M.E Thesis - Ref

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BOLTED JOINTS ON THE
BASEFRAME OF A GENSET
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
(CAD/CAM)
BY
AQHEEL MURTUZA SIDDIQUI
(1604-12-765-015)
MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Osmania University)
Hyderabad-500034
2014
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BOLTED JOINTS ON THE

BASEFRAME OF A GENSET
A dissertation to the Osmania University in for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of the degree
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
(CAD/CAM)
BY
(1604-12-765-015)
Under the Guidance of

DR. N. SEETHARAMAIAH
Coordinator
Mechanical Department
MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Road no.3, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad-500034
(Affiliated to Osmania University)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation work titled DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF
BOLTED JOINTS ON THE BASEFRAME OF A GENSET, submitted by AQHEEL
MURTUZA SIDDIQUI (1604-12-765-015), a student of Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Muffakham Jah College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, affiliated
to Osmania University, in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Master of
Engineering in Mechanical Engineering, with CAD/CAM as specialization, is a bonafied
record of the work done by him during the academic year 2013-2014.
Dr. N. Seetharamaiah
Professor and M.E Coordinator,
MED, MJCET
(Project Guide & Coordinator)
Dr. S Khadar Vali

HOD, MED,
MJCET
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I consider this as an opportunity to express my gratitude to all those who have been
involved directly or indirectly in the successful completion of this dissertation work.
I wish to first thank my esteemed guide, Dr. N. Seetharamaiah, Coordinator of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, M.J.C.E.T. Hyderabad, for his guidance throughout
the duration of this project. He provided a wealth of expertise from a diverse background of
research, application of theory in addition to providing me encouragement throughout my
thesis work.
I would also like to thank Mr. Amol Kurane for giving me a chance to get into Axis
Cades. I wish to thank all the top level management for taking me into the company and
providing me an opportunity to get an experience on a live project.
I must gratefully acknowledge Mr. Srikanth Annareddy, for his continuous effort in
providing resources needed for my project and helping me out when I hit crossroads during
my duration in the company. I would also like to thank Mr. Vinay Shankar and Mr. Krishna
for teaching me the basics which were essential in understanding the project.
I owe my heartfelt thanks to my mentor in the company, Mr. Dinesh Kumar Sonisetty, for
his incessant support and guidance, for his extra efforts, in mentoring me and helping me
complete my project. Nevertheless, I would also like to thank all the other employees in the
company who were directly or indirectly associated with my project for their technical and
mental support throughout my tenure in the establishment.
Finally, I take the privilege to express my sincere thanks to one and all for their help
and best wishes for the successful completion of this work.
(1604-12-765-015)
ABSTRACT
A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric generator
(often an alternator) to generate electrical energy. A genset is short for a generating set. Diesel
generating sets are used in places without connection to the power grid, as emergency powersupply. Any genset manufacturer wanting to get into the genset arena requires a fail-safe,
economical yet efficient design to compete with its contemporaries.
The main sub-assemblies in a genset are Canopy, Engine, Alternator, and Baseframe.
The baseframe is a rectangular assembly on which all the other sub-assemblies are fixed with
bolts. The bolts are thus the only things which are responsible for the integration of the
assemblies. Failure of these bolts may result in disintegration of the structure.
To avoid failure, in-depth study is done as to what factors contribute to the gripping
strength of bolts and what are the reasons for the failure of bolted joints. After finalizing the
bolt design, the CAD model of the base frame is obtained and FE model is created. FE model
is created using the HyperMesh tool. The FE model after completion is given in Abaqus
software for analysis. The computerized software facilitates for the quick design and FE
model of the base frame and gets the required results. The results obtained in Abaqus are
taken and plotted in graphs and checked for failure.
CONTENTS
PRELIMINARIES
PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
1. INTRODUCTION
01
1.1 Introduction to Bolted Joint
01
1.2 Bolt Description
02
1.3 Bolt Standards
05
1.4 Bolt Failures
06
1.5 Gensets
09
1.6 Current Work
10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
12
2.1 Analytic Modeling Approaches
17
2.2 FEA Based Empirical Approaches
18
3. METHODOLOGY
19
3
3.1 Product Development Cycle for NPI
19
3.2 Bolted Joint Behavior
24
3.2.1 Stress Concentrations
24
3.2.2 Tensile Stress Area
26
3.3 Materials
27
3.4 Stiffness and Strain Considerations
29
3.5 Tightening The Joint
31
3.6 The Joint in Service
39
3.7 Joint Failure
41
4. COMPUTATIONAL STUDY
43
4.1 Introduction To Computer Aided Design (CAD)
43
4.2 HyperMesh
44
4.2.1 Benefits of HyperMesh
44
4.2.2 Capabilities of HyperMesh
45
4.2.3 FE Modeling of Genset Base Frame
47
4.3 ABAQUS
58
4.3.1 Features of Abaqus
58
4.3.2 Abaqus Analysis Sequence
59
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
61
REFERENCES
71
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1: Unified and ISO Thread Geometry
Fig 1.2: Nomenclature For Specifying A Threaded Fastener
Fig 1.3: Failure locations in Bolt
Fig1.4: Failure in Fastened Members
Fig 1.5: Failure as a Cause of Overload
Fig 1.6: View of a Failed Tie Rod End Bolt
Fig 1.7: Mahindra Genset
10
Fig 2.1: A Typical Bolted Connection
12
Fig 2.2: Representation of Bolts and Joint Behaving as Springs
13
Fig 2.3: A Simple Joint Diagram
15
Fig 2.4: Joint Diagram After The Joint is Clamped By A Bolt
15
Fig 2.5: Joint Diagram After Load is Applied
16
Fig 3.1: Product Development Cycle for New Product Introduction
19
Fig 3.2: Ashok Leyland Genset (40 KVA) and Engine and Alternator Mountings
20
Fig 3.3: Cummins Jakson Genset (50 KVA) And Engine And Alternator Mountings
21
Fig 3.4: Dynamax Genset (40 KVA) And Engine And Alternator Mountings
22
Fig 3.5: Stress Concentration on Various Location of Bolt in a Joint
25
Fig 3.6: Stress Levels in Three Different Nuts
25
Fig 3.7: Tensile Stress- Strain Diagram
26
Fig 3.8: Rod of uniform diameter, loaded in tension and equivalent spring model
29
Fig 3.9: Torque and Turn Procedure
34
Fig 3.10: Stretch Control
36
Fig 3.11: Belleville Washers
37
Fig 3.12: Tightening Sequence
39
Fig 4.1: Quality Criteria of Quad And Tria Elements
48
Fig 4.2: Cone of Compression
49
Fig 4.3: Modeled Nut, Bolt and Washer
50
Fig 4.4: Cone of Compression on Both Abutments
50
Fig 4.5: Embedment of Solid and Shell Elements
51
Fig 4.6: Contacts
52
Fig 4.7: Creation of Rigid
53
Fig 4.8: Pretension and Mass Application on Base Frame
53
Fig 4.9: Providing Boundary Conditions
54
Fig 4.10: Providing Distributed Loads
55
Fig 4.11: Providing Constraints on Entire Base of Base Frame
56
Fig 4.12: Constraints on One Part of Base Frame
56
Fig 4.13: 6 Degree of Freedom
57
Fig 4.14: Abaqus Analysis Sequence
59
Fig 5.1: Graph for Percentage Shear Capacity for M12 bolts
63
Fig 5.2: Zoomed Graph of Percentage Shear Capacity for M12 Bolt
63
64
64
Fig 5.5: Graph for Percentage Slip for M12 bolts
65
Fig 5.6: Zoomed Graph of Percentage Slip for M12 Bolt
65
66
66
Fig 5.9: Base Frame Plot
67
Fig 5.10: Section View of M12 Bolts With Abutments
67
68
Fig 5.12: Final Assembled Genset
69
Fig 5.13: Bolts Holding Engine
70
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Clearance Holes for Different Diameters
24
Table 3.2: Nut Factors
33
Table 3.3: Tensile Stress Area, Preload, Torque Values For Different Metric Bolts
33
Table 5.1: Shear Capacity values in percentage obtained from abaqus results
61
Table 5.2: Slip values in percentage obtained from abaqus results
62
Chapter 1
Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Bolted Joint
The purpose of any mechanical joint, be it welded, riveted, glued or bolted is to
connect two or more parts of a product or system. Selection of method of integration of a
joint is mainly chosen on the basis of type of joint required. If a permanent joint is needed,
then welding is preferred but when a temporary joint is needed (which can be removed after
fastening and again fastened for n times), most commonly riveting and bolting is chosen.
Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine design. They
consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured with the mating of screw
threads. Their sole function is to clamp the joint members together. The behavior and life of
that joint, usually depends on the correct clamping force which holds the parts together.
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) specifies the requirements for
bolted structural connections. Structural bolts replaced rivets due to decreasing cost and
increasing strength of structural bolts in the 20th century. Connections are formed with two
types of joints: slip-critical connections and bearing connections. In slip-critical connections,
movement of the connected parts is a serviceability condition and bolts are tightened to a
minimum required pretension. Slip is prevented through friction of the "faying" surface,
which is the plane of shear for the bolt and where two members make contact. Because
friction is proportional to the normal force, connections must be sized with bolts numerous
and large enough to provide the required load capacity. However, this greatly decreases the
shear capacity of each bolt in the connection. The second type and more common connection
is a bearing connection. In this type of connection the bolts carry the load through shear and
are only tightened to a "snug-fit". These connections require fewer bolts than slip-critical
connections and therefore are a less expensive alternative. Slip-critical connections are more
common on flange plates for beam and column splices and moment critical connections.
Bearing type connections are used in light weight structures and in member connections
where slip is not important and prevention of structural failure is the design constraint.
Common bearing type connections include: shear tabs, beam supports, gusset plates in
trusses.
1.2 Bolt Description

Bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread. Bolts are thus closely
related to, and often confused with, screws. A bolt is an externally threaded fastener designed
for insertion through holes in assembled parts, and is normally intended to be tightened or
released by torquing a nut. An externally threaded fastener which is prevented from being
turned during assembly and which can be tightened or released only by torquing a nut is a
bolt.
Differentiation Between Bolt And Screw

Bolts are thus closely related to, and often confused with, screws.
The distinction between a bolt and a screw is usually unclear and misunderstood.
There are several practical differences, but most have some degree of overlap between bolts
and screws.
The defining distinction, per Machinery's Handbook, is in their intended purpose:
Bolts are for the assembly of two unthreaded components, with the aid of a nut. Screws in
contrast are used with components that have at least one containing its own thread.
Many screws and bolts can be either, depending on how they are used. Bolts are often
used to make a bolted joint. This is a combination of the nut applying an axial clamping force
and also the shank of the bolt acting as a dowel, pinning the joint against sideways shear
forces. For this reason, many bolts have a plain unthreaded shank as this makes for a better
dowel. The presence of the unthreaded shank has often been given as characteristic of bolts
vs. screws, but this is coincidental rather than defining.
Where a fastener is used with a nut, it is a bolt rather than a screw. Where a fastener
forms its own thread in the component being fastened, it is a screw. This is most obviously so
when the thread is tapered (i.e. traditional woodscrews), precluding the use of a nut.
A screw must always be turned to assemble the joint. Many bolts are held fixed in
place during assembly, either by a tool or by a design of non-rotating bolt, such as a carriage
bolt, and only their nut is turned.
Bolt Heads
Bolts use a wide variety of head designs, as do screws. These are designed to engage
with the tool used to tighten them. Some bolt heads instead lock the bolt in place, so that it
does not move and a tool is only needed for the nut end.
The first bolts had square heads, formed by forging. These are still found, although
much more common today is the hexagonal head. These are held and turned by a spanner or
wrench, of which there are many forms. Most are held from the side, some from in-line with
the bolt.
Many screws use a screwdriver head fitting, rather than an external wrench.
Screwdrivers are applied in-line with the fastener, rather than from the side. These are smaller
than most wrench heads and cannot usually apply the same amount of torque. It is sometimes
assumed that screwdriver heads imply a screw and wrenches imply a bolt, although this is
incorrect. Coach screws are large square-headed screws with a tapered woodscrew thread,
used for attaching ironwork to timber.
Head designs that overlap both are the Allen or Torx heads; hexagonal or splined
sockets. These modern designs span a large range of sizes and can carry a considerable
torque.
Mechanical Classifications
The numbers stamped on the head of the bolt are referred to the grade of the bolt used
in certain application with the strength of a bolt. High-strength steel bolts usually have a
hexagonal head with an ISO strength rating (called property class) stamped on the head. And
the absence of marking/number indicates a lower grade bolt with low strength. The property
classes most often used are 5.8, 8.8, and 10.9. The number before the point is the ultimate
tensile strength in MPa multiplied by 100. The number after the point is the multiplier ratio of
yield strength to ultimate tensile strength. For example, a property class 5.8 bolt has a
nominal (minimum) ultimate tensile strength of 500 MPa, and a tensile yield strength of 0.8
times ultimate tensile strength or 0.8(500) = 400 MPa.
Ultimate tensile strength is the stress at which the bolt fails. Tensile yield strength is
the stress at which the bolt will receive a permanent set (an elongation from which it will not
recover when the force is removed) of 0.2% offset strain. When elongating a fastener prior to
reaching the yield point, the fastener is said to be operating in the elastic region; whereas
elongation beyond the yield point is referred to as operating in the plastic region, since the
fastener has suffered permanent plastic deformation. Mild steel bolts have property class 4.6.
High-strength steel bolts have property class 8.8 or above.
The same type of screw or bolt can be made in many different grades of material. For
critical high-tensile-strength applications, low-grade bolts may fail, resulting in damage or
injury. On SAE-standard bolts, a distinctive pattern of marking is impressed on the heads to
allow inspection and validation of the strength of the bolt. However, low-cost counterfeit
fasteners may be found with actual strength far less than indicated by the markings. Such
inferior fasteners are a danger to life and property when used in aircraft, automobiles, heavy
trucks, and similar critical applications.
Materials
Screws and bolts are usually made of steel. Where great resistance to weather or
corrosion is required, like in very small screws or medical implants, materials such as
stainless steel, brass, titanium, bronze, silicon bronze or monel may be used.
Galvanic corrosion of dissimilar metals can be prevented (using aluminum screws for
double-glazing tracks for example) by a careful choice of material. Some types of plastic,
such as nylon or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), can be threaded and used for fastenings
requiring moderate strength and great resistance to corrosion or for the purpose of electrical
insulation.
Often a surface coating is used to protect the fastener from corrosion (e.g. bright zinc
plating for steel screws), to impart a decorative finish (e.g. japanning) or otherwise alter the
surface properties of the base material.
Selection criteria of the screw materials include: size, required strength, resistance to
corrosion, joint material, cost and temperature.
Bolted Joint
4
There is no one fastener material that is right for every environment. Selecting the
right fastener material from the vast array of those available can be a daunting task. Careful
consideration must be given to strength, temperature, corrosion, vibration, fatigue, and many
other variables. However, with some basic knowledge and understanding, a well thought out
evaluation can be made. Most fastener applications are designed to support or transmit some
form of externally applied load. If the strength of the fastener is the only concern, there is
usually no need to look beyond carbon steel. Considering the cost of raw materials, nonferrous metals should be considered only when a special application is required.
1.3 Bolt Standards

While selecting a bolt, there are various standard bolts available in the industry. The
standards available are:
UNC Unified National Coarse
UNF Unified National Fine
UNEF Unified National Extra Fine
UNS Unified National Special
UNR Unified National Round (round root)
ISO International Standards Organization (metric)
United States, Canada, and United Kingdom use the Unified of Unified Inch profile,
in accordance with the Unified and American Screw Threads ASA B1.1-1989. Two major
Unified thread series are in use: UN and UNR. For the UN series, C is (coarse), F is (fine), or
EF (extra fine). For the UNR series, the root radius must also be specified. The UNR series
screws are better for fatigue because the root radius reduces stress concentrations. The basic
thread geometry for ISO and Unified threads is shown in figure 1.1 below.
5
Fig 1.1: Unified and ISO Thread Geometry

The representation of the standard bolt is not the same for all standards. The
nomenclature for specifying a threaded fastener is given below for Unified National and
Metric specifications with an example in figure 1.2 below:
Fig 1.2: Nomenclature For Specifying A Threaded Fastener
1.4 Bolt Failures

Bolts may be subjected to thousands of pounds of tensile force as well as alternating
forces at a range of frequencies. When a threaded fastener cannot sustain the expected
loading and becomes detached, a significant loss may occur. The failure may occur in bolt
6
itself as shown in figure 1.3 or it may happen in fastened members as shown in figure 1.4
below.
Fig 1.3: Failure locations in Bolt
Fig1.4: Failure in Fastened Members

The causes of the failure of a bolted joint may be because of several reasons. Some of
the most common causes of failure are listed below.
Failure As A Result of Overload
Many accidents can be characterized as an impact with a non-compliant object such
as a truck impacting a concrete bridge support. In these cases, bolt failure due to overload can
occur. Figure 1.5 is a view of a bolt that fractured in the threaded area. The 45 degree fullslant fracture surface indicates high tensile loads. The fine, gray appearance of the fracture
surface is consistent with a sudden overload failure. In this case, other bolts on the
mechanical part had failed, transferring the load to the remaining bolt shown in Figure 1.5,
resulting in an overload.
Fig 1.5: Failure as a Cause of Overload

