UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

How Do Television
Programs Viewed at
an Early Age Affect
Racial Attitudes?
A Research Proposal
Joey Galin

Statement of the Problem

In the past three years, there has been a seismic increase in racial unrest. Starting with the
Trayvon Martin case and coalescing with the recent Baltimore riots, there has been a marked
increase in the national discourse about racial tensions and race relations. Since President Obama
has been elected, seemingly nonracial policy measures have begun to incite racial resentments,
leading to a marked increase in the role race plays in the political process. As there will be
greater numbers of minority candidates running for office in the coming election cycles, the
impact racial attitudes have on the political process will likely increase. In a similar vein, there
has been increasing literature in the role of television and media coverage in the development of
racial attitudes and how stereotypic imagery can erroneously influence perceptions of reality.
Finally, media research has begun to explore the extent of the influence that television programs
that children view exert over their perception of the world. I propose to examine how much
influence specific television programs viewed early in life can have on the development of racial
attitudes and how those programs would affect measures of racial resentment when they reach
voting age.
Research question
The guiding research question is: exactly what role does the presence, or lack thereof, of positive
representations of black characters in the television programs white children are exposed to
during crucial stages of cognitive development play in shaping their racial attitudes and therefore
political attitudes towards racialized policies?
Literary Review
Cultivation Theory

Thoughinrecentyears,withtheadventofstreamingserviceslikeNetflixandHulu,
traditionaltelevisionusagehasgonedown,itstillplaysamassiveroleinchildrenslives.The
averageAmericanwillspendnineyearsoftheirlifeinfrontofthetelevisionandtheaverage
Americanyouthwatchessixhundredmorehoursoftelevisionthantheyspendinschooloverthe
courseofayear(Herr).AccordingtoJeanPiagetscognitivedevelopmenttheory,itisduringthe
criticalstagesoftheConcreteoperationalstageandtheFormaloperationalstage(fromages711
and1115)wherechildrenbegintoformtheirunderstandingoftheworldaroundthem(Huit).As
televisionhasbecomeubiquitousinAmericansociety,massmediascholarshavedeveloped
numeroustheoriesaboutitseffectsonhumanbehaviorandperceptionoftheworld.Oneofthe
strongesttheoriesinmassmediastudiesisthecultivationtheory,whichpositsthatlongterm
exposuretotelevisioncanresultinperceptionsofrealityverydifferentfromwhattheymightbe
ifviewerswatchedlesstelevision(Cohen99).Researchhasestablishedthatthecultivation
theoryhasseriousmerit.Forexample,middleschoolchildrenwhowerehabituallyexposedto
programsthatdepictedserioussocialconflictsweremuchmorelikelytohavefearsabout
encounteringspecificcrowdsinmiddleschool(personschemata),hadmuchhigher
expectationsoflessfriendlinessandmorebullying,andhadgreateranxietyaboutattending
theirfutureschool(Potter386387).Inaddition,itwasfoundthatthosewhosawhighconflict
episodesanticipatedmorehostilityandlessfriendlinessintheirfutureschoolandfeltmore
anxiousandlesspositiveaboutgoingtherethanthosewhosawlowconflictepisodes(Potter
387).
Aschildrenhavelittleexperiencewiththeoutsideworld,televisioncanhelpimprint
stereotypesandinformtheirperceptionsoftheworld.Thewrongmessagescanhaveextremely

negativeeffects.Oneofthemostcitedexamplesistheperceptionofbodyimageinyoung
women.Numerousstudieshaveshownthatexposuretoadvertisingwithattractivemodelscan
temporarilyraisecomparisonstandardsforphysicalattractiveness,enhancebeliefsaboutthe
importanceofphysicalattractiveness,andlowerbodysatisfaction(Eisend102).Inaddition,it
hasbeendiscoveredthatincreasedmediausepredicteddisorderedeatingsymptomatology(or
eatingdisorders)inwomen(Harrison40).Likewise,inmedia,unattractivenessiscommonly
linkedwithevil,whereasthefemaleheroinesareattractiveandkind(Chapman).These
dichotomoustraitsareinternalized,rationalized,andsociallegitimizedbytheworldaround
youngwomen,leavingthembothinsecureandfilledwithfeelingsofselfloathing(Chapman).
Womenofcoloraresubjecttopossiblymoreunforgivingstandardsofbeautycomparedtomost,
astheyaregenerallyconsideredbeautifulonlyiftheyapproximatethewhiteidealincluding
tamedhair,lighterskintone,andwhitefacialfeatures[,and]asthisideaisperpetuated,thereisa
constantdisavowalofonesownflesh(Chapman).Theeffectsofsuchamentalityhavebeen
notedinnumerousexperiments,mostfamouslywiththeDollTest,wherebothblackandwhite
childrenassignedpositivecharacteristicstoawhitedolloverablackoneandpreferredtoplay
withthewhiteone.Thestudywassoinfluentialitwasusedasevidenceinthelandmarkcase
Brownv.BoardofEducation(Brownat60).Massmediaindeedhasapowerfulinfluenceover
instillationofculturalvaluesandexpectationsofreality.
Theimagespeopleseeontelevisioneverydayreinforceandsimultaneouslyshape
culturalnarratives.Forexample,analysesofportrayalofminoritiesinmediahavediscovered
thatpeopleofcolorhavebeengenerallyportrayedasstereotypicallyasathletes,orinlower
classoccupations(Larson224).Thesestereotypeshavebeeninplayforyears,withresearch

