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Final Assignment
Qualitative Research Techniques
Submitted To: Dr. Arif Saleem
By: Iram Naz
ID: 231-15-0009
MS(MGT) Batch 2015

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A comparative note on six qualitative methodologies

Abstract:
Purpose: The purpose of this comprehensive note is presentation of critically evaluated features of six
qualitative approaches.

Design/Method: This paper examines six qualitative methodologies Narratives, phenomenology,

ethnography, case studies, and grounded theories and action research. It focuses on the characteristics of
particular problems according to which qualitative research method is being selected. Main procedures, various
techniques of data collection, analysis and differences in report writing methods are being highlighted.

Findings: The selection criteria of approaches, triangulation data collection tools and slight differences in
report writing methods.

Originality/value: This paper should be of interest to qualitative research scholar who wants to analyze
different methodologies comprehensively and critically. The characteristics of problems for the studies and
selection criteria of particular research methodologies for those problems are being evaluated. Differentiation in
report writing can also be the point of attraction.

Introduction
Qualitative research is commonly used in multi disciplines like business, psychology, sociology, anthropology
and education. The base of these studies is revolving around interpretations and subjective meanings. Processes
are being observed, explored and analyzed in these studies and working as a frame work for quantitative or
evidence based studies.
Now a days interpretivism is moving parallel to positivism in areas of research.

Characteristics of the problems

Narratives studies:
Narrative methods can be appropriate when real life problems are investigated. They are commanded the
study of the experiences of single individual embracing stories of the life and exploring the learned importance
of those individual experiences.
These studies focus impact of social structures on an individual and how that relates to identity, announced
relationships, and family.
Developmental Psychology utilizes narrative inquiry to pictures a child's experiences in areas such as selfregulation, problem-solving and development of self. Example: Catherine Kohler Reissman (2008) opens her
book Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences with a story from a second grade classroom.
Personality uses the narrative approach in order to present an individual's identity over a lifespan. Examples:
Autobiographies of politicians, film stars, athletes, business persons etc
Social movements have used narrative analysis in their persuasive techniques. Examples: Essays and reports of
NGOs
Political practices. Stories are connected in the wider world. Narratives serve different purposes for individuals
and others, for groups. Some narratives overlap both individual experiences and social. Examples: Freedom
movements of countries.
Declaration of a culture: Narratives and storytelling are used to remember past events, reveal morals, entertain,
relate to one another, and engage a community. Narrative inquiry helps to create an identity and
demonstrate/carry on cultural values/traditions. Stories connect humans to each other and to their culture.
Examples: Pakistani folk stories Heer waris shah etc.

Phenomenology:
It can be useful to experience the live processes.
Research Question involves issues and experiences of considerable significance to the participants.
Questioning: Two Essential Research Questions: 1-What have you experienced in terms of the phenomena? 2What contexts or situations have typically influenced or affected your experience of the phenomenon?

1. Exercise and physical activity are valuable tools for losing weight in medical sciences, through an
increase in energy expenditure. Except this instrumental value, physical activity is value able when the
person experiencing it. Among individuals categorized as obese, that meaning is often problematic.
Example: Experiences of a Man Categorized as Obese A Phenomenological Study by Gro Rugseth,
yvind Standal
2. Experiencing mentorship to graduate students: Example: Toward Experiencing Academic Mentorship
by Leslie Robinson

Ethnography:
Ethnography emphasizes on exploring social phenomena rather than testing hypotheses. Ethnographies focus
on describing the culture of a group in very detailed and complex manner. The ethnography can be of the entire
group or a subpart of it .It involves engaging in extensive field work. Examples: Observation of behavior of the
staff in case of supervisors absenteeism. Observation of hygiene practices in villages.

Grounded theory: It is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the construction of
theory through the analysis of data. It is very emerging concept in marketing field. Example: organizational
studies, examination of product concept development consumer behavior Analysis.

Case study:
It can be a real situation that actually happened just as described, or portions have been disguised for reasons of
privacy. This variety is beneficial since it will show you different ways of approaching decision making.
Examples of cases:
1. Operational Secrecy innovating in secret,
2. Boomerang CEOs aka Founder Recall, Pakistan Tobacco Company - A case study,
3. Case Study of Pakistani Brands In Pakistan.

Action research:
Studies carried out in the course of an activity or occupation, typically in the field of education, to improve the
methods and approach of those involved. Practitioners who engage in action research inevitably find it to be an
empowering experience. Social problems are focused on participative group processes for addressing conflicts,
crises, and changes generally within organizations.
Example:

To review critically the origins, techniques and roles associated with growing information systems
(IS) research method known as `action research'. ...
A critical perspective on action research as a method for information systems research.RL Baskerville,
AT Wood-Harper-Journal of information 1996 - Taylor & Francis.

