WHAT IS SURVEYING?

1. The science (or art) of determining

the position of natural and artificial
features on, above or below the
earth's surface or establishing such points;
and representing this information on
paper plans, as figures, tables or on
computer based maps.
Measure relative positions & Present them
(numerically and/or graphically)

WHAT IS SURVEYING?
2. (Geomatics) science and technology of
acquiring and managing information about
our world and its environment.
3. The measurement of dimensional
relationships, as of horizontal distances,
elevations, directions, and angles, on the
earth's surface especially for use in locating
property boundaries, construction layout,
and mapmaking.

History of surveying
Early History of Surveying
Remove not the ancient landmark,
which thy fathers have set
Deuteronomy 19:14
200 B.C. Eratosthenes + others computed
the dimensions of the earth (shape and
size)

History-dimension of earth
Eratosthenes (276-195B.C.) used geometry
to estimate the circumference of the
Earth.

History of surveying cont

120 B.C.
Greeks developed the science of geometry and
were using it for precise land division.
Greeks developed the first piece of surveying
equipment (Diopter).
Greeks standardized procedures for conducting
surveys.

1400 B.C.
The Egyptians first used it to accurately divide
land into plots for the purpose of taxation.
After floods surveyors were able to replace the
boundaries

History of surveying cont

18th and 19th centuries - Beginning of the
industrial revolution.
The importance of "exact boundaries" and the
demand for public improvements (i.e. railroads,
canals, roads) brought surveying into a
prominent position.
The art of surveying advanced more rapidly
More accurate instruments were developed.
Traditional instrument that were used untill 1970s
(transit, theodolite, steel tape etc.) have now been
replaced by new high-tech instruments (total
stations, GPS etc)
Science of Geodetic and Plane surveying were
developed.

SURVEYING TODAY
Today surveying affects almost everything in
our daily lives.
A few of the areas where surveying is being
used are:
To map the earth above and below the sea
Prepare navigational maps (land, air, sea)
Establish property boundaries of public
and private lands
Develop databases of land use and natural
resource information which aid in
managing our environment

SURVEYING TODAY cont.

Development of engineering data for

Bridge construction.
Roads.
Buildings.
Land development

Surveys can be classified as Geodetic

and Plane

GEODETIC SURVEYING
Takes into account the theoretical shape of the
earth The curved surface of the earth is
considered by performing computation
Generally high in accuracy, and cover large
areas. (greater than 300 sq. mi.).

PLANE SURVEYING
Assumes that the survey area is a flat plane
(curvature of the earth is neglected)
Generally covers small areas (less than 300
sq. mi.).
Most common method used.

Types of surveys
According to the purpose of carrying out the
survey:
Control/Geodetic surveys:
To establish a network of horizontal and
vertical monuments that serves as a reference
framework for initiating other surveys

Topographical surveys:
Determine locations for natural and artificial
features and elevations used in map making

Types of surveys cont.

Land, boundary (cadastral surveys)
Establish property lines and property corner
markers.
Original surveys: to establish corners in unsurveyed areas
Retracement: to recover previously
established boundary lines
Subdivision: subdivide parcels

Types of surveys cont.

Route Surveying
Used for the construction of highways, railroads,
pipelines, canals, etc.
These are projects that do not start and stop at
the same point

Construction Surveying
Used on the job site
Provides locations of structures
Provides information on various elevations of
structures

Types of surveys cont.

Hydrographic Surveying
Used to establish shorelines, boundaries of
lakes, streams, and other bodies of water

Photogrammetric Surveying
Uses land or aerial photographs for making
measurements

ENGINEERING SURVEYING
Engineering surveying Embrace all the survey works required before, during
and after any engineering work such as producing plans for engineering
projects, determining area and volume (Earthworks), providing permanent
controls, setting out engineering structures, supervising construction&
monitoring.