Failure From Lack of Locking Mechanism
In order to prevent bolts from loosening over time, various locking mechanisms are
employed. They include lock washers, locking nuts, jam nuts, mechanical deformations, wire
wrap, cotter pins, metal locks, expansion anchors, helical coils and polymer locking
compounds. Machinery that is subject to vibratory environments usually is equipped with
some sort of locking mechanism. If the locking mechanism is not applied to the machinery
during manufacture, a catastrophic event may result.
Metal Fatigue
Metal fatigue is the phenomenon characterized by progressive crack growth during

cyclic loading. A crack is often initiated at a flaw or stress riser (sharp notch) in a part. Cyclic
forces such as vibrations or repeated impact cause the crack to increase in size until the part
can no longer sustain the load, and a final fracture occurs.
Failure From Improper Torque
When threaded fasteners are utilized, the amount of tightening or bolt torque is often
important. The appropriate torque is required in order to prevent relative flexing of the two
parts being fastened and to assure an acceptable mechanical connection.
Failure From Improper Design
The bolt failing in the threaded section at a shear point in the bracket is generally
considered poor design to allow significant alternating shear or bending forces in the vicinity
of the threaded section of the bolt since the threads form a stress riser and tend to initiate
fatigue cracks.
Failure From Improper Manufacture
Figure 1.6 is a view of a failed tie rod end bolt, a critical steering system component
in an automobile. The vehicle suddenly pulled to the right after traveling over a bump in the
road. The fracture surface revealed an area of progressive fracture that had been occurring
over time. This was initiated by a heat treating related defect in the outer surface of the
tapered shank. The crack grew by metal fatigue and finally failed when traveling over a
modest road surface perturbation.
Fig 1.6: View of a Failed Tie Rod End Bolt
With little evidence of an extreme force application at the right rear suspension, it
appeared unusual that a bolt would fracture from an overload in such a manner. The bolt was
removed and tested. The exterior surface hardness was found to vary considerably along the
bolt length, resulting in a stress discontinuity at the fracture surface. The non-uniformity of
hardness occurred from improper heat treatment of the bolt during manufacture.
Corrosion Failure
Corrosion of metals can be disastrous to threaded fasteners. Surface and pitting

corrosion attacks threaded fasteners as a result of contact with moisture or other corroding
media. Since bolts often carry high loads, stress corrosion cracking (also called
environmentally assisted cracking) is another corrosion related failure mode. Corrosion,
coupled with forces in a bolt, tends to accelerate cracking. Such failures are normally
discovered during periodic inspections.
1.5 Gensets
Genset also known as generator set is a diesel fuel type generator used to supply
emergency power. A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric
generator (often an alternator) to generate electrical energy. Diesel generating sets are used in
places without connection to the power grid, as emergency power-supply if the grid fails, as
well as for more complex applications such as peak-lopping, grid support and export to the
power grid. Sizing of diesel generators is critical to avoid low-load or a shortage of power
and is complicated by modern electronics, specifically non-linear loads.
The packaged combination of a diesel engine, a generator and various ancillary

devices (such as base, canopy, sound attenuation, control systems, circuit breakers, jacket
water heaters and starting system) is referred to as a "generating set" or a "genset" for short.
Set sizes range from 8 to 30 kW (also 8 to 30 kVA single phase) for homes, small shops and
offices with the larger industrial generators from 8 kW (11 kVA) up to 2,000 kW (2,500 kVA
three phase) used for large office complexes, factories. A 2,000 kW set can be housed in a
40 ft (12 m) ISO container with fuel tank, controls, power distribution equipment and all
other equipment needed to operate as a standalone power station or as a standby backup to
grid power.
10
Fig 1.7: Mahindra Genset
1.6 Current Work

The genset manufacturer has started production of genset with the intention of
steering their new product (Genset) into the market. Their aim is not only to introduce the
product but also to penetrate deep into the market. This requires a 100% efficient, working,
durable, economical and most importantly a failsafe design.
In order to produce a failsafe design, a small section of the design and analysis of the
genset, i.e., the bolted joint, is taken up and work is done on it such that it does not come off
or fail in any circumstance. Different assemblies are assembled to one another to form a
complete genset. The main components which cause the failure of a bolt are the engine and
alternator mountings as they are the major heavy parts in the structure. Apart from being
11
heavy, they are the source of vibrations in the entire assembly. Thus, if the bolts connecting
the engine/alternator to the base frame are safe, then it is evident all the other bolts are safe as
metric bolts of same material is used throughout.
To do the analysis on the bolted joint, the entire base frame is first modeled, and then
the abutments are modeled while maintaining the cone of compression by using
HYPERMESH. Contacts are then defined in order to complete the modeling. After
completing the modeling, the analysis is carried out in ABAQUS software. This work is done
to check if the bolted joint is safe with the load acting on it.
12
13
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
An example of bolted joint is as seen in the figure 2.1 below. The bolt is used to fix
two abutments (plates) together.
Fig 2.1: A Typical Bolted Connection

A washer is used just under the bolt head and above abutment 1 (sometimes, a washer
is also present just below abutment 2 and above the nut) and nut is tightened from below. The
design of a bolted joint, like the design of anything else, involves detailed consideration of
function, shapes, materials, dimensions, working loads, working environment, etc.
What Happens When A Bolt Is Tightened
Structurally, a bolt series one of two purposes:
It can act as a pin to keep two or more joint members from slipping relative to
each other.
It can act as a heavy spring to clamp two or more pieces together.
In the vast majority of applications, the bolt is used as a clamp. In either case,
however, the bolt must be tightened properly if it is to perform its intended function. But, the
main purpose of the bolt is to clamp two or more things together.
12
When a bolt is tightenedusually by turning the nut or turning the head of the bolt
the bolt is stretched by a small amount. If it is not stretched, it will not provide any clamping
force on the parts being held together. It must be stretched in order to be effective as a clamp.
Because "stretch" means "strain", turning the nut introduces tensile stress to the fastener. This
initial clamping force and/or the tension in the fastener is usually called "Preload". When
tightening the nut or turning the head of the bolt is stopped, some of the stress which have
been introduced to the fastener will disappear (the fastener relaxes), thanks to such things as
the localized plastic creep or flow in thread and joint surfaces. It is enough to know at this
point that as much as or of the initial axial tension in a bolt can be lost in the first few minutes
or so after tightening because of this embedment relaxation, as it's called. What all this
amounts to is that the bolt, nut, and joint all behave as elastic (and, locally, even plastic)
bodies under the high loads to which they are subjected by tightening the nut. Figure 2.2,
though obviously exaggerated, represents the actual situation. The bolts ("little springs")
clamp together the joint ("a big spring").
Fig 2.2: Representation of Bolts and Joint Behaving as Springs

Tightening the Joint
Threaded fasteners can clamp materials together only when they are holding with the
proper amount of tension. For this to happen they must be properly tightened. To this day a
13
simple, inexpensive, and effective way to consistently and accurately tighten a fastener does
not exist. There are a number of tensioning methods that function well enough but they are
both complicated and expensive. In most situations, less-than-perfect traditional methods are
sufficient.
However, current trends are moving away from the use of over-design. Increasing
demands on cost, strength-to-weight ratios, product safety, product performance, and
environmental safety have put pressure on designers, manufacturers, and assemblers to
increase design efficiency. This trend has lead to the invention of more options in controlling
bolt preload.
In-Service Behavior of The Joint
Preloading a fastener properly is a major challenge, but it's not all. As soon as the
joint is put into use, it will encounter one or more types of working load, including such
things as tension loads, shear loads, prying loads, cyclic loads, and loads which are a
combination of these and other possibilities. And these external loads add to or subtract from
the initial tension in the fastener in ways that are often hard to understand and always hard to
predict. It is to note that one of the reasons the joint's reaction to working loads is hard to
predict is the fact, that these are not a system of rigid bodies, but, instead, a system of elastic
springs. In most cases, economic constraints will force the designer to cope with such
uncertainties by overdesigning the joint and/or by basing design decisions solely on gut feel
or past experience. In more important situations, perhaps where weight, size, and
performance are unusually important, and/or where the consequences of failure would be
severe, the designer will have to resort to the design references and to such state-of-the-art
design techniques as finite element thermal or stress analysis to resolve detailed design
concerns. In some situations only actual tests of prototype hardware will answer the
questions.
The joint in service will experience loads and vibrations. In order to understand and
visualize the loading within bolted connections, joint diagrams have been developed. A joint
diagram is a means of displaying the load deflection characteristics of the bolt and the
material that it clamps. Joint diagrams can be used to assist in visualizing how a bolted joint
sustains an external force and why the bolt does not sustain the whole of this force.
14
Fig 2.3: A Simple Joint Diagram

The diagram shown above presents the way that the basic joint diagram is
constructed. As a nut is rotated on a bolt's screw thread against a joint, the bolt is extended.
Because internal forces within the bolt resist this extension, a tension force or bolt preload is
generated. The reaction to this force is a clamp force that is the cause of the joint being
compressed. The force-extension diagram presented above shows the bolt extension and the
joint compression. The slope of the lines represents the stiffness of each part. The clamped
joint usually being stiffer than the bolt.
Fig 2.4: Joint Diagram After The Joint is Clamped By A Bolt

