History of the UN

The name "United Nations", coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt,
was first used in the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, during the
Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their Governments to
continue fighting together against the Axis Powers.
States first established international organizations to cooperate on specific matters. The
International Telecommunication Union was founded in 1865 as the International
Telegraph Union, and the Universal Postal Union was established in 1874. Both are now
United Nations specialized agencies.
In 1899, the International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to elaborate
instruments for settling crises peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare.
It adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and
established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began work in 1902.
The forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations, an organization
conceived in similar circumstances during the first World War, and established in 1919
under the Treaty of Versailles "to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace
and security." The International Labour Organization was also created under the Treaty of
Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League. The League of Nations ceased its
activities after failing to prevent the Second World War.
In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations
Conference on International Organization to draw up the United Nations Charter. Those
delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of
China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks,
United States in August-October 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the
representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the Conference,
signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.
The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter
had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United
States and by a majority of other signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24
October each year.
1. HOW THE UN WORKS: THE UN IN BRIEF
The United Nations was established on 24 October 1945 by 51 countries committed to
preserving peace through international cooperation and collective security. Today, nearly
every nation in the world belongs to the UN: membership totals 191 countries*.
When States become Members of the United Nations, they agree to accept the obligations
of the UN Charter, an international treaty that sets out basic principles of international
relations. According to the Charter, the UN has four purposes: to maintain international

peace and security; to develop friendly relations among nations; to cooperate in solving
international problems and in promoting respect for human rights; and to be a centre for
harmonizing the actions of nations.
The United Nations is not a world government and it does not make laws. It does,
however, provide the means to help resolve international conflicts and formulate policies
on matters affecting all of us. At the UN, all the Member States large and small, rich
and poor, with differing political views and social systems have a voice and a vote in
this process.
The United Nations has six main organs. Five of them the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the
Secretariat are based at UN Headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International
Court of Justice, is located at The Hague in the Netherlands.
The General Assembly
All UN Member States are represented in the General Assembly a "parliament of
nations" which meets to consider the world's most pressing problems. Each Member State
has one vote. Decisions on such key issues as international peace and security, admitting
new members and the UN budget are decided by two-thirds majority. Other matters are
decided by simple majority. In recent years, a special effort has been made to reach
decisions through consensus, rather than by taking a formal vote.
At its 2001/2002 session, the Assembly is considering more than 180 different topics,
including globalization, AIDS, conflict in Africa, protection of the environment and
consolidation of new democracies. The Assembly cannot force action by any State, but its
recommendations are an important indication of world opinion and represent the moral
authority of the community of nations.
The Assembly holds its annual regular session from September to December. When
necessary, it may resume its session or hold a special or emergency session on subjects of
particular concern. When the Assembly is not meeting, its work is carried out by its six
main committees, other subsidiary bodies and the UN Secretariat.
The Security Council
The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility for maintaining
international peace and security. The Council may convene at any time, whenever peace
is threatened. Under the Charter, all Member States are obligated to carry out the
Council's decisions.
There are 15 Council members. Five of these China, France, the Russian Federation,
the United Kingdom and the United States are permanent members. The other 10 are
elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Member States are discussing
making changes in Council membership and working to reflect today's political and
economic realities.

Decisions of the Council require nine yes votes. Except in votes on procedural questions,
a decision cannot be taken if there is a no vote, or veto, by a permanent member.
When the Council considers a threat to international peace, it first explores ways to settle
the dispute peacefully. It may suggest principles for a settlement or undertake mediation.
In the event of fighting, the Council tries to secure a ceasefire. It may send a
peacekeeping mission to help the parties maintain the truce and to keep opposing forces
apart.
The Council can take measures to enforce its decisions. It can impose economic sanctions
or order an arms embargo. On rare occasions, the Council has authorized Member States
to use "all necessary means," including collective military action, to see that its decisions
are carried out.
The Council also makes recommendations to the General Assembly on the appointment
of a new Secretary-General and on the admission of new Members to the UN.
The Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the General Assembly,
coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of
organizations. As the central forum for discussing international economic and social
issues and for formulating policy recommendations, the Council plays a key role in
fostering international cooperation for development. It also consults with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), thereby maintaining a vital link between the United
Nations and civil society.
The Council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It
meets throughout the year and holds a major session in July, during which a special
meeting of Ministers discusses major economic, social and humanitarian issues.
The Council's subsidiary bodies meet regularly and report back to it. The Commission on
Human Rights, for example, monitors the observance of human rights throughout the
world. Other bodies focus on such issues as social development, the status of women,
crime prevention, narcotic drugs and environmental protection. Five regional
commissions promote economic development and cooperation in their respective regions.
The Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust
Territories administered by seven Member States and ensure that adequate steps were
taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or independence. By 1994, all Trust
Territories had attained self-government or independence, either as separate States or by
joining neighbouring independent countries. The last to do so was the Trust Territory of
the Pacific Islands Palau which was administered by the United States and became
the 185th Member State.

Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five permanent members
of the Security Council. It has amended its rules of procedure to allow it to meet as and
when the occasion may require.
The International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the main judicial
organ of the UN. Consisting of 15 judges elected jointly by the General Assembly and the
Security Council, the Court decides disputes between countries. Participation by States in
a proceeding is voluntary, but if a State agrees to participate, it is obligated to comply
with the Court's decision. The Court also provides advisory opinions to the General
Assembly and the Security Council upon request.
The Secretariat
The Secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of the United Nations
as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council and the other organs. At its
head is the Secretary-General, who provides overall administrative guidance.
The Secretariat consists of departments and offices with a total staff of some 7,500 under
the regular budget, and a nearly equal number under special funding. They are drawn
from some 170 countries. Duty stations include UN Headquarters in New York, as well as
UN offices in Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi and other locations.
The UN system
The International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and 12 other independent
organizations known as "specialized agencies" are linked to the UN through cooperative
agreements. These agencies, among them the World Health Organization and the
International Civil Aviation Organization, are autonomous bodies created by
intergovernmental agreement. They have wide-ranging international responsibilities in
the economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related fields. Some of them, like
the International Labour Organization and the Universal Postal Union, are older than the
UN itself.
In addition, a number of UN offices, programmes and funds such as the Office of the
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the UN Development Programme
(UNDP) and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) work to improve the economic and
social condition of people around the world. They report to the General Assembly or the
Economic and Social Council.
All these organizations have their own governing bodies, budgets and secretariats.
Together with the United Nations, they are known as the UN family, or the UN system.
Together, they provide technical assistance and other forms of practical help in virtually
all economic and social areas.
2. WHAT THE UN DOES FOR PEACE
Preserving world peace is a central purpose of the United Nations. Under the Charter,
Member States agree to settle disputes by peaceful means and refrain from threatening or
using force against other States.