At the concept and design stage:

Production of maps or plans

At the construction stage:

Setting out and measurement

At the post construction stage:

Measurement and monitoring

Engineering Surveying

Before Construction

Under construction

After construction

Planning and
data collection

Setting out on each

phase
of construction

Final (as-built)
plan or map
on the construction

Observations
in the field

Field checks of
construction

Presenting
documentation
to the client

Processing the
observations
(office)

Providing data
and services to
the client

Drawing maps,
plans or providing
numerical data
Presenting
documentation
to the client

Surveying cont.
Surveying for all three aspects involves the
measurement of three parameters :
Horizontal Distances
Vertical Distances
Angles (vertical and horizontal)

METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

Horizontal Distances
Taping, Optical Methods, Electronic Methods

Vertical Distances
Taping, Optical Methods, Electronic Methods

Angles
Magnetic Compass, Sextant, Theodolite, Total
Station

EQUIPMENT
Steel tape

Level ( stadia principle )

Total station

Theodolite
GPS

Basic Principles of Point Fixation

To fix any point you need a baseline
Baseline: A line whose distance and orientation are known
Lets determine the position of a third, unknown point (C).
X C , YC
We have two unknowns:
We need a minimum of two measurements which can be:
Two distances - Trilateration
One distance & One angle - Radiation
Two angles - Intersection method
Y
C

A
0,0

l AB

l AB ,0

Location methods
B

a): right angle offset tie

b): the angle distance tie (polar tie)
c): angle at A and B or distance BP and AP (intersection
technique).

Location methods
Ties (measure distances)
Offsets (measure distance at right angle from baseline)
Traverse (measure Angle and distance)
Intersection (measure two angles)

Stages of Survey Practice

Reconnaissance Stage help in planning the survey
The Field Work Stage Carrying out the measurements
The Office Work Stage Computation, plotting of maps,
report writing & presentation

Principles of Survey Practice

In carrying out any survey work the following should principles be kept in mind

Control

Selection of Correct Methods

Consistency

Independent Checks and

Preservation of Work

Purpose of the principle:

prevent errors from accumulating and magnifying
blunders may be avoided and errors controlled and
localized, so as to achieve consistency and accuracy
must be fully applied to all surveys.

1. Control
Every survey relies upon the establishment of a carefully
measured control framework
Cover the area to be surveyed
Deemed to be free from error after being established and
adjusted
Subsequent work is based on this framework by using less
elaborate methods, and adjusted to it
Working from the whole to the part

Control cont.
The framework of a survey is usually fixed by
employing one of the following methods:
a) Triangulation
b) Trilateration
c) Traverse, or
d) Combination of the above.

2. Selection of Correct Methods

Time and cost required are greatly
dependent on the accuracy of the survey
High accuracy requires precise instrument
and more time in the field hence more
money
Prior to any survey project, it is essential
to weigh the accuracy which it is hoped to
attain against the time and money
available

Selection of Correct Methods (cont)

Every survey must be carried out by using
methods which will achieve the accuracy
required without wasting time or money
on unnecessary work or over-precise
methods.

3. Consistency
A survey must be consistent in its accuracy
throughout
Final accuracy of a survey is dependent upon the
accuracy of the overall controlling framework
together with the precision to which the various
parts have been measured
Subsequent survey can never exceed the
accuracy of the controlling framework

4. Independent Checks
Every survey operation should be subjected to
check
To err in survey operations is human, however to
check is the duty of a good surveyor
If mistakes in field measurements and calculations
cannot be detected in time, a considerable amount
of subsequent work will be wasted
Every survey operation should be subjected to a
check, if possible, a completely independent check,
and not repetition of the operation

5. Preservation of Work
The surveyor of today is the trustee for
the surveyor of tomorrow
To ensure that survey work will remain
useful for the future, the surveyor must
take the following precautions:
all the work must be recorded in a legible and
systematic manner and the records stored in a
manner that allows easy future reference.

Preservation of Work (cont)

All survey marks in the field must be as
permanent as possible and easily replaced
from other witness marks.
All records and documents must be kept
safely to guard against their loss in accidents
Desirable to duplicate important records so
that a spare copy may be kept in a separate
place, i.e. in a separate building.

Geographical reference
Horizontal reference system
GCS: Lat, long & Altitudes
GRID SYSTEM: UTM (Eastings, Northings &
Elevations)

Vertical reference system

Local
Mean sea level

Units of measurements
Horizontal measurements
SI units (metric system)
Km, m, cm, mm
In few cases English foot system can be used
(miles, feet, inches)
1ft=0.3048m
1km=0.62131miles
1hectare (ha)=2..471acres
1km2= 1,000,000m2

= 100 ha

Units of measurements cont

Angular measurement
Degrees of (in few cases gradians/gons)
For degrees
1 revolution = 360o
1 degree = 60
1 minute = 60 seconds
For gons
1 revolution = 400gons
1gon = 1000mgon
For Radians
2 radians = 360deg
1 rad = 57o 17 44.8
400gon = 360deg = 2 radians

Scale
Scale is a ratio of a distance on a
photograph or map to its corresponding
distance on the ground.
Scale may be expressed as a ratio,
1:24,000; a representative fraction (RF)
1/24,000; or an equivalent, 1 m. = 2,000
m.