The basic joint diagram is formed by moving the compression line of the joint to the
right. A triangle is formed because the clamped force tending to compress the joint is equal to
the bolt preload. Positive extension is to the right such as that sustained by the bolt, negative
extension (compression) is to the left and is sustained by the joint material.
When an external tensile force is applied to the joint it has the effect of reducing some
of the clamp force caused by the bolt's preload and applying an additional force to the bolt
itself. This is illustrated in the joint diagram shown above. The external force acts through the
joint material and then subsequently into the bolt. At first sight it may seem a bit strange to
15
place the applied force in the position shown in the diagram. However, it should be realized
that the load on the bolt cannot be added without decreasing the clamp force acting on the
joint. As can be observed from a study of the diagram, the actual amount of increase in the
bolt force is dependent upon the relative stiffness of the bolt to the joint.
Fig 2.5: Joint Diagram After Load is Applied

As an illustration of the importance of the relative stiffness of the bolt to the joint,
presented above is a joint diagram for a 'hard' joint (a low stiffness bolt with a high stiffness
joint). In this case, because of the steep stiffness slope of the joint, the bolt will only sustain a
small proportion of the applied force. With a 'soft' joint (a high stiffness bolt with a low
stiffness joint), because the stiffness slope of the bolt is greater than that of the joint, the bolt
would sustain the majority of the applied force. Study of these diagrams provides
understanding of why high performance bolts have shanks that have been reduced to a
diameter below that of the outside diameter of a thread. By reducing the shank diameter in
this manner the stiffness of the fastener is reduced so that it will not sustain as much of any
applied force that it would otherwise do. If the shank diameter is not reduced to a diameter
below that of the stress diameter then the strength of the fastener will not normally be
impaired.
16
Joint Failure Modes

The bolt may fail during its service. The response of the joint to service loads will
cause some specific types of joint failure. Such failures may be because of vibration
loosening, fatigue, and leaks from gasketed joints, for example. To understand the causes and
cures for failure, there are no more easy or final answers to this part of the bolting equation
than there are to assembly. The variables faced are too numerous to control, or at least they
are with the information currently available. Bolting technology is just emerging; bolting is
still more of an empirical art than a science at present. Most of the problems are solved by
educated trial and error. In many cases, only a full-scale experiment will give the information
needed to solve a problem. And most renowned designers say, "If it ain't broke, don't fix it!
That is, a design or successful assembly procedure is never to be changed for a theoretically
better one unless problems are occurring or need to improve the performance of the product
or system.
2.1 Analytic Modeling Approaches

All of the analytic approaches presented in this section implicitly assume an
axisymmetric stress field. This can include bolts very close together, bolts near a physical
boundary, non-axisymmetric geometries, etc. If the bolted joint of interest does not meet
these assumptions, then a finite element analysis is used for the joint. The general approach is
to idealize a bolted joint into a pair of springs in parallel. One spring represents the bolt and
other represents the clamped material. If an estimate can be obtained for the stiffness of the
bolt (which is trivial) and the clamped material (which is difficult), then externally applied
axial loads can be partitioned appropriately between the two and factors of safety can be
computed to determine if the joint design is sufficient.
It is generally assumed that the clamped material can be viewed as a set of springs in
series and an overall stiffness for the clamped material, km, can be computed as:
1 1 1
1
= + ++
km k1 k 2
ki
17
(2.1)
where, ki is the stiffness of the ith layer. The bolt stiffness, kb, can be estimated in terms of the
cross sectional area of the bolt, Ab, Youngs modulus for the bolt, E b, and the length of the
bolt, Lb, as:
kb =
Ab Eb
Lb
(2.2)
The total stiffness of the joint, kj, can be computed (by assuming two springs in parallel) as:
k j=k b+k m
(2.3)
2.2 FEA Based Empirical Approaches

Finite element analysis is to determine the clamped material stiffness for two plates
made of the same material. It is based on a standard spring stiffness model for the overall
joint. The results of this work produce a clamped material stiffness for commercial metals of
k m =0.78952 E d b e
0.62914
( dl )
b
(2.4)
where, E is the Youngs modulus of the material, db is the diameter of the bolt and l is the
thickness of the clamped materials (i.e., the two plates).
18
19
Chapter 3
Methodology
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Product Development Cycle for NPI
Successfully launching a new product into the market involves a number of
challenging and complex tasks, each critically linked to the one preceding it. All too often
great product ideas fall far short of expectations or fail altogether because one or more tasks
does not receive the necessary level of attention. This is especially true if the product concept
is not fully validated during testing or worse yet, a validated product has not been optimized
for cost-effective production and assembly. New Product Introduction (NPI) Process helps in
giving detail level of attention to all so that the aim is achieved.
C
/lD
Id
s
fe
u
M
t
in
a
m
p
h
S
c
g
r
F
v
k
B
V
y
o
P
A
E
c e
n
o
C
lId
a
tu
p
/ D
n
ig
s
e
t ty
ro
P
e
p
Fig 3.1: Product Development Cycle for New Product Introduction

This cycle describes the steps of work taken up in the specified order to attain the aim.
With respect to the area of concentration (bolted joint), each stage is described below.
Idea/Conceptual design
19
In the first bubble (stage) defined in the cycle, w.r.t the area of concentration, the
Idea/Conceptual design stage includes a draft design covering all the features desired in the
product, in which the location of bolts, the size of bolts and the number of bolts are specified.
Survey/Benchmarking
The first and second bubbles (stages) are closely interrelated. They go back and forth
repeatedly until a satisfactory design is obtained. Examining the design of current product
encompasses the survey procedure. A final understanding is done from the survey so as what
feature can be included/improvised which can enhance the conceptual design or give a
cutting edge over the contemporaries. During the course of project, the following Gensets
were surveyed.
Ashok Leyland Genset
Fig 3.2: Ashok Leyland Genset (40 KVA) And Engine And Alternator Mountings
Engine Make: Ashok Leyland

20
Base Frame:
o Main Frame: C Section
o Connecting Rails: Hat Section
Base Frame Material: CRCA (cold rolled closed annealed) Steel
Size of Bolts:
o Engine/Alternator to Isolation mount to Base Frame: 12x35 mm
o Engine/Alternator to Base Frame: 10x35 mm
o Control Panel Fixing: 8x25mm
o Door Knobs: 10x15 mm SS Bolts
o Door Hinges: 8x20 mm SS Bolts
o Earthing Bolts: 8x30 mm Zinc & Copper Bolts
Cummins Jakson Genset
21
Fig 3.3: Cummins Jakson Genset (50 KVA) And Engine And Alternator Mountings
Engine Make: Cummins
Base Frame:

o Connecting Rails: C Section
Size of Bolts:
o Engine/Alternator to Isolation mount to Base Frame: 12x35 mm
o Engine/Alternator to Base Frame: 10x35 mm
Dynamax Genset
22
Fig 3.4: Dynamax Genset (40 KVA) And Engine And Alternator Mountings
Engine Make: Dynamax
Base Frame:
Base Frame Material: Steel
Mahindra Genset
Engine Make: Mahindra
Alternator: Crompton Greaves
Base Frame:
Size of Bolts:
o Engine/Alternator to Base Frame: 12x25 mm High Tension Bolts
o All Bolts Inside the Canopy: 8x20 mm MS Bolts
o All Bolts Outside the Canopy: 8x25 mm SS Bolts
23
Design/ Validation
The location of bolts is mainly identified where clamping is necessary. But precisely
locating of bolts is determined by following rule of thumb and a few specifications. Points
below are the conditions to be kept in mind to finalize bolt location.
The bolt location should be in the middle (if possible).
Too many bolts weaken the members and/or create wrench interference problems.
Fewer bolts will not fasten properly and hence loose the purpose.
Therefore as a general rule of thumb, bolt holes are usually placed approximately
1-1/2 diameters apart.
Spacing between the centers of the bolts should not be less than 2.5D (where D is the
nominal diameter of the bolt).
Edge to end distance of bolts should be equal to or greater than 1.25D.
The clearance of holes should be as per the table below.
Standard Clearance Hole
12
13
16
18
20
22
22
24
24
26
27
D+3
Table 3.1: Clearance Holes for Different Diameters
24
Depending on the size and strength required, a size of the bolt is finalized. The design
is then checked for analysis and if it failsafe, then detailing is done and the design is
finalized. For the current Genset design, considering various factors such as cost and
availability of bolts, Metric bolts were finalized in the design. The size of the Metric bolts in
specific locations was finalized based on the sheet width, and the strength required.
Rest of The Cycle
However, the last three stages, i.e., Aesthetic/Ergonomic, Prototype, and
Manufacturing/Shipment/Maintenance do not have much depth w.r.t bolted joint. In
aesthetics/ergonomics, care is taken that the bolts are designed in such a way that they do not
protrude out of the assembly, they have enough space for a person to do his work
(tighten/remove), do not interfere with other parts. While building the prototype, it is seen if
it is actually holding the parts as designed or not. If passed, mass production is started and it
is ready to be shipped.
3.2 Bolted Joint Behavior