Over the years, the UN has played a major role in helping defuse international crises and
in resolving protracted conflicts. It has undertaken complex operations involving
peacemaking, peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance. It has worked to prevent
conflicts from breaking out. And after a conflict, it has increasingly undertaken action to
address the root causes of war and lay the foundation for durable peace.
UN efforts have produced dramatic results. The UN helped defuse the Cuban missile
crisis in 1962 and the Middle East crisis in 1973. In 1988, a UN-sponsored peace
settlement ended the Iran-Iraq war, and the following year UN-sponsored negotiations led
to the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. In the 1990s, the UN was
instrumental in restoring sovereignty to Kuwait and played a major role in ending civil
wars in Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala and Mozambique, restoring the
democratically elected government in Haiti, and resolving or containing conflict in
various other countries.
When, in September 1999, a campaign of violence forced some 200,000 East Timorese to
flee their homes following a vote on self-determination, the UN authorized the dispatch
of an international security force, which helped restore order. In October, the Council
established a UN Transitional Administration which, with the protection of the
multinational force, began overseeing the territorys transition to independence. And
when terrorists attacked the United States on 11 September 2001, the Security Council
acted quickly adopting a wide-ranging resolution which obligates States to ensure that
any person who participates in financing, planning, preparing, perpetrating or supporting
terrorist acts is brought to justice, as well as to establish such acts as serious criminal
offences under domestic law.
Disarmament
Halting the spread of arms and reducing and eventually eliminating all weapons of mass
destruction are major goals of the United Nations. The UN has been an ongoing forum
for disarmament negotiations, making recommendations and initiating studies. It supports
multilateral negotiations in the Conference on Disarmament and in other international
bodies. These negotiations have produced such agreements as the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty (1968), the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996) and
treaties establishing nuclear-free zones.
Other treaties prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of chemical weapons
(1992) and bacteriological weapons (1972); ban nuclear weapons from the seabed and
ocean floor (1971) and outer space (1967); and ban or restrict other types of weapons. By
2001, more than 120 countries had become parties to the 1997 Ottawa Convention
outlawing landmines. The UN encourages all nations to adhere to this and other treaties
banning destructive weapons of war. The UN is also supporting efforts to prevent, combat
and eradicate the illicit trade in small arms and light weapons the weapons of choice in
46 of 49 major conflicts since 1990. The UN Register of Conventional Arms and the
system for standardized reporting of military expenditures help promote greater
transparency in military matters.

The Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency, through a system of safeguards

agreements, ensures that nuclear materials and equipment intended for peaceful uses are
not diverted for military purposes. And in The Hague, the Organisation for the
Prohibition of Chemical Weapons collects information on chemical facilities worldwide
and conducts routine inspections to ensure adherence to the chemical weapons
convention.
Peacemaking
UN peacemaking brings hostile parties to agreement through diplomatic means. The
Security Council, in its efforts to maintain international peace and security, may
recommend ways to avoid conflict or restore or secure peace through negotiation, for
example, or recourse to the International Court of Justice.
The Secretary-General plays an important role in peacemaking. The Secretary-General
may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that appears to threaten
international peace and security, use good offices to carry out mediation or exercise quiet
diplomacy behind the scenes either personally or through special envoys. The
Secretary-General also undertakes preventive diplomacy aimed at resolving disputes
before they escalate.
Peace-building
The UN is increasingly undertaking activities that address the underlying causes of
conflict.
Development assistance is a key element of peace-building. In cooperation with UN
agencies, donor countries, host governments and NGOs, the United Nations works to
support good governance, civil law and order, elections and human rights in countries
struggling to deal with the aftermath of conflict. At the same time, it helps these countries
rebuild administrative, health, educational and other services disrupted by war.
Some of these activities, such as the UN's supervision of the 1989 elections in Namibia,
mine-clearance programmes in Mozambique and police training in Haiti, take place
within the framework of a UN peacekeeping operation and may continue when the
operation withdraws. Others are requested by governments as in Cambodia, where the
UN maintains a human rights office, or in Guatemala, where the UN is helping to
implement peace agreements which affect virtually all aspects of national life.
Peacekeeping
The Security Council sets up UN peacekeeping operations and defines their scope and
mandate in its efforts to maintain peace and international security. Most operations
involve military duties, such as observing a ceasefire or establishing a buffer zone while
negotiators seek a long-term solution. Others may require civilian police or other civilian
personnel to help organize elections or monitor human rights. Operations have also been
deployed to monitor peace agreements in cooperation with the peacekeeping forces of
regional organizations.

Peacekeeping operations may last for a few months or continue for many years. The UN's
operation at the ceasefire line between India and Pakistan in the State of Jammu and
Kashmir, for example, was established in 1949, and UN peacekeepers have been in
Cyprus since 1964. In contrast, the UN was able to complete its 1994 mission in the
Aouzou Strip between Libya and Chad in a little over a month.
Since the UN first deployed peacekeepers in 1948, some 123 countries have voluntarily
provided more than 750,000 military and civilian police personnel. They have served,
along with thousands of civilians, in 54 peacekeeping operations.
UN action for peace...
...In Africa
UN peace efforts have taken many forms over the years, including the long campaign
against apartheid in South Africa, active support for Namibian independence, a number of
electoral support missions and some 20 peacekeeping operations. The most recent
operations in Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Ethiopia and
Eritrea were established in 1999 and 2000. The UN has helped repatriate refugees to
Mozambique, provided humanitarian assistance in Somalia and Sudan, and undertaken
diplomatic efforts to restore peace in the Great Lakes region. It has helped prevent new
unrest in the Central African Republic, and it is helping to prepare for a referendum on
the future of Western Sahara.
Elsewhere in Africa, UN field missions continue their peace-building activities in
Guinea-Bissau and Liberia, and remain in Angola and Burundi to support various
initiatives aimed at promoting peace and reconciliation. At the request of the Security
Council, the Secretary-General has provided a comprehensive analysis of conflicts in
Africa along with recommendations on how to promote durable peace.
...In Asia and the Pacific
The UN family continues working to strengthen Cambodian civil society, human rights
and democracy following the massive 1992-1993 UN peacekeeping mission in that
country.
In Afghanistan, the UN worked throughout the last decade to facilitate national
reconciliation and reconstruction, needed as a result of the country's protracted civil war.
But despite intense diplomatic efforts by the Secretary-General and his personal envoys,
fighting continued at great humanitarian cost, severely hindering attempts by the UN
system to provide assistance to the Afghan people.
With the escalation of the conflict in Afghanistan following the 11 September 2001
terrorist attack on the United States, the Secretary-General in October appointed Lakhdar
Brahimi as his Special Representative for Afghanistan. As the situation there unfolded,
the UN played a central role in promoting dialogue among the Afghan parties, aimed at
establishing a broad-based, inclusive government.

In East Timor, UN-brokered talks between Indonesia and Portugal culminated in a May
1999 agreement which paved the way for a popular consultation on the status of the
territory. Under the agreement, a UN mission supervised voter registration and an August
1999 ballot, in which 78 per cent of East Timorese voted for independence over
autonomy within Indonesia. In August 2001, a major step was taken in that direction,
with the election of a Constituent Assembly which drafted the constitution for an
independent and democratic East Timor*.
In Tajikistan, the United Nations Office of Peace-building was created in June 2000 to
replace a peacekeeping operation there, providing the political framework and leadership
for a variety of peace-building activities. Elsewhere, UN military observers continued to
monitor the ceasefire line between India and Pakistan in the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
In the Pacific, the UN helped the government of Papua New Guinea and the Bougainville
parties reach a comprehensive agreement covering issues of autonomy, referendum and
weapons disposal.
...In Europe
In Cyprus, the Secretary-General and his Special Adviser have worked to promote
negotiations aimed at achieving a comprehensive settlement. The UN peacekeeping
force there continues to supervise the ceasefire lines, maintain the buffer zone and
undertake humanitarian activities.
The UN worked strenuously towards resolving the conflict in the former Yugoslavia
while providing relief assistance to some 4 million people. In 1991, the UN imposed an
arms embargo, while the Secretary-General and his envoy conducted diplomatic efforts to
end the fighting. From 1992 to 1995, UN peacekeepers sought to bring peace and security
to Croatia, helped protect civilians in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and helped ensure that the
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was not drawn into the war.
Following the 1995 Dayton-Paris peace agreements, four UN missions helped secure the
peace. Today, the UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina carries out a wide range of law
enforcement functions while coordinating humanitarian, human rights and reconstruction
activities. The UN Mission of Observers in Prevlaka monitors the demilitarization of that
peninsula a strategic area disputed by Croatia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
In Kosovo (Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), the Security Council established in 1999 an
interim international administration following the end of NATO air bombings and the
withdrawal of Yugoslav forces. Under the umbrella of the UN, the European Union, the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the United Nations are working
with the people of Kosovo to create a functioning, democratic society with substantial
autonomy. Municipal elections in October 2000, and the promulgation of a Constitutional
Framework for Provisional Self-Government, paved the way for Kosovo-wide elections
on 17 November 2001 for a legislative assembly.