Observation vs. Measurement

An observation is a single, unadjusted
determination of a linear or angular
value. Eg. a single reading of a tape is an
observation.
An observed value is a quantity that is
obtained by instrumental measurement of
the quantity.
A direct observation is an observation of
the desired quantity while an indirect
observation is a quantity computed from
direct observations.

Observation vs. Measurement

A measurement is the entire process of obtaining
a desired quantity.
A measurement entails performing a physical
operation that usually consists of several more
elementary operations such as preparations
(instrument calibration and setup), pointing,
matching, and comparing (reading).
The result of these physical operations renders a
numerical value that is called a measurement.
Surveys should be considered as measurements
not as observations.

Measurement and Uncertainty

Measurements are rarely exactly the
same.
Measurements are always somewhat
different from the true value.
These deviations from the true value are
called errors.
By definition an error is the difference
between an observed value, for a quantity
and its true value
e=X-X

Measurement and Uncertainty Cont.

Where E in the error in observation, X
in the observed value and X is the
true value.
The following should be put in mind
No observation is exact
Every observation contains errors
The true value of an observation is never
known
The exact error present in always
unknown

Before any survey work think

What is the context for the
measurement?
How much accuracy is needed?
What is an appropriate instrument to
use for this measurement?
How do I use this instrument correctly?
What are my potential sources of error?
How sure will I be of my results? How
will I know?
How can I show my level of certainty to
others?

Error propagation
Since all observation contains errors, any
quantity from them will likewise contain
errors
The process of evaluating errors in quantities
computed from observed values which
contain errors is called Error propagation
The propagation of random errors in math
formulas can be computed using general laws
of propagation of variances

Error of a sum
Assume the sum of independently
observed observation a, b, c, .., is Z the
formula for computing quantity Z is
Z = a + b + c + .
Error of sum Esum = +sqrt(Ea2+Ea2 + Ea2 + Ea2 ..)
Where E = error

Error of a series
When a series of measurements are made. i.e.
Assume the sum of independently observed
observation a, b, c, .., is Z
The formula for computing quantity Z is
Z = a + b + c + . with probable errors
of E1, E2, . . . , En, then the total probable
error is

ETotal E1 E2 .... En
2

General case for addition of a series of n like

measurements with the same error E.

Error of a series
When a single quantity is
measured several times,
random errors tend to
accumulate in proportion to
the square root of the
number of measurements
If a distance is measured 6
times and the estimated
error in each measurement
is +0.02m what is the
estimate of the total error?

ETotal E n

ETotal 0.02 6 0.05

Error in product
The equation for propagation of error
in a product AB where Ea and Eb are
respective errors in A and B

E prod A Ea B Eb
2

Sources of Error
Errors in measurements stem from three sources:
Personal Limitation of the human sense of sight/touch
Instrumental Imperfection in the construction or
adjustment of the instruments
Natural errors variation in wind, temp., humidity, atm.
Pressure, gravity e.g. measure dist. With steel tape

Errors are often classified as:

Random/Accidental
Systematic
Gross/Mistakes/Blunders

Mistakes/Blunders
A blunder is an unpredictable gross mistake made
by the surveying team, caused by carelessness,
misunderstanding, confusion, or poor
judgment. Eg.
Transposing two numbers (in field notes or computer
input.) eg. Recording 73.96 instead of 79.36
Misplacing decimal point
Incorrect reading (i.e. the foot value on a leveling rod.)
Inadvertently altering set instrument constants in the
middle of a project.
Placing sighting device or the instrument at a wrong
point.

They are, for the most part, avoided by alertness,

common sense, and good judgment.

Mistakes/Blunders
Blunders are detected and eliminated by using
proper procedures, such as:
Checking each recorded and calculated value.
Making independent and redundant measure check
observations and measurements.
Making redundant measurements that allow closure
computation of sections of the entire survey.