3.2.1 Stress Concentrations
In a bolt, the stress levels are not uniform throughout the bolt. They vary from section
to section. Figure 3.5 gives us a simplified view of the directions of stress in a loaded bolt and
joint. An analysis of stress magnitudes would reveal three danger points, where stress
concentrations create stress levels well beyond the average. These points are the fillet, where
the head joins the body; the thread run-out point, where the threads meet the body; and the
first thread to engage the nut. These are the points at which the fastener will usually fail.
25
Fig 3.5: Stress Concentration on Various Location of Bolt in a Joint

Figure 3.6 shows the stresses in three different nuts. Obviously, this stress picture is
not an attractive one. Since most of the load is on the first thread or so, most of the nut isn't
doing its share of the work. This situation can be improved in a number of waystapering
the threads or altering the pitch on either nut or bolt to force more uniformity in load
distribution, for example. Perhaps the most popular way is to use a nut that is partially in
tension.
Fig 3.6: Stress Levels in Three Different Nuts
3.2.2 Tensile Stress Area

Tensile strength is the mechanical property most widely associated with standard
threaded fasteners. Tensile strength is the maximum tension applied load the fastener can
26
support prior to fracture. The tensile force required to yield or break the bolt or the tensile
load a fastener can withstand is determined by the formula:
F= A s
(3.1)
where, F = Force which will fail the bolt
= The ultimate tensile or yield strength of the bolt material
AS = Effective Stress Area of the threads
For this relationship, significant consideration must be given to the definition of the
tensile stress area, AS. When a standard threaded fastener fails in pure tension, it typically
fractures through the threaded portion (as this is characteristically its smallest and therefore
weakest area). For this reason, the tensile stress area is calculated through an empirical
formula involving the nominal diameter of the fastener and the thread pitch.
Fig 3.7: Tensile Stress- Strain Diagram
27
As the fastener approaches the maximum strength of the threaded portion, it will
permanently deform. To avoid this risk, most carbon or alloy steel bolts have a defined proof
load, which represents the usable strength range for that particular fastener. By definition, the
proof load is an applied tensile load that the fastener must support without permanent
deformation. In other words, the bolt returns to its original shape once the load is removed.
The relationship between tension and bolt stretch can be observed on a Tensile Stress-Strain
Diagram in figure 3.7. If the load is removed and the fastener is still within the elastic range,
the fastener will always return to its original shape. However, if the load applied causes the
fastener to exceed its yield point, it enters the plastic range. At this point, the steel is no
longer able to return to its original shape if the load is removed. The yield strength is the
point at which a specified amount of permanent deformation occurs. If the load is
continuously applied further, a point of maximum stress known as the ultimate tensile
strength is reached. Past this point, the fastener continues to neck down and elongate further
with a reduction in stress. Additional stretching will ultimately cause the fastener to break at
the tensile point.
3.3 Materials
Material Selection of the Bolt is as crucial as designing the bolt joint. Improper
selection of the bolt material will drain all the efforts of the bolt designing. Therefore,
material selection has to be done keeping in mind the properties which affect the clamping
force:
Magnitude of Clamping Force (Depends on the basic tensile strength of the material)
Stability of Clamping Force (Can be affected due to material properties which can
effect like temperature, corrosion, strength, etc.)

Thermal Expansion or Contraction
Corrosion
Fatigue Rupture
Loss of Strength with Temperature
Loss of with Clamping Force Temperature
Elastic Stiffness of the Parts
Change in Stiffness with Temperature
Brittle Fracture
Selection of Appropriate Standard:

28
The purpose of a fastener standard is to define a group of materials and/or fastener

configurations which are appropriate for the "typical" needs of a particular industry or a
particular class of applications. The standard then makes it unnecessary for each engineer to
be a metallurgist when trying to determine what would be appropriate in his application. This
saves a great deal of time and money.
There are two readily available sets that are widely used by miscellaneous industries
and designers. The most commonly used bolting standard, is SAEs 3429, which defines
automotive Grades I through 8. Bolts of these materials are made in large quantities and are
therefore relatively inexpensive and are readily available. They're widely used for small and
medium-sized bolting jobs. The second most commonly used bolting standards are those
published by the ASTM. ASTM standards will be the designers first choice if hes working
with large equipment or systemsstructures, pressure vessels, power plants, and the like.
The use of metric fasteners vs. English (U.S. or Unified or inch series) fasteners
purely is based on economic, political, or marketing considerations. From a purely technical
point of view, inch and metric fasteners are available in the same general strengths, with the
same general properties, etc.
There are three grades of bolt in common. Most bolts which will only deviate slightly
from these three grades. The lowest grade is 4.6, commonly known as commercial grade.
Next comes grade 8.8, known as structural grade, and finally, the highest grade is 12.9,
known as high tensile bolts. The first number represents the ultimate tensile strength of the
bolt, 400 MPa, 800 MPa or 1200 MPa respectively. The second number represents the point
at which the bolt will permanently stretch. (Officially, the 0.2% proof load stress). A 4.6 bolt
permanently stretches at 60% of its ultimate, an 8.8 at 80% and a 12.9 at 90%.
Therefore, considering all the above conditions, metric fasteners of MS bolts are
zeroed on for fastening the current Genset.
3.4 Stiffness and Strain Considerations

The joint stiffness and deflection of each member of the joint will help analyze the
effects of external loads on bolted joints, it will help in determining preload or clamping
29
force, it will help in analyzing relaxation effects, it will help in reducing fatigue problems,
etc. First, the deflection and stiffness of the bolt is considered and then the joint.
Bolt Deflection and Stiffness
Let's apply equal and opposite forces to the ends of a rod of nonuniform diameter, as
shown in figure 3.8. If the tension stress created in the rod is below the proportional limit, we
can use Hookes law and the relationship between springs in series to compute the change in
length of tile rod. The combined change in length of the rod will be equal to the sum of the
changes in each section:
LC = L1+ L2+ L3
(3.2)
Fig 3.8: Rod of uniform diameter, loaded in tension and equivalent spring model
Hookes law tells that the change in one section will be:
L=
FL
EA
(3.3)
where, L = the change in length (in., mm)
A = the cross-sectional area (in.2, mm2)
L = the length of the section (in., mm)
30
E = the modulus of elasticity (psi, GPa)

F = the applied tensile force (lb., N)
Since the various sections are connected in series, they each see the same force, so we can
combine the two equations above and write,
LC =F
L1
L2
L3
+
+
E A 1 E A 2 E A3
(3.4)
Now, the spring constant of a body is defined as:
K=
F
L
(3.5)
where, K = the spring constant or stiffness (lb/in., N/mm)

The spring constant of a group of bodies, connected in series, is:
1
1
1 1
= + +
K T K 1 K2 K3
(3.6)
where, KT = the combined spring constant of the group (lb/in., N/mm)

K1, K2, etc. = spring constants of individual members of the group (lb/in., N/mm)
Now, the equation for the spring constant of a body be rewritten as
L=
F
K
(3.7)
Comparing the equation for the spring constant for a group of bodies to the equation for
stretch or change in length of a group of bodies, we get,
L
L
L
1
= 1 + 2 + 3
K T E A1 E A2 E A3
(3.8)
31
Change in Length of the Bolt Effective Length:

LC =F P
Lbe L se
+
EA B EA S
(3.9)
Stiffness of Bolt-Nut-Washer System

The joint is never clamped by a bolt however; it is clamped by a bolt- and-nut system or by a
bolt-nut-washer system. The stiffness of this combination of parts is found by:
1
1
1
1
= +
+
KT KB KN KW
(3.10)
where, KT = total stiffness of the system (1b/in., N/mm)
KB = stiffness of the bolt (1b/in., N/mm)
KN = stiffness of the nut (1b/in., N/mm)

Kw = stiffness of washer (1b/in., N/mm)
Joint Stiffness
The equivalent cylinder approach is used here to estimate stiffness. The only difficulty here is
Ac, the cross-sectional area of the equivalent cylinder. The joint stiffness can be calculated
by:
KJ=
EA C
T
(3.11)
where, KJ= stiffness of joint (lb/in., N/ mm)
E = modulus of elasticity (psi, MPa)
32
AC = cross-sectional area of the equivalent cylinder used to represent the joint in

stiffness calculations (in.2, mm2)
T = total thickness of joint or grip length (in., mm)
3.5 Tightening The Joint