fromthe1970sindicatingthatatthetimethatblacks[were]overrepresentedinsmaller,less
importantroles,ascriminalsandvictims,andinroleswherethey[were]dominatedbywhites
[and]themajorityofblackTVcharacters[had]beenisolatedinsituationcomedyghettos,where
theyhavealmostnointeractionwithwhitecharactersmostoftheblackfamiliesarepoorand
fatherless,andthecharacterstendtobeunsuccessful,funloving,andspendmuchoftheirtime
insultingotherblackcharacters(Zuckerman281282).Thetelevisionshowsthatutilizethese
stereotypesareatoncecreatingandaffirmingthesestereotypesintheirviewers.In1798
abolitionistsdescribedfreedblacksasgiventoIdleness,Frolicking,[and]Drunkenness
(Mendelberg32).Stereotypescreatedcenturiespriorwererecycledandshowntonewaudiences,
thusperpetuatingthisculturalmythfornewgenerations.Inaddition,researchhasnotedthatthe
Americanmedialandscapeincludesfewerblackmalesoverall,fewassociatedwithtechnical
andotherintellectualpursuits,andfewwhofit[the]descriptionofcompetent,capable,and
successfulmembersofbusinessesandfamilieswhohaveattainedsomedegreeofmaterial
wealth(TheOpportunityAgenda23).Theseportrayals,coupledwiththetroublingstatisticthat
40%ofalargesampleofwhiteelementaryschoolchildrenreportedthattheylearnedabout
blackpeoplefromtelevisionprograms(Zuckerman282)clearlydemonstratethatmedia
portrayalscanandhavestronglyaffectedindividualsperceptionofhowtheworldatlarge
operatesandoftentimesinnegativeways.
Thoughthecultivationeffectcanhaveextremelynegativeconsequences,itisreallya
neutralphenomenon.Whenpositiveandfactualmessagesaredisseminatedthroughoutthe
media,itcanhelpcreateapositiveperceptionoftheworld.Forexample,researchhasexplored
thepresenceofminorities(definedasAfricanAmerican,Hispanic,AsianandNativeAmerican)

inadsmarketedatchildren.Theresearchrevealedthatinthecommercialsinwhicheachchild
wascounted,24%ofthemwere[minority]children,comparedto18%inthegeneralpopulation
(Larson231).Likewise,asastrongamountofthecommercialsusedintheirsamplecontained
fourorfewercharacters,itisclearthattheywerenotsimplyusedastokenrepresentations,but
ratherhav[ing]somemajor,aswellassupportingrolesonecouldexpectthatthese
portrayalswouldcontributetoanexpectationthatracialdiversityininterpersonalrelationships
isnatural(Larson231)Researchindicatesthatmediaisextremelypowerfulinshaping
collectiveperceptionoftheworld.Mediaexposurecanhaveextremelypositiveeffectsonones
perceptionoftheworld,oritcanhaveextremelynegativeeffects;itjustdependsonifthe
messagebeingbroadcastedispositiveornegative.