A tribute to one of the principles of action research. People with different interests
and competencies must cooperate if action research is to satisfy the promise that it holds for the
improvement of school practices. Action research to improve school practices
M GOODSON - 1953

Main procedures/features
Narratives studies: It is used to analyze in the fields of cognitive science, organizational studies, knowledge
theory, sociology and education studies, among others. The method is also appropriate to cross-cultural
research. Narratives rely on the written or spoken words or visual representation of individuals. These
approaches typically focus on the lives of individuals as told through their own stories. The emphasis in such
approaches is on the story, typically both what and how is narrated. One of the weaknesses of studying
narratives is that the text is by its own nature linguistically subjective. i.e. difficult to quantitatively access in an
objective manner since it is subjective i.e. personally meaningful. Data can be collected by researcher who
interprets responses. Data can be in the form of field notes; journal records; interview transcripts; ones own
and others observations; storytelling; letter writing; autobiographical writing; documents such as school and
class plans, newsletters, and other texts, such as rules and principles; and pictures. To this list, one should
add audio and video recordings, as these are also useful data in narrative research.
Methods: Purposive sampling (homogenous sample).Data Collection by Semi-structured, one-on-one
interviews.

Phenomenology: Phenomenological study describes the meaning of many individuals of their lived
experience. In this Identification of shared experiences take place It attempt to locate universal nature of an
experience and identify shared experience among various individuals experiencing shared phenomena. In this
study participant is trying to make sense of their personal and social world and researcher is trying to make
sense of the participant.
Methods: Purposive sampling (homogenous sample).Sample/Recruitment of Participants is selected by
Snowball sampling Data Collection by Semi-structured, one-on-one interviews. Best sample sizes range from
5-25 participants.

Ethnography: A culture can be defined not only as an ethnic population but also as a society, a community,
an organization, a spatial location, or a social world. Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology, which
aims to describe the values, beliefs, and practices of cultural groups.
Methods: The process of ethnography is characterized by intensive, ongoing, face to face involvement with
participants of the culture being studied and by participating in their settings and social worlds during a period
of fieldwork.

Grounded theory: Study is used to discover social-psychological processes.1In 1960 Grounded theory was
developed by Glaser and Strauss and founded philosophically on symbolic interactionism.
Methods: Distinct features of grounded theory include theoretical sampling and the constant comparative
method. Theoretical sampling refers to sampling decisions made throughout the entire research process in
which participants are selected based on their knowledge of the topic and based on emerging study findings.

Cases studies: It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research. A case study is an in
depth study of a particular situations. Cases can be single and multiple.
Methods: Information-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling. Outlier cases (that is, those which
are extreme, deviant or atypical) reveal more information than the potentially representative case. It is an
empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. It is possible to take many routes
through this typology, with, for example, an exploratory, theory-building, multiple, nested study, or an
evaluative, theory-testing, single, retrospective study. The typology thus offers many permutations for case
study structure.

Action research:
Action Research is a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and
research leading to social action using a process of a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of
planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action.
Methods:

Stephen Kemmis has developed a simple model of the cyclical nature of the typical action research
process (Figure 1). Each cycle has four steps: plan, act, observe, and reflect. Gerald Susman (1983)
gives a model of 5 steps. Diagnosing, Action planning, Taking action, Evaluating and Specifying learning.
Purposive sampling/Convenience sampling (homogenous sample).

Various Techniques of data collection

Narratives: Common means are through video, interview, and participant observation.
Phenomenology: Participant observation, in-depth, semi structured and unstructured interviews and Focus
group interviews are used to collect data.

Ethnography: The essential data collection methods of participant observation and in depth interviewing
permit the researcher to learn about the meanings that informants attach to their knowledge, behaviors, and
activities. Images can also be used to interpret information.

Grounded Theory: Observation and interviewing are commonly used for data collection.
Case study: Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect
data can be surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection of physical
artifacts. It is a triangulated kind of approach

Action Research: Data Collection by complete participant one to one interviews, Focus group interviews.
Triangulated methods are used to collect data.

Analysis of studies
Narratives:
Thematic analysis relies on categorizing accounts or aspects of accounts that are being told. Structural analysis
looks into the ways in which the narratives are structured and what the language in the stories does both on the
textual as well as the cultural level. Dialogic/performance analysis focuses on the difficulty in analyzing
accounts that are co-constructed or performed. Lastly, visual analysis focuses on the analysis of all visual media
including art, video, and digital media. Dedicated research software like ATLAS.ti help the researcher to
catalog, penetrate and analyze the data generated in a given research project.