In Abkhazia, Georgia, while the UN military observer mission carries out its
peacekeeping mandate, diplomatic efforts have continued to find a comprehensive
settlement of the Georgian/Abkhaz conflict.
...In the Americas
UN peacemaking and peacekeeping have been instrumental in resolving protracted
conflicts in Central America. In 1989, in Nicaragua, the peace effort led to voluntary
demobilization of the resistance movement, whose members turned in their weapons to
the UN. In 1990, a UN mission observed Nicaragua's elections the first UN-observed
elections in an independent country. In El Salvador, peace talks mediated by the
Secretary-General ended 12 years of fighting and a UN peacekeeping mission verified
implementation of all agreements.
In Guatemala, UN-assisted negotiations ended a 35-year civil war. Today, the UN
Verification Mission in Guatemala, works to see that the comprehensive peace
agreements are fully implemented. In Haiti, following international action to restore the
democratically elected government, the UN has put a comprehensive programme in
place, emphasizing human rights, consensus-building and conflict-reduction, with the
strong participation of civil society.
...In the Middle East
UN concern over the Arab-Israeli conflict spans five decades and five full-fledged wars.
The UN has defined principles for a just and lasting peace, including two benchmark
Security Council resolutions 242 (1967) and 338 (1973) which remain the basis for
an overall settlement.
The UN has supported other initiatives aimed at solving underlying political problems,
and has despatched various peacekeeping operations to the region. The UN's first military
observer group was set up in 1948 and maintains its presence in the area to this day. The
UN's first peacekeeping force was also set up there, during the Suez crisis of 1956. Two
peacekeeping forces are currently in the region. One, established in 1974, maintains an
area of separation on the Golan Heights between Israeli and Syrian troops. The other,
established in 1978, contributes to stability in southern Lebanon and in 2000 verified the
withdrawal of Israeli forces from the area.
Since the events of September 2000 in Jerusalem and the outbreak of the Al-Aqsa
intifada, the Secretary-General has intensified his efforts to end the violence and bring the
Israelis and the Palestinians back to the negotiating table. He participated in the October
2000 Summit meeting at Sharm-El-Sheikh, Egypt co-chaired by United States
President Bill Clinton and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak which resulted in the
establishment of a fact-finding committee chaired by U.S. Senator George Mitchell. Its
April 2001 report remains the only broadly acceptable blueprint for confidence-building
measures between the parties and eventual resumption of the peace process. The
Secretary-General and his representatives participate actively in efforts to implement its
recommendations, in close coordination with other interested actors including the
United States, the Russian Federation, the European Union and countries of the region.

3. WHAT THE UN DOES FOR JUSTICE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND

INTERNATIONAL LAW
Through UN efforts, governments have concluded many multilateral agreements that
make the world a safer, healthier place with greater opportunity and justice for all of us.
This comprehensive body of international law, including human rights law, is one of the
UN's great achievements.
Human rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed by the General Assembly in
1948, sets out basic rights and freedoms to which all women and men are entitled
among them the right to life, liberty and nationality; to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion; the right to work and to be educated; the right to food and housing; and the
right to take part in government.
These rights are legally binding by virtue of two International Covenants, to which most
States are parties. One Covenant deals with economic, social and cultural rights and the
other with civil and political rights. Together with the Declaration, they constitute the
International Bill of Human Rights.
The Declaration laid the groundwork for more than 80 conventions and declarations on
human rights, including the two International Covenants; conventions to eliminate racial
discrimination and discrimination against women; conventions on the rights of the child,
against torture and other degrading treatment of punishment, the status of refugees and
the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide; and declarations on the rights of
persons belonging to national, ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities, the right to
development, and the rights of human rights defenders.
With its standards-setting work nearly complete, the UN is shifting the emphasis of its
human rights efforts to the implementation of human rights laws. The High
Commissioner for Human Rights, who coordinates UN human rights activities, works
with governments to improve their observance of human rights, seeks to prevent
violations, and works closely with the UN human rights mechanisms. The UN
Commission on Human Rights, an intergovernmental body, holds public meetings to
review the human rights performance of States, to adopt new standards and to promote
human rights around the world. The Commission also appoints independent experts
"special rapporteurs" to report on specific human rights abuses or to examine the
human rights situation in specific countries.
UN human rights bodies contribute to early warning and conflict prevention, as well as in
efforts to address the root causes of conflict. A number of UN peacekeeping operations
have a human rights component. In all, UN human rights field activities are currently
being carried out in nearly 30 countries or territories. They help strengthen national

capacities in human rights legislation, administration and education; investigate reported

violations; and assist governments in taking corrective measures when needed.
Promoting respect for human rights is increasingly central to UN development assistance.
In particular, the right to development is seen as part of a dynamic process which
integrates civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights, and by which the wellbeing of all individuals in a society is improved. Key to the enjoyment of the right to
development is the eradication of poverty, a major UN goal.
International law
The UN Charter specifically calls on the United Nations to undertake the progressive
codification and development of international law. The over 500 conventions, treaties and
standards resulting from this work have provided a framework for promoting
international peace and security and economic and social development. States that ratify
these conventions are legally bound by them.
The International Law Commission prepares drafts on topics of international law which
can then be incorporated into conventions and opened for ratification by States. Some of
these conventions form the basis for law governing relations among States, such as the
convention on diplomatic relations or the convention regulating the use of international
watercourses.
The UN Commission on International Trade Law develops rules and guidelines designed
to harmonize and facilitate laws regulating international trade. The UN has also pioneered
the development of international environmental law. Agreements such as the convention
to combat desertification, the convention on the ozone layer, and the convention on the
transborder movement of hazardous wastes are administered by the UN Environment
Programme.
The Convention on the Law of the Sea seeks to ensure equitable access by all countries to
the riches of the oceans, protect them from pollution and facilitate freedom of navigation
and research. The Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs is the key
international treaty against drug trafficking.
The United Nations remains at the centre of international efforts to create a legal
framework against terrorism. Twelve global conventions on the issue have been
negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations, including the 1979 Convention
against the Taking of Hostages, the 1997 Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist
Bombings, and the 1999 Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism,
and work is in progress on a comprehensive anti-terrorism treaty.
In 2001, following the 11 September terrorist attacks in the United States, the Security
Council adopted a wide-ranging anti-terrorist resolution, under the enforcement
provisions of the UN Charter. It included provisions to prevent the financing of terrorism,
criminalize the collection of funds for such purposes, and to immediately freeze terrorist
financial assets. The Council called on States to accelerate the exchange of information