TheRacializationofPolicy
Obamaselection,onceheraldedasasymbolthatracisminAmericawasbecominga
thingofthepast,hasactuallyresultedintheoppositebeingtrue.Thoughthe2008electionwas
indeedracialized,specificallywiththeattemptbysomemembersoftheTeaPartytopainthim
asbothanIslamistandaKenyansoastocreatetheimpressionthathewasnotfittorule
becauseasapersonofcolorheisaperpetualoutsiderandracialOther(EnckWanzer2324),
thevitriolicrhetoricof2008devolvedinthesubsequentelection.Notonlydidsizable
proportionsofbothDemocratsandRepublicansmanifestantiblackattitudes,itturnsoutthat
neutralizingantiblackattitudesledtoaprojectedincreaseinMr.Obamas2012voteshareof4
percentagepointsandaprojecteddecreaseinMr.Romneys2012voteshareof5percentage

points(Pasek23).VotersclearlywereaffectedbyObamasraceandRepublicansattemptedto
playupthosetensions,exemplifiedbyDonaldTrumprunningforPresidentprimarilyonthe
platformthatObamawasnotarealAmericanandwasinfactfromKenya.Whilehewas
ridiculed,hismessagewasreceivedbythebirthermovementandhewasgivenprimetimeairon
nationalnewschannels(Maloy).
InfurtherevidenceofhowObamaspresidencyhasbeenaffectedbyrace,researchhas
indicatedthatindividualswithlowhealthcareknowledgeandhighracialresentmentscores
wouldnotsupporthealthcarereformbyObama,butifitwaspresentedascomingfromClinton,
racialresentmentwouldnotplayaroleandtheywouldhaveamuchhigherlikelihoodof
supportingit(Tesler107108).Itiscleartoseethatracialresentment,especiallywithablack
president,playsalargeroleindeterminingwhetherornotapersonwillsupportapoliticalpolicy
measure.Muchlikehowforalargepercentageofthepopulationracehasbeeninextricably
associatedwithObamaspolicies,sotohavecertainpublicprogramsthroughouthistory.
ThoughAmericans,regardlessofpartyidentification,showstrongmajoritysupportof
increasingspendingonspecificsocialwelfareinitiatives(suchashealthcarespending,spending
forelderly,spendingoneducation,andspendingoninitiativestohelpthepoor),whenasked
specificallyaboutwelfare,Americansareoverwhelminglyinfavorofdecreasingspending
(Gilens28).Thereasonwelfareissounpopularisbecauseithaslongbeenoneofthemost
racializedissuesinAmericanpolitics.Forexample,thebeliefthatblacksarelazyisthe
secondmostpowerfulpredictorofwelfarespendingpreferences,butisthemostimportant
influenceontheperceptionthatwelfarerecipientsareunderserving(whichisitselfthemost
powerfulpredictorofwelfarespendingpreferences)(Gilens96).Racialattitudesplaya

significantroleindeterminingwhetherornotanindividualsupportswelfare.Therelianceon
racialattitudesisafunctionofindividualsonwelfareandbelowthepovertylinebeing
stereotypedbythecollectiveconsciousnessoftheAmericanpublicasprimarilyblack.Surveys
havenotedthatAmericansbelieveblackpeoplecompose50percentofallpoorpeople,whilein
actualitytheyconstituteaminorityofbothpoorpeople(ofwhom27percentareblack)and
welfarerecipients(ofwhom36percentareblack)(Gilens102).
Amajorreasonforthissplitbetweenpublicperceptionandrealityisthenewsmedia.
Startingintheyear1965,newsportrayalofpoorpeoplebecameracializedandmediacoverage
fromtheearly1960stendedtousepicturesofpoorblackstoillustratestoriesabout,waste,
inefficiency,orabuseofwelfare,andpicturesofpoorwhitesinstorieswithmoreneutral
descriptionsofantipovertyprograms(Gilens117).Suchapatterncontinuedthroughoutthe
sixtiesandintotheeighties.Intimesofrecession,wherepoorpeoplewerepredominatelyviewed
assympathetic,imagesofwhitepoorpeopleaccompaniednewsstories.Intimeswherepoor
peopleweredeemedunsympathetic,itwasimagesofblackpeopleaccompanyingstorieswelfare
abuseandmismanagement(Gilens127).Asthecultivationtheoryandthemajorityof
Americanserroneousbeliefsaboutthedemographicsofpovertysuggest,thosesustained
practicesinthemediahavehadalargeeffectonAmericansperceptionoftheircountry.Those
engrainedculturalstereotypeshaveplayedaroleinthewayAmericansvote;perhapsearly
exposuretoalternativeandpositivedepictionsofblackpeoplecouldhelpstymiethestrengthof
thosestereotypesandtheireffectonAmericanpolitics.
Hypotheses