Phenomenology: It is Iterative, complex, and creative. In practice the analysis is multi - directional. There
are 4 stages of analysis.1st is Textual Analysis in which reading and recording and then reflecting transcript
more than once.2nd stage has developing emerging themes which reflect conceptual understanding as main
theme.3rd stage has clustering themes together and find similarities as patterns. Final stage the tables of major
themes and sub themes are generated. An illustrative data extract or quote is presented alongside each theme,
followed by the line number, so that it is possible to check the context of the extract in the transcript.
Moving on: In this process more than one participants are involved to separately analyze data which influence
further analyses. The previous stages are repeated. More refined themes are generated.

Ethnography: Reading, looking, thinking (sorry, no help from computing here) How do people talk? What
are people doing? Sorting, big piles to littler ones .Iterations of theme discovery, reworking of data (ex.
Quantified and qualified self)

Grounded theory: The researcher constantly compares incidents, categories, and constructs to determine
similarities and differences and to develop a theory that accounts for behavioral variation. Constant comparison
through different tools takes place.

Case study: Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for
analysis .Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols and
procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field
in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations
in order to find linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research
questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open to new opportunities
and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis techniques,

provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and
conclusions.

Action research: Action Research is more of a holistic approach to problem-solving, rather than a single
method for collecting and analyzing data. Thus, it allows for several different research tools to be used as the
project is conducted. These various methods, which are generally common to the qualitative research paradigm,
include: keeping a research journal, document collection and analysis, participant observation recordings,
questionnaire surveys, structured and unstructured interviews, and case studies.

Reporting Styles
Qualitative reports are mostly moving around a theme or central message, and will include an introduction, core
material, and conclusion (Bogdan & Biklen, 1984). Report contain introduction in which rational of the project,
stages and literature review and research questions. Method section must be detailed and well defined including
details of participants, data collection method and the process of analysis the issues raised at field must be
mentioned in discussion section. In analysis narrative form which includes detailed extracts from participants
responses. The writing style reflects to analysis, beginning with a close reading grounded in participants
accounts before moving towards a more interpretative level. The narrative account should aim to be describe
and to mix extracts from participants own words with interpretative comments. Voice recordings can also be
useful to access the actual data. The discussion and conclusion may point towards applications in practice and
provide suggestions for further research.

Narratives: Fetterman (1989) explains the nature of qualitative writing as 'thick description" and liberal use
of verbatim quotations, that shows the participants' own words. Reality of the setting and subjects is exposed. It
is sensible to take the super ordinate themes one by one and write them up in that order.

Phenomenology: Report is divided into three sections in which presented interpretation, the participants'
interpretation, and then her response to the participants (Tierney, Polkinghom, Lincoln, Denzin, Kincheloe,
Lather & Pinar, 1995).Short literature review, detailed method section, research questions based on inductive
basis.

Ethnography: Richardson (1995) describes other components and styles historical contexts, using
metaphors, documentary styles, and different experimental representations, contains "narrative of the self,"
"ethnographic fictional representations," "poetic representations," "ethnographic dramas," and "mixed genres"

(pp. 521, 522). Richardson additionally provides advice to the researcher who 'wishes to explore these
experimental formats.
This report consisted on narratives in the form of reflections and then categorization of objects/processes being
observed. Thick description of themes and finally conclusion is mentioned.

Grounded theory: The purpose statement of grounded theory report must be well clear because of inductive
study. It must define research situation. The literature of grounded theory is always a problem to get because of
emerging data so availability of the background information about particular situation must be clearly written.
Another point of focus is discussion and conclusion part of report must be result oriented.

Case studies: According to Reiser and Mory (1991) study case study report may include considerable
quantification and tables of various data, or it may take a strictly narrative form.

Action research: Background must be well define and clearly mentioned the previous work on particular
topics. Description of the contexts where research conducted sampling methods and information about
participants must be clear in report. Data collection tools, discussions, implications, conclusions and appendices
are part of report. Here main focus is on strategies and implications.

References:

case study research data collection tools - Google Search

Action research report - Google Search

The Qualitative Paradigm

Ethenography practices - Google Search

Identifying the best research design to fit the question. Part 2: qualitative designs -- Ploeg 2 (2):
36 -- Evidence-Based Nursing

Understanding and evaluating qualitative research* by Ellie Fossey, Carol Harvey, Fiona
McDermott, Larry Davidson

Qualitative research by Robert E. Stake[Book]

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