regarding terrorist movements and decided that States should afford one another the
greatest measure of assistance for criminal investigations or proceedings relating to
terrorist acts.
Ending impunity
Massive violations of humanitarian law during the fighting in the former Yugoslavia led
the Security Council in 1993 to establish an international tribunal to try persons accused
of war crimes in that conflict. In 1994, the Council set up a second tribunal to hear cases
involving accusations of genocide in Rwanda. The tribunals have found several
defendants guilty and sentenced them to prison. The Rwanda Tribunal in 1998 handed
down the first-ever verdict by an international court on the crime of genocide, as well as
the first-ever sentence for that crime.
A key United Nations goal an international mechanism to impose accountability in the
face of mass violations of human rights was realized in 1998 when governments
agreed to establish an International Criminal Court. The Court will provide a means for
punishing perpetrators of genocide and other crimes against humanity. In voting to set up
the Court, the international community made it clear that impunity the assumption that
crimes will go unpunished is no longer possible for those who commit atrocities. The
Court will come into being on 1 July 2002.
The UN has also contributed to the elaboration of conventions relating to international
humanitarian law, such as the 1948 Convention on Genocide and the 1980 Inhumane
Weapons Convention (concerning weapons which are excessively injurious or have
indiscriminate effects).
4. WHAT THE UN DOES FOR HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE
Humanitarian disasters can occur anywhere, at any time. Whether the cause be flood,
drought, earthquake or conflict, a humanitarian disaster means lost lives, displaced
populations, communities incapable of sustaining themselves and great suffering.
Emergency assistance
In the face of disaster, the UN family of organizations supplies food, shelter, medicines
and logistical support to the victims most of them children, women and the elderly.
To pay for this assistance and deliver it to those in need, the UN has raised billions of
dollars from international donors. During 2001 alone, the Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs launched 19 inter-agency appeals, raising more than $1.4 billion to
assist 44 million people in 19 countries and regions. The Office is headed by the United
Nations Emergency Relief Coordinator, who also serves as Under-Secretary-General for
Humanitarian Affairs.
Providing humanitarian assistance requires that the United Nations overcome major
logistical and security constraints in the field. Reaching affected areas can itself be a
major obstacle. In recent years, many crises have been aggravated by an erosion of

respect for human rights. Humanitarian workers have been denied access to people in
need, and warring parties have deliberately targeted civilians and aid workers. Since
1992, more than 200 UN civilian staff members have been killed and some 265 taken
hostage while serving in humanitarian operations worldwide. In the effort to prevent
human rights violations in the midst of crisis, the UN High Commissioner for Human
Rights has played an increasingly active role in the UN response to emergencies.
The UN coordinates its response to humanitarian crises through a committee of all the
key humanitarian bodies, chaired by the UN Emergency Relief Coordinator. Members
include the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), the UN Development Programme (UNDP),
the World Food Programme (WFP) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR). Other UN agencies are also represented, as are major non-governmental and
intergovernmental humanitarian organizations, such as the International Committee of the
Red Cross.
Humanitarian response
The UN Emergency Relief Coordinator is responsible for developing policy for
humanitarian action and for promoting humanitarian issues helping raise awareness,
for example, of the consequences of the proliferation of small arms or the humanitarian
effects of sanctions.
People who have fled war, persecution or human rights abuse refugees and displaced
persons are assisted by UNHCR. At the start of 2001, there were some 22 million
people of concern to UNHCR in more than 120 countries, including some 5.4 million
internally displaced. Some 3.6 million Afghans accounted for 30 per cent of refugees
worldwide, followed by 568,000 refugees from Burundi and 512,800 from Iraq.
As the worlds largest food aid organization, WFP supplies one third of emergency food
assistance worldwide. In 2000, WFP delivered 3.7 million tons of food aid to 83 million
people in 83 countries including most of the worlds refugees and internally displaced
persons.
War and civil strife have separated an estimated 1 million children from their parents over
the past 10 years, made 12 million more homeless and left 10 million severely
traumatized. UNICEF seeks to meet the needs of these children by supplying food, safe
water, medicine and shelter. UNICEF has also pioneered the concept of "children as
zones of peace" and created "days of tranquillity" and "corridors of peace" to help protect
children in war and provide them with essential services.
Disaster prevention and preparedness are also part of UN humanitarian action. When
disasters occur, UNDP coordinates relief work at the local level, while promoting
recovery and long-term development. In 2001, for example, following a devastating
earthquake in India, the agency moved quickly to help local communities, while working
to reduce long-term vulnerability to natural disasters.

And in countries undergoing extended emergencies or recovering from conflict,

humanitarian assistance is increasingly seen as part of an overall peace-building effort,
along with developmental, political and financial assistance.
Palestine refugees
Relief work for Palestine refugees has been carried out since 1949 by the UN Relief and
Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). Today, the Agency
provides essential health, education, relief and social services and implements incomegeneration programmes for more than 4 million Palestine refugees in the region. A UN
Coordinator oversees all development assistance provided by the UN system to the
Palestinian people in Gaza and the West Bank.
Office of the Iraq Programme
In 1996, pending fulfilment by Iraq of a number of Security Council resolutions, Iraq and
the United Nations agreed on an "oil-for-food programme" to alleviate the humanitarian
impact of comprehensive sanctions imposed against the country in 1990. The Office of
the Iraq Programme was established in 1997 to consolidate management of the
programme, which includes the sale of Iraqi oil, the processing of contracts between Iraq
and its suppliers for the purchase of humanitarian supplies, and observing Iraq's
distribution of those supplies.
5. WHAT THE UN DOES FOR DEVELOPMENT
One of the UN's central mandates is the promotion of higher standards of living, full
employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development. As much
as 70 per cent of the work of the UN system is devoted to accomplishing this mandate.
Guiding the work is the belief that eradicating poverty and improving the well-being of
people everywhere are necessary steps in creating conditions for lasting world peace.
The UN has unique strengths in promoting development. Its presence is global and its
comprehensive mandate spans social, economic and emergency needs. The UN does not
represent any particular national or commercial interest. When major policy decisions are
taken, all countries, rich and poor, have a voice.
Setting the agenda
The UN has played a crucial role in building international consensus on action for
development. Beginning in 1960, the General Assembly has helped set priorities and
goals through a series of 10-year International Development Strategies. While focusing
on issues of particular concern, the Decades have consistently stressed the need for
progress on all aspects of social and economic development. The UN continues
formulating new development objectives in such key areas as sustainable development,
the advancement of women, human rights, environmental protection and good
governance along with programmes to make them a reality.
At the Millennium Summit in September 2000, world leaders adopted a set of
Millennium Development Goals aimed at eradicating extreme poverty and hunger;