1. Whencontrolledforsocioeconomicstatus,parentalguardianspoliticalidentification,
andparentalguardianseducationlevels,individualswhoviewedtelevisionprograms
starringpositiverepresentationsofblackpeopleduringyearscriticaltocognitive
developmentwillscoreverylowonmeasuresofracialresentmentandwillshowstronger
supportforraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
2. Whencontrolledforsocioeconomicstatus,parentalguardianspoliticalidentification,
andparentalguardianseducationlevels,individualswhoviewedtelevisionprograms
featuringrepresentationsofblacksupportingcharactersduringyearscriticaltocognitive
developmentwillshowmoderatelevelsofracialresentment,butwillscorehigherthan
thosewhoviewedtheprogramsstarringpositivedepictionsofblackcharacters.
Likewise,theywillshowmoderatesupportforraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
3. Whencontrolledforsocioeconomicstatus,parentalguardianspoliticalidentification,
andparentalguardianseducationlevels,individualswhoviewedtelevisionprograms
featuringnorepresentationsofblackcharacterswillhavehigherscoresontheracial
resentmentmeasuresandwillhaveonaveragelowersupportforraciallyegalitarian
policies.
4. Thecontrolgroup,whowillwatchnonracialprogramming,willhavevaryingmeasures
ofracialresentmentandvaryingsupportforraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
ResearchPlanOverview
Myexperimentwillbedividedintotwophases.Inthefirstphase,Iwillselectthree
hundredwhitesevenyearoldstudentsatrandomfromfivedifferentlargeschooldistrictsinfive
differentregionsofthecountry(theNorthwest,theNortheast,theMidwest,theSouthwestand
theSoutheast).Thefivehundredrandomlyselectedindividualswillbethenrandomlyassigned

tofourdifferentgroups.Thefirstgroupwillbeassignedtelevisionprogramsstarring
predominatelyblackcasts.Thesecondgroupwillbeassignedtelevisionprogramsthathave
blacksupportingcharacters.Thethirdgroupwillbeshownprogramsthatfeaturenoprominent
blackcharactersatall.Thecontrolgroupwillwatchshowsthathavenoracialconnections.The
secondphaseoftheexperimentwilltakeplacenineyearsafterthestartoftheexperimentand
willinvolvetwosections.Thefirstisasurveytomeasurelevelsofracialresentment.Thesecond
isanadditionalsurveymeasuringtheirsupportforthreedifferentpoliciestosupportracial
egalitarianism.
Experiment
Phase1
Thefirstphaseoftheexperimentwilllastforfouryears.Thestudentswillbeinvolvedin
thestudyfromthetimetheyarenineuntilthetimetheyarethirteenyearsold.Attheverystart,
thechildrensparentalguardianswillfilloutasurveythatrecordsspecificinformation,including
theirpoliticalidentification,theirlevelofeducation,andtheirsocioeconomicbackground.Those
measureswouldexplainthehomeatmospheretosomedegreeandwillallowustounderstand
andcontrolforfactorsthatmayalsoaffectachildsdevelopmentofpositiveornegativeracial
attitudes,asthosespecificfactorshavestronglevelsofinfluenceoverracialattitudes(Gilens
86).ThespecificagerangeissignificantbecauseaccordingtoPiagetscognitivedevelopment
theory,thosearefourcrucialyearsinthedevelopmentoftheirperceptionsoftheworldand
inhabittwoseparatestagesofhistheory(Huit).Iwillusetelevisionasathechoiceofmedia
becausetheaveragesixtoelevenyearoldspends28hoursperweekinfrontofthetelevisionand