The tightening of the joint means establishing the exact clamping force required for
the joint. The clamping force is created when the bolts are tightened during assembly. When
the bolts are preloaded, tension is created in them, by turning the nut or bolt while holding the
other. During initial assembly of an individual bolt there's a one-to-one relationship between
the tension in a bolt and its preload. The tensile load in a bolt will change as the other bolts
are tightened and/or the joint is put in service, so the preload is an initial and short-lived
affair. Nevertheless, it's extremely important.
Threaded fasteners can clamp materials together only when they are holding with the
proper amount of tension. For this to happen they must be properly tightened. To this day a
simple, inexpensive, and effective way to consistently and accurately tighten a fastener does
not exist. There are a number of tensioning methods that function well enough but they are
both complicated and expensive. In most situations, less-than-perfect traditional methods are
sufficient.
Torque Control
Torque is one of the most common methods of installing fasteners. Often a torque
value is specified for a given application; and with the use of a calibrated torque wrench, this
torque value can be obtained. However, this reading does not indicate the bolt tension
directly. Rather the torque reading is only an indirect indication of the desired tension. During
tightening roughly 90% of input energy is lost overcoming the mating friction under the head,
nut, and mating threads. Only 10% of input energy is converted into bolt stretch. But this is
an oversimplification of what may actually happen, since no consideration is given to the
various forms of heat and strain energy introduced into the system.
33
In most situations there is a relatively simple relationship between the torque applied
to the bolt or nut and the tension created in it. Usually this relationship is linear. For such
cases, the equation is applicable:
Torque=K x d x F
(3.12)
where, d = the nominal diameter
F = is the clamp load

K = Nut Factor
The K, or nut factor, can be thought of as anything that increases or decreases the
friction within the threads of the nut. This is a combination of three sub-factors:
K1, a geometric factor- the shape of the threads. Variation in the shape of the thread
may cause friction in increase or decrease.
K2, a thread friction related factor-the friction between the threads of the bolt and the
threads of the nut.
K3, an underhead friction related factor-the friction of the nut against the surface it
rotates on.
However, there are published tables for K, from where this nut factor can be obtained.
Bolt Condition
Non-plated, black finish (dry)
Zinc-plated
Lubricated
Cadmium-plated
K
0.20 - 0.30
0.17 - 0.22
0.12 - 0.16
0.11 - 0.15
Table 3.2: Nut Factors

As a group of fasteners is tightened, those tightened first will tend to relax slightly as
subsequent fasteners are tightened. This is due to the creep and flow of heavily loaded contact
surfaces and the relaxation between groups of bolts as they are individually tightened. The
34
first bolts tightened partially pull the joint together. As the rest of the bolts are tightened, the
joint is further compressed, and the previously tightened bolts relax and lose some of their
preload. In some cases, this can virtually eliminate bolt tension. If bolt tension is desired with
a high degree of accuracy, the torque wrench is not the answer.
Standard
Fastener
Metric
Low
Fastener
Torque
Clamp
Torque
Clamp
Torque
Clamp
(N-M)
Load/Preload
(N-M)
Load/Preload
(N-M)
Load/Preload
123
287
5510
10020
16030
24040
46060
800100
1600200
2700300
(kN)
13
22
34
52
71
94
144
208
333
469
133
307
6012
10520
17530
27040
53070
900100
1800200
3100350
(kN)
14
23
38
55
78
105
166
234
375
538
61
153
307
5010
8015
12520
25040
42550
850100
1500200
(kN)
6
12
19
26
36
49
78
111
177
260
Bolt
M6x1
M8x1.25
M10x1.5
M12x1.75
M14x2
M16x2
M20x2.5
M24x3
M30x3.5
M36x4
High
Fastener
Table 3.3: Tensile Stress Area, Preload, Torque Values For Different Metric Bolts
The amount of torque needed to tighten a specific bolt can be calculated using
equation 3.12. But the amount of torque needn't be calculated all over again because there are
tables established by renowned references upon experiments which specify the tensile area,
the amount of torque required for low/standard/high tensioning of bolts.
Torque and Turn Control
This method involves tightening the fastener to a low initial snug tight condition
and then applying a prescribed amount of turn to develop the required preload. The actual
preload will depend on how far the nut is turned as well as how much preload was established
prior to the turning. The most general model of torque-turn analysis consists of four distinct
zones.
1. The run-down prevailing torque zone is the initial application of the nut before the
fastener head or nut contacts the bearing surface.
2. The alignment or snugging zone is the area in which the fastener and the joint mating
surfaces are drawn into alignment or a snug condition.
35
Tensile
Stress
Area
(mm2)
20.1
36.6
58
84.3
115
157
245
353
561
817
3. The elastic clamping range zone beings with the application of the angle-controlled
tightening. Through this region the slope of the torque-angle curve is constant.
4. The post-yield zone is where an inflection point (permanent deformation) begins.
The amount of turn required for run-down, the amount of preload created during
snugging, and the bolt-to-joint stiffness ratios are all extremely difficult to predict or control.
As a result, pure turn control has a high potential for inaccuracy. But the fact remains that the
preload applied to a previously snugged bolt indicates bolt preload regardless of friction.
Thus, the combination of torque and turn is more accurate than either system alone. A
representation of the torque-turn procedure is as shown in figure 3.9.
Fig 3.9: Torque and Turn Procedure

Torque is used to determine the initial preload developed in a fastener during the
snugging operation. Regardless of the external factors that can influence torque, this serves as
a relatively accurate way of ensuring that slack is removed from the assembly before
tightening. The turn of the nut method is a more reliable measure of the further increase of
tension of a previously snugged bolt. Once the slack has been taken out of the assembly
through the use of torque, it is easy to determine the amount of turn needed to reach the
proper preload for the bolt.
However, this method can only be used on joints with a predetermined response to
assembly. Experiments must first be done on a sample joint to determine the affect of turn on
the joint and the fastener. This increases the cost of the method. The method is also similar to
the torque method in that it has no way to account for phenomena like creep relaxation and
tightening sequence. Accuracy is still affected by variables such as friction and stiffness
ratios.
Stretch Control
36
The stretch created in the bolt during tightening allows the fastener to clamp. This
tension creates the clamping force, which holds the joint together. In critical joints, it is vital
to ensure that the proper amount of preload is applied to the fastener and that the preload
remains over the service life of the joint.
Stretch control is one method which offers a very accurate indication of preload. In
this method a tool is used to measure bolt stretch (a micrometer is the simplest method). The
tool can be used only if there is access to both ends of the bolt before and after installation.
Also, since both ends will probably not be parallel, several measurements must be taken at
different points around the circumference.
Again, the spring-to-bolt analogy is a useful way of understanding the stretch control
method. When a spring stretches, an equation can be used to determine the change in length;
the same applies to a bolt. Bolt lubricity or bolt-to-joint stiffness ratios have no affect on the
calculations of stretch. Also, the stretch control method can be used to measure the bolt
tension well after the tightening process is complete. The relationship between the change in
length of the bolt and the preload within it can be described by:
L=F P
( K1 )
B
(3.13)
Fig 3.10: Stretch Control