achieving universal primary education; promoting gender equality and empowering

women; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other diseases; and ensuring environmental sustainability through a set of
measurable targets to be achieved by the year 2015. Among these are: cutting in half the
proportion of those who earn less than a dollar a day; achieving universal primary
education; eliminating gender disparity at all levels of education; and dramatically
reducing child mortality while increasing maternal health.
Assistance for development
The UN system works in a variety of ways to promote economic and social goals.
The mandates of the specialized agencies cover virtually all areas of economic and social
endeavour. The agencies provide technical assistance and other forms of practical help to
countries around the world. In cooperation with the UN, they help formulate policies, set
standards and guidelines, foster support and mobilize funds. The World Bank, for
example, provided more than $17 billion in development loans in fiscal year 2001 to
more than 100 developing countries.
Close coordination between the UN and the specialized agencies is ensured through the
UN System Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB), comprising the SecretaryGeneral, the heads of the specialized agencies, funds and programmes, the International
Atomic Energy Agency and the World Trade Organization.
The UN programmes and funds work under the authority of the General Assembly and
the Economic and Social Council to carry out the UN's economic and social mandate. To
enhance overall cooperation, the Secretary-General in 1997 set up the UN Development
Group, comprising the UN operational programmes and funds.
The UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN's largest provider of grants for
sustainable human development worldwide, is actively involved in attaining the
millennium development goals. The UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) is the lead UN
organization working for the long-term survival, protection and development of children.
Active in some 160 countries, areas and territories, its programmes focus on
immunization, primary health care, nutrition and basic education.
Many other UN programmes work for development, in partnership with governments and
NGOs. The World Food Programme (WFP) is the world's largest international food aid
organization for both emergency relief and development. The UN Population Fund
(UNFPA) is the largest international provider of population assistance. The UN
Environment Programme (UNEP) works to encourage sound environmental practices
everywhere, and the UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) assists people
living in health-threatening housing conditions.
To increase the participation of developing countries in the global economy, the UN
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) promotes international trade.

UNCTAD also works with the World Trade Organization (WTO), a separate entity, in
assisting developing countries' exports through the International Trade Centre.
Pooling resources
The UN system is increasingly pooling its efforts to tackle complex problems that cut
across organizational areas of expertise and defy the efforts of any country acting alone.
The Joint UN Programme on AIDS pools the expertise of eight UN agencies and
programmes to combat an epidemic that has struck more than 57 million people
worldwide. The UN System-Wide Special Initiative on Africa a 10-year, $25 billion
endeavour launched in 1996 brings virtually all points of the UN into a common
programme to ensure basic education, health services and food security in Africa. The
Global Environment Facility, a $3.5 billion fund administered by UNDP, UNEP and the
World Bank, helps developing countries carry out environmental programmes.
UNICEF, UNDP, the World Bank and WHO joined forces in 1998 to launch a new
campaign to fight malaria, which kills more than 1 million people a year. Joint initiatives
to expand immunization and develop new vaccines have enlisted the support of business
leaders, philanthropic foundations, non-governmental organizations and governments, as
well as UNICEF, WHO and the World Bank.
6. THE SPECIALIZED AGENCIES
Autonomous organizations joined to the UN through special agreements:

ILO (International Labour Organization): Formulates policies and programmes to

improve working conditions and employment opportunities, and sets labour
standards used by countries around the world.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN): Works to improve

agricultural productivity and food security, and to better the living standards of
rural populations.

UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Promotes

education for all, cultural development, protection of the world's natural and
cultural heritage, international cooperation in science, press freedom and
communication.

WHO (World Health Organization): Coordinates programmes aimed at solving

health problems and the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of
health. It works in such areas as immunization, health education and the provision
of essential drugs.

World Bank Group: Provides loans and technical assistance to developing

countries to reduce poverty and advance sustainable economic growth.

IMF (International Monetary Fund):Facilitates international monetary cooperation

and financial stability and provides a permanent forum for consultation, advice
and assistance on financial issues.

ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization):Sets international standards for

the safety, security and efficiency of air transport, and serves as the coordinator
for international cooperation in all areas of civil aviation.

UPU (Universal Postal Union):Establishes international regulations for postal

services, provides technical assistance and promotes cooperation in postal
matters.

ITU (International Telecommunication Union): Fosters international cooperation

to improve telecommunications of all kinds, coordinates usage of radio and TV
frequencies, promotes safety measures and conducts research.

WMO (World Meteorological Organization): Promotes scientific research on the

Earth's atmosphere and on climate change, and facilitates the global exchange of
meteorological data.

IMO (International Maritime Organization): Works to improve international

shipping procedures, raise standards in marine safety, and reduce marine pollution
by ships.

WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization): Promotes international

protection of intellectual property and fosters cooperation on copyrights,
trademarks, industrial designs and patents.

IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development): Mobilizes financial

resources to raise food production and nutrition levels among the poor in
developing countries.

UNIDO (UN Industrial Development Organization): Promotes the industrial

advancement of developing countries through technical assistance, advisory
services and training.

IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency): An autonomous intergovernmental

organization under the aegis of the UN, it works for the safe and peaceful uses of
atomic energy.

Achievements of the UN

The United Nations was established in the aftermath of a devastating war to help
stabilize international relations and give peace a more secure foundation.
Amid the threat of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts, peacekeeping has become an overriding concern of the United Nations. In the process,
the activities of blue-helmeted peace-keepers have emerged as the most visible
role associated with the world organization.

The United Nations, however, is much more than a peace-keeper and forum for
conflict resolution. Often without attracting attention, the United Nations and its
family of agencies are engaged in a vast array of work that touches every aspect
of people's lives around the world.

Child survival and development. Environmental protection. Human rights. Health

and medical research. Alleviation of poverty and economic development.
Agricultural development and fisheries. Education. Family planning. Emergency
and disaster relief. Air and sea travel. Peaceful uses of atomic energy. Labour and
workers' rights. The list goes on. Here, in brief, is a sampling of what the United
Nations organizations have accomplished since 1945 when the world organization
was founded.

Maintaining peace and security - By having deployed a total of 54 peace-keeping

forces and observer missions as of September 2001, the United Nations has been
able to restore calm to allow the negotiating process to go forward while saving
millions of people from becoming casualties of conflicts. There are presently 15
active peace-keeping forces in operation.

Making peace - Since 1945, the United Nations has been credited with negotiating
many peaceful settlements that have ended regional conflicts. Recent cases
include an end to the Iran-Iraq war, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from
Afghanistan, and an end to the civil war in El Salvador. The United Nations has
used quiet diplomacy to avert imminent wars.

Promoting democracy - The United Nations has enabled people in many countries
to participate in free and fair elections, including those held in Cambodia,
Namibia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, Nicaragua, South Africa, Kosovo
and East Timor. It has provided electoral advice, assistance, and monitoring of
results.

Promoting development - The UN system has devoted more attention and

resources to the promotion of the development of human skills and potentials than
any other external assistance effort. The system's annual disbursements, including

loans and grants, amount to more than $10 billion. The UN Development
Programme (UNDP), in close cooperation with over 170 Member States and other
UN agencies, designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry,
education, and the environment. It supports more than 5,000 projects with a
budget of $1.3 billion. It is the largest multilateral source of grant development
assistance. The World Bank, at the forefront in mobilizing support for developing
countries worldwide, has alone loaned $333 billion for development projects
since 1946. In addition, UNICEF spends more than $800 million a year, primarily
on immunization, health care, nutrition and basic education in 138 countries.

Promoting human rights - Since adopting the Universal Declaration of Human

Rights in 1948, the United Nations has helped enact dozens of comprehensive
agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. By
investigating individual complaints of human rights abuses, the UN Human
Rights Commission has focused world attention on cases of torture,
disappearance, and arbitrary detention and has generated international pressure to
be brought on governments to improve their human rights records.