isthelargestuseofleisuretimeforchildren(Herr).Thesubjectswillbechosenfromthefive
differentregionsoftheUnitedStates.Ineachregion,Iwillpullsamplesfromruralschools,
suburbanschools,andurbanschools,asthiswillallowforagreaterrepresentationofmembers
ofAmericansociety.Oncethestudentsarerandomlyassignedtotheirgroups,theexperiment
willbegin.
Eachgroupwillhaveavarietyofprogramstochoosefromandeachchildwillbe
requiredtowatchtwentyhoursofprogrammingperweek,whichisslightlylessthanthetwenty
eighthourstheaveragechildwatches(Herr).Toensurethateachchildwatchestherequisite
amount,thestudentswillbeallbegivenspeciallymodifiedcableboxesthathaveallofthe
programsrelevanttothestudyonit.Foreverygroup,therewillbeaparentallockthatblocks
accesstotheotherprograms.Inconjunctionwiththecableboxes,thesubjectswilltakereceive
shortweeklyquizzesonthecontentoftheprograms.Passingthequizzeswillearnthemvarious
typesofawards,therebyincentivizingtheviewingoftheirassignedtelevisionprograms.The
programsingrouponewereselectedduetothefactthattheprogramsstarcharacterswereall
black.Theprogramsavailabletogrouptwowerechosenbecauseablackcharacterplayeda
significantroleinovereightypercentoftheepisodesaired.Theprogramsingroupthreewere
chosenbecausenoregularblackcharacterappearedmoreinthirtypercentoftheepisodes
shown.Andfinally,thecontrolgroupviewedtelevisionshowsthathadnohumancharacters.
GrouponesavailableprogramswillbetheProudFamily,theFreshPrinceofBelAir,ThatsSo
Raven,KenanandKel,andStaticShock.GrouptwowillbegiventheoptionsofwatchingHey
Arnold,NedsDeclassifiedSchoolSurvivalGuide,TeenTitans,DannyPhantom,andDeGrassi.
GroupthreewillbegiventheoptionsofwatchingDrakeandJosh,Rugrats,iCarly,theWild

Thornberrys,andDextersLaboratory.Finally,groupfourwillviewprogramswithnoracial
charactersatallandwillbegiventheoptiontowatchSpongebobSquarepants,Catdog,Renand
Stimpy,AngryBeavers,andAh!RealMonsters.
Phase2
Phase2willbeginfiveyearsafterphase1.Allmembersoftheexperimentwillbegiven
twosurveys;onethatsimplyasksforpartyidentificationandwhattheirplansforthefutureare
(inordertodeterminewhowillreceivehighereducationandwhowilljointheworkforce
immediately),andthesecondwillbetheoftcitedKinderandSanders(Mendelberg131)survey
thatmeasureslevelsofracialresentment.KinderandSanderssurveyasksrespondentstoagree
ordisagreewithsixstatements:1.Irish,Italians,Jews,andmanyotherminoritiesovercame
prejudiceandworkedtheirwayup.Blacksshoulddothesamewithoutanyspecialfavors.2.
Overthepastfewyearsblackshavegottenlessthantheydeserve.3.Itsreallyamatterofsome
peoplenottryinghardenough;ifblackswouldonlytryhardertheycouldbejustaswelloffas
whites.4.Generationsofslaveryanddiscriminationhavecreatedconditionsthatmakeit
difficultforblackstoworktheirwayoutofthelowerclass.5.Governmentofficialsusuallypay
lessattentiontoarequestorcomplaintfromablackpersonthanfromawhiteperson.6.Most
blackswhoreceivemoneyfromwelfareprogramscouldgetalongwithoutitiftheytried.Items
two,fourandfivearescoredonareversescale.TheresultswillbescoredusingtheLikert
formatrangingfromstronglyagreetostronglydisagreeandthenscorethelevelsona01scale,
with0meaninglowlevelsofracialresentmentand1meaninghighlevelsofracialresentment.
Thereisampleevidencethatracialpredispositions,measuredinthisway,areanimportant
determinantofopinionsonracialmatters[and]themoreracialresentmentpeoplefeel,the

moreopposedtheytendtobetopoliciesandcandidatesattemptingtoadvanceracialequality
(Mendelberg131).
Thesecondfacetofphase2willbeasurveywiththreestatementsaboutracially
egalitarianpolicymeasures,againusingtheLikertformat.ThefirststatementwillreadWelfare
spendingshouldbeincreased,thesecondAffirmativeactionisunfairtothemajorityof
Americans,andthethirdLawmakersshouldmandatepolicewearGoprostocurbpolice
malfeasance,andthefourthChildreninpoorperformingacademicdistrictsshouldbegiven
theoptionofattendingbetterschools.Welfareandaffirmativeactionaretwopoliciesracially
egalitarianpoliciesthathavebeeninplaceforyears,thethirdisahypotheticalpolicydesigned
tocurbinstitutionalizedracism,andthefourthisacallforastrongerapplicationofanaspectof
NoChildLeftBehind.Itemthreewouldbescoredonareversescale.Theresponseswillbe
measuredona01scale,with0beingegalitarian,and1meaninginegalitarian.
DataAnalysis
Usingthepreliminarydatacollected,wewillcontrolforthesubjectssocioeconomic
backgroundandtheeducationlevelsandpoliticalpreferencesoftheirguardians.Nextwe
calculatetheaverageoftheresponsestotheracialresentmentandegalitariansurveys.After
thosehavebeencalculated,weexaminethedifferencesinscoresbetweenthefourgroups.To
isolateourindependentvariableofblackrepresentationinmediaconsumed,wewillcontrolfor
thedifferencesbetweentheregionsandsocialbackgroundsoftheindividuals.Thesurveys
wherethesubjectsindicatetheirplansforfurtheringeducationorjoiningtheworkforceandtheir
partyidentificationwillallowustocontrolfortwootherstrongfactorsindeterminingracial