Therefore, surveys must be carried out with

sufficient redundancy to prevent a blunder from
going undetected.
All blunders must be eliminated prior to correcting
and adjusting a survey for errors.

Systematic Errors
A systematic error is an error that will always have the same
magnitude and the same algebraic sign under the same
conditions.
In most cases, they are caused by physical and natural conditions
that vary in accordance with known mathematical or physical
laws. Eg
Equipment out of calibration
Failure to apply necessary geometric reductions of measurements.
Failure to apply necessary reductions of measurements due to
weather related conditions.
Use of incorrect units
Error kind is cumulative. However, several kinds of systematic
errors occurring in any one measurement could compensate for
each other.
Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the
surveyor must recognize the conditions that cause such errors.

Random ( Accidental ) Errors

An error produced by irregular causes that are
beyond the control of the observer.
They do not follow any established rule which can
be used to compute the error for a given condition
or circumstance of the observation.
Repeating the same measurement many times, the
sum of all these errors tends to be zero.
This is yet another good reason to make extra
measurements beyond the required minimum. Eg.
the personal reading error of any scale.
An observer estimates the final reading that can be either
high or low in estimation since exactness cannot occur.

Random ( Accidental ) Errors

Unlike systematic errors, corrections for random
errors cannot be computed directly.
An example of such a process is computing an
average distance from several measurements.
The average represents the adjusted value for the
distance for which the random error is minimized.
Random error obey the laws of chance or the
random theory of statistics.
Therefore, they are analyzed by applying the laws
of probability.

Sources: Personal errors

Caused by the physical limitations of the human
senses of sight and touch.
Caused by an observer tendency to react the same
way under the same conditions.
They are either systematic or random.
E.g. error caused by the inability to hold a range
pole perfectly in the direction of the plumb line.
Common sense, self-calibration (estimating
personal errors by experiments and experience)
and attention to proper procedures generally keep
such errors to a minimum.

Sources: Instrument Error

Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in
the design, construction, and adjustment of
instruments.
Instruments can be calibrated to overcome these
imperfections. Eg
Imperfect linear or angular scales.
Misalignment of various part of the instrument.

Most instrumental errors are eliminated by using

proper procedures,
instruments must be periodically checked, tested
and adjusted (or calibrated.)
Instruments must be on a maintenance schedule
to prevent inaccurate measurements.

Sources: Natural Errors

Natural errors result from natural physical
conditions such as atmospheric pressure,
temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, and
atmospheric refraction. Eg.
A steel tape whose length varies with changes in
temperature.

Natural errors are mostly systematic and

should be corrected or modeled in the
adjustment.
Some natural errors such as the effect of
curvature and refraction can be eliminated
by a procedure

Accuracy and precision

Accuracy is the degree of conformity with a
standard or accepted value or closeness of
the observed value to the true value.
Accuracy relates to the quality of the result
Precision is the degree of refinement in the
performance of an operation (procedures
and instrumentation) or in the statement of
a result. It is a measure of the uniformity
or reproducibility of the result.

Accuracy and precision

Precision and Accuracy in Measurements

Precision
How reproducible are
measurements?

Accuracy
How close are the
measurements to the
true value.

Dartboard analogy
Imagine a person throwing darts, trying to hit
the bulls-eye.

Not accurate
Not precise

Accurate
Not precise

Not accurate
Precise

Accurate
Precise

Precision of a Measurement
Measurement 26.13 cm

The last digit is an

estimate.
The precision is
limited by the
instrument.

Dealing with Errors

Identify the errors and their magnitude.
Try to reduce the magnitude of the error.
HOW?
Better instruments
Better methodology
Collect a lot of data

LINEAR MEASUREMENT & CHAIN

SURVEY
All the distances required for making plans
are the horizontal distances
In the field horizontal distances are
measured or sufficient readings are taken
to calculate horizontal distances
Various methods used for linear
measurements:
(i) Approximate
(ii) Using chain or tape
(iii) By optical means and
(iv) Using EDM instruments

Type of Distance Measurement

Approximates Methods of Linear

Measurements
These methods are used in reconnaissance
survey
Also to detect major mistakes committed
while measuring with better methods
These approximate measurements may be
by:
(i) pacing
(ii) using passometer
(iii) using pedometer
(iv) using odometer or by
(v) using speedometer.