Protecting the environment - The United Nations has played a vital role in
fashioning a global programme designed to protect the environment. The "Earth
Summit," the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change, and all
countries adopted "Agenda 21" - a blueprint to promote sustainable development
or the concept of economic growth while protecting natural resources.

Preventing nuclear proliferation - The United Nations, through the International

Atomic Energy Agency, has helped minimize the threat of a nuclear war by
inspecting nuclear reactors in 90 countries to ensure that nuclear materials are not
diverted for military purposes.

Promoting self determination and independence - The United Nations has played
a role in bringing about independence in countries that are now among its
Member States.

Strengthening international law - Over 300 international treaties, on topics as

varied as human rights conventions to agreements on the use of outer space and
seabed, have been enacted through the efforts of the United Nations.

Handing down judicial settlements of major international disputes - By giving

judgments and advisory opinions, the International Court of Justice has helped
settle international disputes involving territorial issues, non-interference in the
internal affairs of States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum,
rights of passage and economic rights.

Ending apartheid in South Africa - By imposing measures ranging from an arms

embargo to a convention against segregated sporting events, the United Nations

was a major factor in bringing about the downfall of the apartheid system, which
the General Assembly called "a crime against humanity." Elections were held in
April 1994 in which all South Africans were allowed to participate on an equal
basis, followed by the establishment of a majority government.

Providing humanitarian aid to victims of conflict - More than 30 million refugees

fleeing war, famine or persecution have received aid from the UN High
Commissioner for Refugees since 1951 in a continuing effort coordinated by the
United Nations that often involves other agencies. There are more than 19 million
refugees, mostly women and children, who are receiving food, shelter, medical
aid, education and repatriation assistance.

Aiding Palestinian refugees - Since 1950, the United Nations Relief and Works
Agency (UNRWA) has sustained four generations of Palestinians with free
schooling, essential health care, relief assistance and key social services virtually
without interruption. There are 2.9 million refugees in the Middle East served by
UNRWA.

Alleviating chronic hunger and rural poverty in developing countries - The

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has developed a system
of providing credit, often in very small amounts, for the poorest and most
marginalised groups that has benefited over 230 million people in nearly 100
developing countries.

Focusing on African development - For the United Nations, Africa continues to be

the highest priority. In 1986, the United Nations convened a special session to
drum up international support for African economic recovery and development.
The United Nations also has instituted a system-wide task force to ensure that
commitments made by the international community are honoured and challenges
met. The Africa Project Development Facility has helped entrepreneurs in 25
countries to find financing for new enterprises. The Facility has completed 130
projects which represent investments of $233 million and the creation of 13,000
new jobs. It is expected that these new enterprises will either earn or save some
$131 million in foreign exchange annually.

Promoting women's rights - A long term objective of the United Nations has been
to improve the lives of women and to empower women to have greater control
over their lives. Several conferences during the UN-sponsored International
Women's Decade set an agenda for the advancement of women and women's
rights for the rest of the century. The UN Development Fund for Women
(UNIFEM) and the International Research and Training Institute for the
Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) have supported programmes and projects
to improve the quality of life for women in over 100 countries. They include
credit and training, access to new food-production technologies and marketing
opportunities, and other means of promoting women's work.

Providing safe drinking water - UN agencies have worked to make safe drinking
water available to 1.3 billion people in rural areas during the last decade.

Eradicating smallpox - A 13-year effort by the World Health Organization resulted

in the complete eradication of smallpox from the planet in 1980. The eradication
has saved an estimated $1 billion a year in vaccination and monitoring, almost
three times the cost of eliminating the scourge itself. WHO also helped wipe out
polio from the Western hemisphere, with global eradication expected by the year
2000.

Pressing for universal immunization - Polio, tetanus, measles, whooping cough,

diphtheria and tuberculosis still kill more than eight million children each year. In
1974, only 5 per cent of children in developing countries were immunized against
these diseases. Today, as a result of the efforts of UNICEF and WHO, there is an
80 per cent immunization rate, saving the lives of more than 3 million children
each year.

Reducing child mortality rates - Through oral rehydration therapy, water and
sanitation and other health and nutrition measures undertaken by UN agencies,
child mortality rates in the developing countries have been halved since 1960,
increasing the life expectancy from 37 to 67 years.

Fighting parasitic diseases - Efforts by UN agencies in North Africa to eliminate

the dreaded screw worm, a parasite that feeds on human and animal flesh,
prevented the spread of the parasite, which is carried by flies, to Egypt, Tunisia,
sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. A WHO programme also has saved the lives of 7
million children from going blind from the river blindness and rescued many
others from guinea worm and other tropical diseases.

Promoting investment in developing countries - The United Nations, through the

efforts of the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), has served as a
"match-maker" for North-South, South-South and East-West investment,
promoting entrepreneurship and self-reliance, industrial cooperation and
technology transfer and cost-effective, ecologically-sensitive industry.

Orienting economic policy toward social need - Many UN agencies have

emphasized the need to take account of human needs in determining economic
adjustment and restructuring policies and programmes, including measures to
safeguard the poor, especially in areas of health and education, and "debt swaps
for children."

Reducing the effects of natural disasters - The World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) has spared millions of people from the calamitous effects of both natural
and man-made disasters. Its early warning system, which utilizes thousands of
surface monitors as well as satellites, has provided information for the dispersal of

oil spills and has predicted long-term droughts. The system has allowed for the
efficient distribution of food aid to drought regions, such as southern Africa in
1992.

Providing food to victims of emergencies - Nearly 815 million people are

currently suffering from chronic malnutrition, including 300 million children. In
2001, the World Food Programme (WFP) distributed 4.2 million tons of food to
77 million people in 82 countries for a total operational expenditure of $ 1.74
billion. 20 million people received, through development projects, aid in food-forwork projects to promote agriculture, improve the environment, and in school
feeding, health, and nutrition projects, and 57 million people were offered
assistance through short- and long-term operations.These beneficiaries include
internally displaced people, refugees, and victims of natural disasters such as
floods and drought.

Clearing land mines - The United Nations is leading an international effort to

clear land mines from former battlefields in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, El
Salvador, Mozambique, Rwanda and Somalia that still kill and maim thousands of
innocent people every year.

Protecting the ozone layer - The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) have been instrumental in
highlighting the damage caused to the earth's ozone layer. As a result of a treaty,
known as the Montreal Protocol, there has been a global effort to reduce chemical
emissions of substances that have caused the depletion of the ozone layer. The
effort will spare millions of people from the increased risk of contracting cancer
due to additional exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Curbing global warming - Through the Global Environment Facility, countries

have contributed substantial resources to curb conditions that cause global
warming. Increasing emissions from burning fossil fuels and changes in land use
patterns have led to a build-up of gases in the atmosphere, which experts believe
can lead to a warming of the Earth's temperature.

Preventing over-fishing - The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) monitors

marine fishery production and issues alerts to prevent damage due to over-fishing.

Limiting deforestation and promoting sustainable forestry development - FAO,

UNDP and the World Bank, through a Tropical Forests Action Programme, have
formulated and carried out forestry action plans in 90 countries.

Cleaning up pollution - UNEP led a major effort to clean up the Mediterranean

Sea. It encouraged adversaries such as Syria and Israel, Turkey and Greece to
work together to clean up beaches. As a result, more than 50 per cent of the
previously polluted beaches are now usable.