However, several factors can complicate this method. In the spring analogy, a bolt
would be thought of as a complex spring. That is, the unthreaded body of the bolt is a
37
relatively stiff spring and the threaded portion of the bolt would be a less stiff spring. Thus,
when the bolt is loaded the threaded portion of the bolt will tend to stretch more than the
unthreaded shank of the bolt. Also, the threads within the nut or tapped hole will stretch less.
The amount of engaged and unengaged thread stretch is directly affected by the fastener
diameter. Calculations must use exact lengths of both the unthreaded portion of the bolt and
the remaining length of the unengaged threaded portion of the bolt and also the diameter of
the bolt. To further complicate the idea, most authorities say that the head of a bolt also
stretches slightly as a bolt is tightened. The head is thought to stretch about half as much as
the same volume of body would stretch.
In order to use stretch control, initially the amount of stretch each separate portion of
the bolt contributes to the total stretch is determined. The tension and stretch in the bolt head
and the nut are not uniform throughout, but rather fall off from a maximum value at the joint
surface to zero (no tension) at the outer ends of the fastener.
Other factors affect the relationship between stretch and tension. The basic elasticity
of the bolt material may vary from lot to lot of bolts, the grip lengths and dimensional
tolerances may vary, and the temperature of the bolt must be measured for precise tension
determination. Overall, stretch control method is a very precise tool for evaluating bolt
tension.
Direct Methods of Controlling Tension
The previously mentioned methods utilize indirect methods to indicate clamp load.
Each method contains errors and uncertainties. Although some methods are more precise than
others, none of them are able to control the tension developed in the fastener directly.
However, the following methods will directly indicate the clamp load developed in the joint.
Washer Control
The least expensive and simplest tension control systems use direct tension indicating
washers (DTI).
Disc Spring Washers (Belleville)
They involve a more spring-like action. A stack of these washers are placed under the
head or the nut. As the fastener is tightened, the height of the Belleville is reduced. The
washers deform elastically, so they will continue to push upwards on the head or nut. The
38
washers can be used singularly or stacked in a means to modify the amount of deflection.
Stacking in the same direction will add the spring constant in parallel, which will create a
stiffer joint. Stacking in an alternating direction would be equivalent to adding springs in
series, which would result in greater deflection. Typical Belleville washers are shown in
figure 3.11.
Fig 3.11: Belleville Washers
Hydraulic Tensioners
A hydraulic tensioner is sometimes used to tighten large diameter bolts. An upper
collar is threaded down onto the exposed section of thread above the nut. Hydraulic pressure
is then used to pull upward on the bolt. The nut is then run down, freely, against the upper
surface of the joint. When the hydraulic pressure is relieved, the nut continues to hold the
majority of the tension developed.
Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic instruments are another useful method of measuring bolt preload or
tension. This instrument sends a brief burst of ultrasound through a bolt and measures the
time required for the sound to echo off the end and return to the transducer. When a bolt is
stretched, the time required for the signal to complete its circuit will increase. Elaborate
computer equipment, grip length, bolt material, and thread run-out lengths are needed to
measure the change in transmittal time to determine bolt tension. This equipment has been
39
available for many years, but due to the cost and quantity of components needed, is used in
only a few applications.
Tightening Sequence
Because in the vast majority of bolted all bolts are not tightened simultaneously, the
effect of tightening one bolt in the group as an effect on the preload in other previously
tightened bolts in the group. Such effects are called elastic interactions or sometimes bolt
crosstalk. Presented below in the figure 3.12 are two examples of tightening sequences that
have been shown to result in minimizing bolt preload variations due to elastic interactions,
which will minimize the preload scatter within a joint. If the joint is critical it would be wise
to consider specifying a multiple pass tightening sequence. With such a sequence, each bolt is
tightened more than once so as to reduce the preload reduction caused by the tightening of the
other bolts in the joint.
Fig 3.12: Tightening Sequence
40
In the current genset design, for establishing the joint, the Stretch Control fits the
picture perfectly as stretch control gives the most optimum preload and there is enough
clearance for checking the amount of stretch. Torque method can also be applied, as there are
no large loads which can fail the joint apart from the engine/ alternator load when compared
to the loads encountered in the automotive or aerospace industry. The engine vibrations
during start/stop/running conditions are the only loads apart from the engine loads, but the
metric bolt of selected standard and material would definitely withstand all those loads.
Hence Torque method would be good keeping economy as a priority.
3.6 The Joint in Service

It's not just preload which says the joint is safe or not. The joint in service will
experience loads and vibrations. The joint life, factors affecting joint, loading conditions, are
also equally important to say that the joint is failsafe.
Loads
Loads acting on the joint can also fail a joint. To avoid failure of joint due to loads,
the following equations can be used.
Shear loads usually occur when the friction is overcome between the faying surfaces.
The amount of friction between two mechanical parts is, of course, proportional to the normal
force clamping the two parts together, and to the coefficient of friction at the interface. The
total friction force developed in the joint is called the slip resistance (R S) of the joint. The
equation for slip resistance therefore is:
RS =S F P NM
(3.14)
where, RS = slip resistance of the joint (lb, N)
S = slip coefficient of the joint
FP = preload per bolt (lb, N)

41
N = number of bolts holding the joint

M = number of slip surfaces
When the external loads raise high enough to slip a friction-type joint, the joint plates
will move over each other until prevented from further motion by the bolts. This joint is now
considered to be in bearing. The general strength of such a joint can be roughly estimated as
follows:
2
RB =
D
NP S
4
(3.15)
where, RB = total joint strength (lb, N)
N = number of bolts in the joint
D = nominal diameter of the bolt (in., mm)
P = number of shear planes

S = ultimate shear strength of one bolt (psi, MPa)
3.7 Joint Failure

Joint failure occurs when the bolts fail to perform their clamping function properly.
For example, if they exert too high force on the joint. More commonly, joint failure will
occur if the bolts provide too little clamping force. In most such situations, the clamping
force will probably be insufficient because of deficiencies in the assembly process. The
modes of failure of bolts are described below with the solution of overcoming them.
Mechanical Failure of The Bolts
Bolts will fail to exert sufficient clamping force on a joint if they are broken. They can
break for a variety of reasons.
42
Mechanical failure during assembly (the mechanic pulled too hard on the wrench).
Mechanical failure at elevated temperatures (bolt strength dropped as temperature
rose)
Stripped Threads
These are relatively common causes of bolt failure. Mechanical failure during
assembly or in service is much less common, but is certainly not unknown. If proper material
is used, bolt quality is maintained, and dimensioning of the bolts to support the intended
loads is done, the bolts should not break because of mechanical failure.
Loose Bolts or Bolts Too Tight
Broken and missing bolts could be considered an extreme form of "loose" as far as
failure analysis is concerned. Excessive bolt loads can crush gaskets, for example, or damage
(gall) joint surfaces. By establishing proper preload or enough clamping force, this type
failure can be avoided.
Vibration Loosening
When a fastener is tightened, energy is pumped into it: tension, and bending energy.
The fastener is a stiff spring, and it is stretched, twisted, and bended. After it is let off, this
energy is held in the fastener by friction constraints in the threads or between contact faces of
the nut and joint. If something overcomes or destroys these friction forces, the energy stored
in the fastener will be released; the bolt will return to its original length with the inclined
plane of the bolt threads pushing the inclined plane of the nut threads out of the way.
Subjecting the bolted joint to vibration will do this. Under certain circumstances, all preload
in the fastener will be lost as a result. In fact, the fastener itself can shake loose and be lost.
By using one of the below methods, vibration loosening can be avoided:
Maintaining friction by providing high preload. Introducing some form of vibration
dampening can also help maintain friction.

By shaping the joint so that relative slip between the joint members is prevented or at
least minimized.
Welding the nut to the joint members
Rusting the nut in some part
By providing lock wires or pins
By using lock or spring washers
43
Fatigue Failure
Bolts may fail due to fatigue. In order to avoid this type of failure, predicting fatigue
life or endurance limit may help. There is data available on the endurance limit of bolts. From
this data, it is apparent that the endurance limit of most bolts is significantly less than the
endurance limit of the materials. Referring this data might help in avoiding fatigue failure.
44
Chapter 4
Computational Study
4. COMPUTATIONAL STUDY
4.1 Introduction To Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is, as the name suggests, the use of computers to
assist with the design of manufactured products, the built environment, or fictitious
environments. More specifically, it refers to software and originally computer hardware as
well for creating digital models of physical objects. CAD systems are typically expensive
and complicated pieces of software, and their native file formats are equally complicated,
opaque, and in an important sense, incomplete. This makes them hard to preserve, a fact
which has driven standardization initiatives for over 40 years and will continue to do so long
into the future.
The rise of CAD systems in the 1960s was motivated by the sheer impracticality of
drawing designs by hand. Not only was the process laborious and error-prone, it could also
cause practical headaches. Many designs had been drawn to a scale of 1:1, which was
something of a challenge when it came to aircraft wings or ship hulls. A further driver was the
development in 1957 of PRONTO, the first commercial computer numerical control (CNC)
system, which could be used to automate certain machining processes. Programming such
systems from paper plans was, again, laborious and error-prone, and would be considerably
easier if the shapes involved were already mathematically defined. Thus, from the late 1950s
to the mid 1970s there was an intensive effort by both industry and academia to find
mathematical representations of the paper designs, and to create tools for authoring them.
Probably the first recognizable CAD system was SKETCHPAD, developed between 1960
and 1963 at MIT by Ivan Sutherland. User input was via a light-pen, with which the designer
drew on the computer screen. Major industry players such as Ford, Renault and Lockheed
developed in house CAD systems in the 1960s, and the first successful commercial CAD
systems appeared in 1969.
The earliest CAD models were two-dimensional, more or less a digital analogue of
the blueprint. CAD systems solved many efficiency problems: designers could easily copy
and paste repeated design elements, run scripts instead of laying out everything by hand, and
43
avoid or correct mistakes more easily. But what firms really wanted to do was to input CAD
models directly into CNC systems, and the CNC systems worked in three dimensions. Three
dimensional shape data was needed. The first approach used for 3D-modelling involved wire
frames, where shapes were represented solely by their vertices and edges. While
computationally simple, the technique could not express complex surface curvatures,
however, and intricate designs quickly became unreadable. The next generation of systems
used surface modeling. Several mathematical constructs for representing surfaces were tried,
but eventually non-uniform rational B-splines, or NURBS, emerged as the standard. NURBS
turned out to unify most of the previous techniques, and are still widely used for representing
exact geometry today.
One of the drawbacks of moving from full-scale drawings to computer systems and
their small screens was that designers found it harder to detect shape defects by eye. In
response to this problem, CAD systems started to have a role in analyzing the designs they
were used to author. There is only so far one can go using surfaces alone, though, and in order
to determine if surfaces join up to make realistic objects, the effects of mass and materials,
how the objects should properly be rendered and so on, the systems needed the concept of
solidity. Various methods of solid modeling were researched and subsequently used in CAD
systems, but the two that proved most popular were Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) and
Boundary Representation (B-Rep).
4.2 HyperMesh
Altair HyperMesh is a high-performance finite element pre-processor that provides a
highly interactive and visual environment to analyze product design performance. With the
broadest set of direct interfaces to commercial CAD and CAE systems, HyperMesh provides
a proven, consistent analysis platform for the entire enterprise.
4.2.1 Benefits of HyperMesh
Altair HyperMesh is a high-performance finite element pre-processor that provides a

highly interactive and visual environment to analyze product design performance.
44
o With the broadest set of direct CAD and CAE interfaces and the ability to
define custom integrations, HyperMesh works seamlessly within any
engineering environment.
o HyperMesh provides a robust, common FEA modeling framework across the
corporation - minimizing niche modeling tool investments and training costs.
High speed, high quality meshing.