Approximates Methods of Linear

Measurements Cont.
Pacing: Surveyor walks along the line to be
measured and counts the number of steps
The distance measured is equal to number of steps
average length of a step
Average length of a step can be found by walking
along a known length
A normal man takes a step of length 0.75 m to 0.8m
Varies with uphill, downhill and your age;
Low accuracy
No Equipment needed

Approximates Methods of Linear

Measurements Cont.
Using Passometer: A passometer is a
watch-like instrument which is carried
vertically in the pocket of shirt or tied to a
leg
It records number of steps taken
Thus the problem of counting number of
steps is eliminated in this approximate
method of linear measurement.

Approximates Methods of Linear

Measurements Cont.
Using Pedometer: This instrument is similar to
passometer but it can record the distance instead
of number of steps
In this, zero setting and setting of step length is
made before walking
Odometer: This instrument is attached to the
wheel of a cycle or other vehicle
It records the number of revolutions made by the
wheel
Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the
distance traveled may be found

Approximates Methods of Linear

Measurements Cont.
Speedometer: Odometer calibrated to
give distance directly is called
speedometer
This is to be used for particular vehicle
only
All automobiles are provided with
speedometers
By running the vehicle along the line to be
measured distance can be found

Measurement with Chains or

Tapes
Measurement of distances using chain or tape is
termed as chaining
It is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and hence is
the most common form of distance measurement
Chainage is prone to errors and mistakes
These instruments can be classified as:
(i) chain (ii) steel band and (iii) tapes
For high accuracy, steel tape should be used
which is graduated in mm and calibrated under
standard temp (20 degree) and tension (5kg). Be
careful, break easily

Measurements by Optical Means

Distance is measured by optical means easily this is called Tacheometric measurement
The method is not that accurate as obtained
by measuring with chain or tape
To measure distance D between two point P
and Q instrument is set at P and a graduated
staff is held vertically at Q and vertical
intercept AB is recorded

Linear Measurement with EDM

Instruments
Nowadays electromagnetic distance measurement
(EDM) instruments have come in the market
It rely on the measurement of electromagnetic waves
and measuring even fraction of wavelength by phase
difference technique
EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are
difficult to access or long distances.
It measures the time required for a wave to be sent to
a target and reflect back
They display the distance measured. They are costly
and delicate

Instrument Used in Chain/Tape

The following instruments are required for
measurements with chain and tape:
(i) Arrows
(ii) Pegs wooden peg
(iii) Ranging rods and ranging poles
(iv) Offset rods
(v) Plumb bobs and
(vi) Line ranger.

Instrument Used in Chain/Tape

Distance measuring equipment

and typical accuracies

Pacing (1:100)
Optical range finder (1:300)
Odometer (wheel) (1:500)
Stadia tacheometry (1:1000)
Taping or chaining (1:10,000)
Electronic distance measurement
(1:50,000 to 1:100,000)

Distance measuring
Pacing: very useful (although imprecise)
technique of direct measurement
One can determine the length of pace, which
can be comfortably repeated.
Useful to estimate distances at accuracy of
1:100

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

Use light wave/microwave along the path to be
measured
EDMs measure the time required for a light
wave to sent to a target and reflected back
Others use pulsed laser emission

Distance measuring cont

Tacheometry (stadia)
Form of indirect measurement that used telescopic
cross hair configuration to assist in determining
distances

Subtense bar
Is a tripod-mounted bar with targets precisely 2 meters
apart.

Gunters chain

Made up of connected steel segments or links

It is 66ft =20m long and comprise 100 links
Each link measure 20cm
Tally marker at every 5m

Distance measuring cont

Tape
Made of steel, coated linen or synthetic
material
Available in lengths of 20, 30, 50, 100 & 150m
Units are usually indicated on tapes

Taping procedures cont.

ranging rods set up between points A and B

From A to B, set zero of tape at A
Tape unwound towards B
A third range rod is ranged in at C
Tape straightened, held tight and read at rod C
C marked with a pin
For next bay, tape moved from A and zero set at
C and so on

Taping procedures cont.

Taping procedures cont.

