uses
batteries
cause chem.
changes
2.
Electrolysis of molten salt results in chlorine gas and
sodium metal.
Cl2(g) + 2e2Cl (l)
+
Na (l) +e
Na(l)
In a dilute solution of salt the result is the decomposition
+
of water into oxygen and hydrogen gases. (H & OH ions
are formed but these re-combine to re-form water)
H
+ 2OH-(aq)
2H2O(l) + 2e+ 2(g)
H2O(l)
1/2 O2(g) + 2H (aq)+ 2e
3.
Cl2(g) + 2ea)
2Cl+
b) 2Na + 2e
2Na (x2 so electrons will cancel)
2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
c) 2Na + 2H2O
+
d) 2Na + 2Cl +2H2O
1.
a) It is a hydrocarbon chain of 12 to 24 carbons, with a
COOH acid group at one end.
H
b) Propanetriol
H C O H
Structural formula
H C O H
Glycerol
c) Triglyceride is a molecule of
glycerol linked to 3 fatty acids.
C O H
H
3 fatty acids
2.
a) Saponification
Fat + sodium hydroxide
soap + glycerol
b) Simply add oil to a strong base solution and heat.
Cooling and adding salt will help separate the soap from the
water phase.
c)
often done industrially as a constant-throughput.
often done in 2 separate stages rather than one.
may be done at high temp. & pressure with a catalyst.
Cl2(g)+ 2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
4.
a) So they do not react with each other to form undesirable
by-products.
b) Mercury process formed sodium metal at the cathode,
but carried it away in a mercury amalgam to react with
water in a separate reaction vessel.
Diaphram process used a permeable diaphram of asbestos
to separate the products... not 100% effective.
Membrane process uses a semi-permeable polymer
membrane which allows Na+ through, but not Cl- or OH-.
31
Copyright 2006
Practice Questions 5 (continued)

3.
a) An emulsion is a stable mixture containing 2 normally
immiscible liquids. An emulsifier acts to keep one of the
liquids dispersed in the other, as tiny, separate droplets.
b) Dirt often contains fat/oil so it will not simply wash
away in water. Emulsifiers like soap can emulsify the fat, so
that it becomes suspended in water and washes away.
c)
Each droplet of fat becomes
5.Anionic detergents form negative ions in solution. They

are suitable as general cleaning agents including hair
shampoos and laundry detergents.
Cationic detergents form positive ions in solution. They are
suitable for use as fabric softeners and hair conditioners.
Non-ionic detergents do not form ions in solution. They
do not foam and are suitable for dishwashing machines and
floor cleaning.
Worksheet 6
surrounded by soap molecules.

These suspend each droplet in
the water and prevent droplets
joining together
Fat
Water
Water
Fat
a) glass
b) water
c) sulfur dioxide
d) salt/sodium chloride & calcium carbonate/limestone
e) calcium chloride
f) ammonia
g) seawater
h) calcium & magnesium ions
i) limestone
j) calcium oxide
k) carbon dioxide
l) sodium hydrogencarbonate & ammonium chloride
m) NaHCO3
n) filtration
o) sodium carbonate
p) carbon dioxide
q) calcium hydroxide
r) ammonia
s) calcium chloride
t) CaCl2
u) dissolved ions
v) Thermal (heat)
w) oxygen
x) raw materials
y) markets
z) waste products
aa) the labour force
Fat
Water
d) Acrylic house paint is an emulsion of polymer