attitudes.Therefore,wewillbeabletoaccuratelyassesshowmuchthemediatheyviewedas
childrenshapedtheircurrentracialattitudesandtheirviewsonraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
Conclusion
Thoughitisfarfromtheonlysourcethatindividualsusetodeveloptheirperceptionsof
reality,researchhasshownthatideasandimagesbroadcastedovertelevisionplayaverystrong
roleonhowindividualsviewtheworld.Likewise,researchhasindicatedthatracialattitudesare
averystronginfluenceoverindividualssupportordenunciationoverpoliticalpolicy.This
experimentwouldhelpdeterminetheextenttheprogramsviewedasachildhelpreinforceor
challengeexistingculturalstereotypesandcouldencouragethoseinthemediatodevelopless
stereotypicrepresentationsofblacksinthemedia,asitwouldremindthoseinthemediathat
theyareresponsibleforwhethernegativestereotypespersistorfadeawayaswemoveintothe
future.

WorksCited

Chapman, Taylor M. "Women in American Media: A Culture of Misperception." Student Pulse 3.07
(2011). <http://www.studentpulse.com/a?id=548>
Cohen, Jonathan, and Gabriel Weimann. "Cultivation Revisited: Some Genres Have Some Effects on
Some Viewers." Communication Reports 13.2 (2000): 99-114. Web. 9 May 2015.
Eisend, Martin, and Jana Mller. "The Influence of TV Viewing on Consumers' Body Images and
Related Consumption Behavior." Marketing Letters 18.1-2 (2007): 101-16. JSTOR. Web. 9 May
2015.
Enck-Wanzer, Darrel. "Barack Obama, the Tea Party, and the Threat of Race: On Racial Neoliberalism
and Born Again Racism." Communication, Culture & Critique 4.1 (2011): 23-30. Web. 9 May
2015.
Gilens, Martin. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy.
Chicago: U of Chicago, 1999. Print.
Harrison, Kristen, and J. Cantor. "The Relationship between Media Consumption and Eating
Disorders." Journal of Communication 47.1 (1997): 40-67. Web. 9 May 2015.
Herr, Norman. "Television." Television. Sourcebook for Teaching Science, n.d. Web. 10 May 2015.
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology
Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [5/9/2015]
from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/piaget.html
Larson, Mary Strom. "Race and Interracial Relationships In Children's Television
Commercials." Howard Journal of Communications 13.3 (2002): 223-35. Web. 9 May 2015.

Maloy, Simon. "Sean Hannitys Birther Humiliation: How Donald Trump Exposes His
Hypocrisy." Salon. Salon, 27 Feb. 2015. Web. 10 May 2015
"Media Representations and Impact on the Lives of Black Men and Boys." Opportunity Agenda (2011):
n. pag. Web. <http://www.racialequitytools.org/resourcefiles/Media-Impact-onLives-of-BlackMen-and-Boys-OppAgenda.pdf>
Mendelberg, Tali. The Race Card: Campaign Strategy, Implicit Messages, and the Norm of Equality.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2001. Print
"NAACP Legal Defense Fund : Defend, Educate, Empower." Brown at 60: The Doll Test. NAACP, n.d.
Web. 10 May 2015.
Pasek, Josh, Krosnick, Jon A., and Tompson, Trevor. "The Impact of Anti-Black Racism on Approval
of Barack Obamas Job Performance and on Voting in the 2012 Presidential Election" University
of Michigan (October 2012) https://pprg.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012-Voting-andRacism.pdf
Potter, W. James. "Media Violence." Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1998. 380-95.
Print.
Tesler, Michael. "The Conditions Ripe for Racial Spillover Effects." Political Psychology 36 (2015):
101-17. Web. 9 May 2015.
Zuckerman, Diana M., Dorothy G. Singer, and Jerome L. Singer. "Children's Television Viewing,
Racial and Sex-Role Attitudes." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 10.4 (1980): 281-94. Web.
9 May 2015.