Protecting consumers' health - To ensure the safety of food sold in the market
place, UN agencies have established standards for over 200 food commodities and
safety limits for more than 3,000 food containers.

Reducing fertility rates - The UN Population Fund (UNFPA), through its family
planning programmes, has enabled people to make informed choices, and
consequently given families, and especially women, greater control over their
lives. As a result, women in developing countries are having fewer children - from
six births per woman in the 1960s to 3.5 today. In the 1960s, only 10 per cent of
the world's families were using effective methods of family planning. The number
now stands at 55 per cent.

Fighting drug abuse - The UN International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP)

has worked to reduce demand for illicit drugs, suppress drug trafficking, and has
helped farmers to reduce their economic reliance on growing narcotic crops by
shifting farm production toward other dependable sources of income.

Improving global trade relations - The UN Conference on Trade and Development

(UNCTAD) has worked to obtain special trade preferences for developing
countries to export their products to developed countries. It has also negotiated
international commodities agreements to ensure fair prices for developing
countries. And through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
which has now been supplanted by the World Trade Organization (WTO), the
United Nations has supported trade liberalization, that will increase economic
development opportunities in developing countries.

Promoting economic reform - Together with the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund, the United Nations has helped many countries improve their
economic management, offered training for government finance officials, and
provided financial assistance to countries experiencing temporary balance of
payment difficulties.

Promoting worker rights - The International Labour Organization (ILO) has

worked to guarantee freedom of the right to association, the right to organize,
collective bargaining, the rights of indigenous and tribal peoples, promote
employment and equal remuneration and has sought to eliminate discrimination
and child labour. And by setting safety standards, ILO has helped reduce the toll
of work-related accidents.

Introducing improved agricultural techniques and reducing costs - With assistance

from the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) that has resulted in improved
crop yields, Asian rice farmers have saved $12 million on pesticides and
governments over $150 million a year in pesticide subsidies.

Promoting stability and order in the world's oceans - Through three international
conferences, the third lasting more than nine years, the United Nations has
spearheaded an international effort to promote a comprehensive global agreement
for the protection, preservation and peaceful development of the oceans. The UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea, which came into force in 1994, lays down
rules for the determination of national maritime jurisdiction, navigation on the
high seas, rights and duties of coastal and other states, obligation to protect and
preserve the marine environment, cooperation in the conduct of marine scientific
research and preservation of living resources.

Improving air and sea travel - UN agencies have been responsible for setting
safety standards for sea and air travel. The efforts of the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) have contributed to making air travel the safest
mode of transportation. To wit: In 1947, when nine million travelled, 590 were
killed in aircraft accidents; in 1993 the number of deaths was 936 out of the 1.2
billion airline passengers. Over the last two decades, pollution from tankers has
been reduced by as much as 60 per cent thanks to the work of the International
Maritime Organization (IMO).

Protecting intellectual property - The World Intellectual Property Organization

(WIPO) provides protection for new inventions and maintains a register of nearly
3 million national trademarks. Through treaties, it also protects the works of
artists, composers and authors world-wide. WIPO's work makes it easier and less
costly for individuals and enterprises to enforce their property rights. It also
broadens the opportunity to distribute new ideas and products without
relinquishing control over the property rights.

Promoting the free flow of information - To allow all people to obtain information
that is free of censorship and culturally unbiased, UNESCO has provided aid to
develop and strengthen communication systems, established news agencies and
supported an independent press.

Improving global communications - The Universal Postal Union (UPU) has

maintained and regulated international mail delivery. The International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) has coordinated use of the radio spectrum,
promoted cooperation in assigning positions for stationary satellites, and
established international standards for communications, thereby ensuring the
unfeterred flow of information around the globe.

Empowering the voiceless - UN-sponsored international years and conferences

have caused governments to recognize the needs and contributions of groups
usually excluded from decision-making, such as the aging, children, youth,
homeless, indigenous and disabled people.

Establishing "children as a zone of peace" - From El Salvador to Lebanon, Sudan

to former Yugoslavia, UNICEF pioneered the establishment of "Days of

Tranquillity" and the opening of "Corridors of Peace" to provide vaccines and

other assistance desperately needed by children caught in armed conflict.

Generating worldwide commitment in support of the needs of children - Through

UNICEF's efforts, the Convention on the Rights of the Child entered into force as
international law in 1990 and has become law in 166 countries by the end of
September 1994; following the 1990 World Summit for Children convened by
UNICEF, more than 150 governments have committed to reaching over 20
specific measurable goals to radically improve children's lives by the year 2000.

Improving education in developing countries - As a direct result of the efforts of

UN agencies, over 60 per cent of adults in developing countries can now read and
write, and 90 per cent of children in these countries attend school.

Improving literacy for women - Programmes aimed at promoting education and

advancement for women helped raise steadily the female literacy rate in
developing countries from 36 per cent in 1970 to 56 per cent in 1990 and to 72
per cent in 2000.

Safeguarding and preserving historic cultural and architectural sites - Ancient

monuments in 81 countries including Greece, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia and
Cambodia, have been protected through the efforts of UNESCO, and international
conventions have been adopted to preserve cultural property.

Facilitating academic and cultural exchanges - The United Nations, through

UNESCO and the United Nations University (UNU), have encouraged scholarly
and scientific cooperation, networking of institutions and promotion of cultural
expressions, including those of minorities and indigenous people.

Indias attempt to get into the security council

While India has thrown its hat into the United Nations Security Council ring, the process
of actually gaining a permanent seat on the body which has the power to introduce
sanctions and authorize the use of force in conflicts may prove to be a long drawn-out
affair, according to experts.
It is a slow-motion process and it would be wise not to get too excited at this stage," Raja
Mohan, one of India's leading security analysts and commentators, told IPS. India has
joined Germany, Brazil and Japan in a joint bid to seek permanent seats on the council for
themselves and one African nation.
Mohan said while this was a good strategy on India's part, it could also prove to be
problematic in the long run.

Brazil, Germany, India and Japan, based on the firmly shared recognition that they are
legitimate candidates for permanent membership in an expanded Security Council,
support each other's candidature
"As things stand, China may be more opposed to Japan than to India," observed Mohan
indicating the kind of hurdles that stand in the way of an expanded Security Council.
Pakistan has already made known its opposition to the Indian candidature, while Italy is
opposed to Germany gaining a seat. Also, several Latin American countries have lobbied
against Brazil.
"Much depends on how big the expansion of the Security Council is going to be and
India's candidacy is in fact the weakest of the four," said Prof. Christopher Raj, who
teaches American Studies at JNU.
"For example, India has more opposition against it in Asia than Brazil does in Latin
America," he said in an interview.
According to Raj, while China now has better relations with India than it did in the past,
"there is every possibility of Pakistan working through China," he said. "It is an 'allweather ally' to scuttle India's chances."
Alternatively, said Raj, Pakistan could turn the expansion of the Security Council into a
religious issue through its friends among the Muslim nations, if the issue ever got to the
voting stage in the General Assembly. Any change in the constitution of the Security
Council would require a two-thirds majority in the 191-member General Assembly
besides being subject to a veto from any one of the five permanent members the United
States, Britain, France, Russia and China.
While Britain, France and Russia are supportive of India's candidature, the U.S. has not
shown its hand, and according to Raj, Washington may be inclined to heed Pakistan's
wishes as it has always done when it comes to matters in South Asia.
On the other hand, India's relations with the United States have been steadily improving
since the historic 2000 presidential visit by Bill Clinton. Clinton's visit to India was the
first since Jimmy Carter went there in 1978.
Traditionally, India was an ally of the now-defunct Soviet Union and, because of this
alliance, an adversary of the U.S. For many years, India sourced its military hardware
from the Soviets and received political backing when needed.
This month President George W. Bush announced the lifting of a decades-old embargo on
sensitive "dual-use" items that could be utilized in India's independent space and nuclear
programs.