compounds and pigments in water. The mixture is stable,
with a uniform composition and colour. Once applied, the
water evaporates leaving an insoluble, solid layer of
coloured polymer covering the wall. Before drying, the
brushes can be easily washed out in water. Overall, it makes
a convenient and effective way to decorate and seal a wall
surface.
4.
a) Both soap and the most common (anionic) detergents
are long-chain hydrocarbons with a negative ionic group on
one end. The hydrocarbon is non-polar and hydrophobic,
while the ion is hydrophilic.
b) Soap: typical molecule is sodium stearate CH3(CH2)16COOH
COO-Na+
Na+ -
1.
a) A=sodium chloride (salt), B=calcium carbonate
(limestone), C=carbon dioxide, D=ammonia, X=sodium
carbonate, Y=calcium chloride.
b) J: NaCl +NH3 +H2O +CO2
NH4Cl +NaHCO3
K: CaCO3(s)
CO2(g) + CaO(s)
L: 2NaHCO3(s)
Na2CO3(s) + H2O + CO2(g)
M: 2NH4Cl +Ca(OH)2
2NH3(g) +2H2O +CaCl2
c) ammonia is relatively expensive, so its re-use is a matter
of economy.
2.
If the waste CaCl2 is discharged into lakes or rivers it
increases the dissolved ion concentration. Although not
toxic, eventually the increasing ion load has a detrimental
effect on living things. Coastal plants can discharge to the
ocean without environmental damage, but inland plants
need to evaporate the waste and use the solid CaCl2 as
landfill.
3.
Carbonation step: (reaction J above)
a) It is difficult to get or manufacture NH3 gas (also very
hazardous). Instead use NH4OH solution, which is what
forms when NH3 dissolves in water anyway.
b) NH4OH solution is corrosive and gives off irritant
fumes of NH3 gas. Use in a fume cupboard, using rubber
gloves and safety glasses.
hydrocarbon chain
Detergent: typical molecule is sodium alkylbenzene

sulfonate.
hydrocarbon chain
benzene
SO3 Na+
SO3- Na+
c) Soap does not work in hard water because the calcium

salt of the fatty acid is insoluble and forms a greasy scum.
Detergents continue to work perfectly as emulsifiers
2+
because the ions remain soluble in the presence of Ca
ions.
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Trinity Catholic College, Auburn SL#606238

HSC Chemistry Option Topic

Sugar Cane Harvesting

Most people are familiar with some aspects of the

Photo Robert Lincolne 2006

What most people do not realize is that paper manufacture

This topic will give you a glimpse of that invisible,

Where do these come from?

...the Chemical Industry.

keep it simple science

Trinity Catholic College, Auburn SL#606238

Replacement of Natural Chemical Resources

A Brief History of Changed Supply

In the modern world we have the Global Economy,

Natural rubber comes from the sap (latex) of a tree

Its major use is still the manufacture of vehicle tyres and

The chemical technology to replace many petrochemicals

Rubber became a vital resource for making tyres as motor

These issues can be revised in the topic Production of

In World War II, the major rubber-growing areas of South

Made from corn starches and sugars, with the involvement

natural rubber production could never have kept up with

is for vehicle tyres

This is progress, but not

natural rubber varies in quality, and cannot match the

keep it simple science

Trinity Catholic College, Auburn SL#606238

Equilibrium and Le Chateliers Principle

In previous topics you were introduced to the idea of

Many chemical reactions do not just run forward and go to

Increasing the temperature will shift the equilibrium to the

For example, in the industrially important reaction to make

...in a sealed container an equilibrium is reached

If the concentration of a product is increased, the

If certain reaction conditions are altered, the equilibrium

Mixture of Gas Reactants & Product

If the temperature was increased, the equilibrium will shift

HSC Chemistry Option Topic Industrial Chemistry

The effect of increasing pressure this way is to shift the

Equilibrium has more product,

The same number of molecules are now crammed

If the temperature was decreased, the equilibrium will shift

For the ammonia reaction at left, increasing the pressure

Copyright 2006 keep it simple science

Trinity Catholic College, Auburn SL#606238

Prac Work: Modelling an Equilibrium Reaction

Volume of water in cylinder

When the tube fills to the level in

Prac Work: Observing an Equilibrium Shift

The NaOH reacts with H

hot water bath

As temperature increases, the equilibrium shifts left,

You might start with a yellow solution of chromate ions in

N2O4(g) + heat (exothermic)

If this equilibrium shifts, the colour will become more

Colour Darker as Temperature Increases

Concentration Effect on an Equilibrium

Temperature Effect on an Equilibrium

Volume of water in cylinder

You can try using different diameter glass tubes

After each back-and-forth cycle, the volume of water in

No. of transfer cycles (simulates Time)

The glass tubes must be allowed to fill to the level in each

Use 2 measuring cylinders to represent reactants and