Tape must always be straight
Tape must not be twisted
Use chaining arrows for intermediate points
Tape horizontally if possible
Tape on the ground if possible
slope taping needs to be reduced
Catenary taping requires correction
Step taping suits some applications

Tape must be straight

dis

obstruction

e
c
n
ta
s
di

ce
n
ta

ed
r
i
u
q
e
r
red
u
s
a
me

measured distance required distance

Use chaining arrows

e
c
n
ta
s
i
d
e
c
n
a
t
s
di
ed
r
u
s
ea quired
m re

measured distance required distance

Use Plumb Bob

Plumb bobs are used to project the end
graduations of the tape

Catenary taping (Sag)

mea
sure
d

ce
n
a
t
s
i
d

required distance
measured distance required distance

Step taping

required (horizontal) distance

BREAKING TAPE
Used to describe the procedure for measuring directly
horizontal distance on sloping ground, or through obstacles
that do not permit the use of full tape length
The procedure is the same as for ordinary chaining except that
here the distances are measured by using portions of a tape

Sources of error in taping

Erroneous Tape Length (Standardization):
100m tape should in theory indicate exactly
100m when it is in fact measuring 100m
Slope
Distances must always be reduced to horizontal

Tension
Tape length will depend on applied tension

Temperature
Distances must always be reduced to horizontal

Sag
Measured distances must always be corrected for sag

1. Erroneous Tape Length

Tape has a nominal length
under certain conditions, a
tape stretches with time.
Standardization needs to be
carried out frequently by
using reference tape or
baseline
When comparing to a
standard tape, the used tape
has a length (30 m + l)
For every 30m measurement,
the small elongated amount
should be added for correction

Standardization
length

Ls Ln

est Lm
Ln
Nominal
length

2. Slope Correction
Any distance not measured on the horizontal will need to
be corrected for slope
Slope correction must ALWAYS be considered, and either
eliminated in the field or mathematically compensated

eslope Lm 1 cos
Slope
Error

Measured
Distance

Vertical
Angle

Slope correction
s
=
e
c
n
sta
i
d
e)
p
o
l
s
(
ed
r
u
as
e
m

horizontal distance = h

To calculate the horizontal distance :

h = s cos or h = (s2 - H2)1/2
Angle may be measured by Theodolites

For example :
Or.
= 30.589
s =s30.589
m m
2.5o m
H==1.334
H = 1.334 m
then
then
h = (30.5892 - 1.3342)1/2
= 30.589
h =h30.560
m cos(2.5)
h = 30.560 m

3. Tension Correction
A tape has a given length when pulled with a
certain tension. If the tension changes then so
does the tape length
Tension
Applied

etension

Standard
Tension

T Ts Lm

E A

Modulus of Elasticity of
tape material For steel
tape, E =
200,000N/mm2

Cross
Section
Area

4. Temperature Correction
Most materials expand and contract with temperature
change, and this effects taped distances.
If a tape has stretched due to heat it will read shorter than
it would at its normal (or standard) temperature

etemp Lm C t
Linear error
due to
temperature
change

Measured
Length

Coefficient of
Linear expansion

Temperature
Change

Temperature Correction cont.

Temperature correction
L = L +L.c.T
where :
L
is the corrected distance
L
is the measured distance
c = 1.15 x 10-5 m/oC (for a steel band)
T = Tactual - Tstandard

5. Sag Correction
If the tape cannot be supported for its length then it will
hang freely under the influence of gravity.
The shape of the tape will take is known as (sag) and can
be determine mathematically.

Sag Correction cont.

Catenary (sag)
A suspended tape will measure too long

L L

2 3

(Mg ) L

2
cos

2
24T

where :
M
is the mass per unit length (0.011
kg/metre)
g
is gravity (9.8 metre/sec2)
T
is the tension (50 Newton)

is the slope angle

Combined Errors
Actual length is:

La Lm etemp est esag eslope etension

Examples
A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was used to measure a line
AB AB by suspending it between supports. The following
measurements were recorded
Line Length Measured
AB
29.872 m

Slope Angle
3o 40

Mean Temp.
5 oC

Tension
120 N

The standardization length of the tape against a reference tape

was known to be 30.014 m at 20oC and 50 N.
If the tape weighs 0.17 N/m and has a cross sectional area of 2
mm2, calculate the horizontal length of AB.
Temp. correction factor = 0.0000112 m/oC

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road width

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building setbacks

block dimensions
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