"There are wheels within wheels in this game, and nobody expects anything to happen in
a hurry although everybody agrees that the council's composition is outdated and
unrepresentative," said Raj.
According to the academic, while the process of the Security Council expansion can be
expected to be long and tortuous, India does have reason to hope for a seat.
He points out to a historic debt China owes India.
China managed a seat in the Security Council only because India, when invited to join the
Security Council in 1955, declined in favor of its bigger neighbor.
"The first step to be taken is for China to take her rightful place, and then the question of
India might be discussed separately," India's then prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru wrote
in a letter to the country's top political leaders explaining why he supported Beijing.
But, by 1962, India and China were at war with each other, and it is only in recent years
that there has been a discernible thaw between the Asian giants.
For example, this year, Beijing finally recognized the former Himalayan kingdom of
Sikkim as part of India and, in return, New Delhi acknowledged Tibet as an integral part
of China although India continues to be home to the exiled Tibetan leader, the Dalai
Lama, and hundreds of thousands of his followers.
Analysts generally believe that Beijing would find it difficult to oppose the candidature of
both India and Japan simultaneously, and if made to choose would go with the former.
Moscow, which has a record of using its veto in favor of India on sensitive issues such as
Kashmir, has favored the formation of global axis consisting of Russia, China and India
as a possible counter to a unipolar world.
"There are various ways of looking at it, but whichever you do, India's candidature comes
up as uncertain," said Raj.
Which may be why commentators like M.V. Kamath have wondered out loud whether the
United Nations, as it stands today, is worth being a member of.
Kamath is a leading columnist in India and also served as editor of The Illustrated
Weekly of India.
"If the U.S dares to fight a war in the Middle East, despite the disapproval of several
nations, of what relevance is the Security Council and for that matter the United Nations
as well?" Kamath demanded to know in his syndicated column this week.

Criticism of the UN
Throughout its history, the UN has been a source of controversy, dating back to the
handling of its involvement in the conflict in Katanga, including allegations of massive
rape campaigns and genocide. Over the past decade, an increasing number of voices have
questioned the overall direction that the UN has taken. Many now see it as ineffective,
overly bureaucratic, prone to corruption, and acting outside the intended limits of its
original charter (or, on the converse, not acting sufficiently within its charter or that the
charter is too weak for present-day needs).
Some respond that much of the blame can only lie with the member states that support it
(or fail to support it), including their perceived failure to make needed systemic changes
to the institution (whether in its own administrative bureaucracy or in its structure
governing member countries). See the reform section below on proposals for addressing
the perceived systemic failures of the latter type.
General criticisms of its structure governing member countries:
Charges that the UN is increasingly attempting to usurp or forcefully establish national
sovereignty.
These include the original controversies surrounding UN involvement in Katanga
The UN involvement in the Korean Conflict in which the UN was instrumental in causing
the perpetuation of the political division of the Korean peninsula, rather than in
promoting a peaceful resolution to the conflict.
Most such charges currently revolve around the International Court of Justice, and UN
pressure to accept compulsory jurisdiction of this court.
Charges that the UN is not doing enough to override national sovereignty.
In general, the UN has shown a reluctance to act upon its resolutions, making it weak and
evoking comparisons to the League of Nations.
Some charge that the UN is powerless should member nations ignore UN resolutions, or
also, proceed with actions without UN support. This was highlighted in 2003 by
controversy surrounding the United States-led invasion of Iraq (which was not conducted
in contravention of UN policy, but was, however, conducted despite intense disapproval
by a majority of the vocal membership), and by Iraq's converse direct defiance of UN
weapons and humanitarian resolutions.
The UN gives precedence to government authority over individual liberty, regularly
seeming reluctant to challenge member states' behaviour regarding their own populace.
Some specific complaints are as follows:
Internal institutional failures:
Exploitation of UN facilities and workers in the aid of terrorism. Concrete allegations
were against UNRWA and UNIFIL regarding the involvement in the October 2000
Lebanon abduction of three Israeli Engineering Corps soldiers, by Hizbullah, [1]
(http://www.maarivintl.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=article&articleID=11009)).
Alternatively, some criticize the UN for failing to stop Israeli invasion of Lebanon, or
daily violations of Lebanon's borders and territory.

Allegations of mismanagement and corruption regarding the Oil-for-Food Programme for

Iraq under Saddam Hussein.
Structure governing member countries
Inclusion on the United Nations Commission on Human Rights of nations, such as
Sudan, Cuba and Libya, which demonstrably have abyssmal records on human rights,
and also Libya's chairmanship of this Commission. These countries, however, argue that
Western countries, with their history of colonialist aggression and brutality, have no right
to argue about membership of the Commission.
Failure to act (or succeed) in security issues:
Failure to act during the ethnic cleansing campaign in Rwanda, when current Secretary
General Kofi Annan oversaw peacekeeping forces there.
Failure to intervene during killings in Srebrenica, despite the fact that the UN designated
it a "Safe Haven" for refugees and assigned 600 Dutch peacekeepers to protect it.
Failure to successfully deliver food to starving citizens of Somalia; the food was usually
seized by local warlords instead of reaching those who needed it. A US/UN attempt to
apprehend the warlords seizing these shipments resulted in the Battle of Mogadishu.
Criticism that the UN is ruled by "tyranny of the majority" where for example, it is said
that Arab states have an unfairly large influence as seen by the large number of
resolutions (over 30% of all resolutions in the history of the UN) which are directly
condemnatory of Israel (although it is worthy of note that many non-Arab and nonMuslim-majority nations have, for whatever reason, often supported such resolutions).
Alternatively, some argue that the UN is ruled by a "tyranny of the rich", being a puppet
at the hands of powerful states. Critics point out to the repeated use of the veto to protect
Israel, and the failure of the UN to enforce its resolutions on powerful countries like
Israel or the US while enforcing them on weaker states like Iraq or Syria.
Sexual abuse of girls by U.N. peacekeepers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
This abuse is still widespread and ongoing despite many revelations and probes by the
U.N. Office of Internal Oversight Services.

Reforming the UN
Main article: Reform of the United Nations
In recent years there have been many calls for "reform" of the United Nations. There is,
however, little clarity, let alone consensus, about what "reform" might mean in practice.
Both those who want the UN to play a greater role in world affairs and those who want its
role confined to humanitarian work or otherwise reduced use the term "UN reform" to
refer to their ideas. The range of opinion extends from as far as those who want to
eliminate the UN entirely, to those that want to make it into a full-fledged world
government.
An official reform programme was initiated by United Nations Secretary-General Kofi
Annan shortly after starting his first term on January 1, 1997. Popular demands include
changing the permanent membership of the Security Council; making the bureaucracy

more transparent, accountable and efficient; making the UN more democratic; and
imposing an international tariff on arms manufacturers worldwide.

Elsewhere in the region, a UN observer mission monitors the demilitarized zone between
Iraq and Kuwait following the restoration of Kuwait's sovereignty in 1991