o With automatic and semi-automatic shell, tetra, and hexa meshing capabilities,
HyperMesh simplifies the modeling process of complex geometries.
Increase End-user Efficiency with Batch Meshing and Automated Model Assembly.
o Batch Mesher technology eliminates the need to perform manual geometry
cleanup and meshing thus accelerating the model development process.
o Highly automated methods for rapid model assembly including the assignment
and management of connections such as bolts, spot welds, adhesives and seam
welds.
Interactive Feature and Volume-based Morphing for Geometric Shape Changes and
Design Variable Definition.
o A flexible set of morphing tools allows users to modify legacy meshes without
re-meshing to automate the investigation new design proposals.

Close the Loop Between CAD and FEA.
o Extract shell meshes straight from a thin solid geometry including thickness
assignments with the powerful Mid-map Mesh Generation tools.
o Extract composite data from geometry files and transfer it to finite element
data with minimal user interaction.
o Retrieve 3D CAD geometries from finite element models to communicate
design direction to design and engineering teams.
4.2.2 Capabilities of HyperMesh
HyperMesh presents users with an advanced suite of easy-to-use tools to build and
edit CAE models. For 2D and 3D model creation, users have access to a variety of meshgeneration capabilities, as well as HyperMeshs powerful automeshing module.
High Fidelity Meshing.

o Surface Meshing
o Solid Map Hexa Meshing
45
o Tetra Meshing
o CFD Meshing
Mesh Morphing
o HyperMorph is powerful solution for interactively and parametrically
changing the shape of a finite element model. Its unique approach enables
rapid shape variations on the finite element mesh without sacrificing mesh
quality. During the morphing process, HyperMorph also allows the creation of
shape variables, which can be used for subsequent design optimization studies.
Batch Meshing
o It is the fastest way to automatically generate high-quality
finite element meshes for large assemblies. By minimizing manual meshing
tasks, this auto-meshing technology provides more time for value-added
engineering simulation activities. Batch Mesher provides user-specified
control over meshing criteria and geometry clean-up parameters as well as the
ability to output to customize model file formats.

CAD Interoperability
o HyperMesh provides direct readers for industry-leading CAD data formats for
generating finite-element models. Moreover, HyperMesh has robust tools to
clean up imported geometry containing surfaces with gaps, overlaps and
misalignments that prevent high-quality mesh generation. By eliminating
misalignments and holes, and suppressing the boundaries between adjacent
surfaces users can mesh across larger, more logical regions of the model while
improving overall meshing speed and quality. Boundary conditions can be
applied to these surfaces for future mapping to underlying element data.

CAE Solver Interfacing
o HyperMesh supports a host of different solver formats for both import and
export. Along with fully supported solvers, HyperMesh provides a completely
tailored environment (user profile) for each supported solver. It also provides
the flexibility to support additional solvers through a unique and
straightforward interfacing language.
In this present project of work, HyperMesh is used to design the FE (finite element)
model of the required base frame of the genset. Using HyperMesh, the weld locations are
46
represented and the bolted modeling is done while maintaining the cone of compression
throughout the joint with tensile stress area in mind.
4.2.3 FE Modeling of Genset Base Frame
FE modeling of the genset base frame is done using the software HyperMesh.
Meshing is the creation of many numbers of elements for the analysis purpose. Meshing is of
two types: solid and shell. Solid meshing is considered for the components or parts whose
thickness is more. And Shell meshing is used for the components whose thickness is less.
Solid meshing is 3D meshing and Shell meshing is 2D type. The FE modeling of base frame
is done using Shell type of meshing. The meshing is done keeping in mind the following
general rules of meshing:
Rules for Meshing

Some rules of thumb when meshing:
Use a relatively fine (coarse) discretization mesh in regions where we expect a high
(low) gradient of strains and/or stresses.
The mesh should look rather smooth and regular (keep in mind that the analysis is
based on the mesh and the mesh quality).
Use the simplest element type suited for the problem.
Start with a coarse mesh and understand the modeling results; then use a finer mesh if
needed.
Try to keep mesh related uncertainties to a minimum if possible. Keep it simple as it

can get more complicated on its own.
Meshing is done on the base frame of genset for the analysis purpose. The weld
representation is also shown on the base frame using finer type of mesh. As the thickness of
the base metal is very small, Shell type of meshing is done.
47
Meshing is done on all components of base frame. Different colors are assigned to
different components. The most important thing in the meshing for analysis is the
connectivity of the elements. Quality criteria of the meshing also needs to be checked before
going for analysis as the component may fail if it doesn't meet the required quality. The
quality criteria includes Aspect Ratio, Warpage, Skew, Element Size, Connectivity between
elements, Free Edges, Max and Min angles in Quad and Tria Elements, Length, etc.
The quality criterion that was considered for the FE modeling of the genset base frame is:
aspect ratio: <5
warpage: 0
skew: 60
jacobian: >0.7
max quad angle: 135
min quad angle: 45
max tria angle: 120
min tria angle: 30
48
Fig 4.1: Quality Criteria of Quad And Tria Elements
The Base frame Geometry is imported to Hypermesh and Midsurface of the required
components are extracted. The FE model is built using this Midsurface. The model is built
using Triangular & Rectangular (Plane elements). The connections between bolted
components apart from engine and alternator mountings, are modeled using rigid elements.
Thickness is considered and assigned as property to the component.
The bolts, washer and nut, instead, are modeled using solid meshing. While modeling
the bolt, the elements near the start of the shank, starting of threads and thread engagement
regions have to be meshed finely. The meshed bolt, nut and washer are shown in figure 4.3.
But one of the abutments is in shell mesh. So the area of faying surfaces is removed from
shell mesh and solid mesh is done while maintaining the cone of compression on both the
abutments as shown in figure 4.4.
49
Fig 4.2: Cone of Compression

Cone of Compression (COC) is the region where the compression takes place after the
nut is tightened. In figure 4.2, the black shaded triangular area is the cone of compression.
COC diameter is calculated from macro and the same is simulated while modeling. Later,
embedment of solid and shell mesh is done to complete meshing as shown in figure 4.5.
50
Fig 4.3: Modeled Nut, Bolt and Washer
Fig 4.4: Cone of Compression on Both Abutments

51
Fig 4.5: Embedment of Solid and Shell Elements

The next step after meshing is creation of contacts. Contacts are defined (figure 4.6)
using the "Master" and "Slave" concept. General guidelines for defining a Master and a Slave
have to be kept in mind:
Master is defined for a stiffer part and Slave for the other.
If both are of same stiffness, Master is defined for the one which is more rigidly held,
i.e., which has more stiffness in the terms of geometry.
Master is defined which has a coarser mesh.
Slave cannot penetrate into the Master.
Master is defined for larger faying surface.
52
Fig 4.6: Contacts

Assumption
To understand and obtain the stress behavior in a base frame, some assumptions and
approximations were required. Here analysis was undertaken based on the assumption that
the load acting on the base frame is uniformly distributed throughout the base frame of
genset. The weights acting on the base frame are that of the canopy (outer structure), the
weights of engine and radiator combined, weight of the alternator and the weight of the diesel
fuel tank assuming it to be completely filled with the fuel. For the uniform distributing of the
load on the base frame, rigids are created on points of intersection where the base frame is
connected or bolted to the canopy.
Creation of Rigids
53
A rigid element is an element created in space between two nodes of a model where a
rigid connection is desired. RBE3 is the used in this case to assign the masses. RBE3's are
interpolation constraint elements, where the motion of a dependent node is defined as the
weighted average of the motions of a group of independent nodes.
Fig 4.7: Creation of Rigid

In the next step, the effect of Fuel tank, Alternator, Engine, Radiator, Canopy loads is
realized by giving mass onto the structure from the center of gravity as shown in figure 4.7.
Pretention also is defined in the same step. This completes modeling of the base frame.
54
Fig 4.8: Pretension and Mass Application on Base Frame

Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions must be defined before going into analysis. These include
the loads applied and the displacement constraints. In theory, all reaction forces in the model
should be in equilibrium. However, this is often not the case and the model would be
displaced. Thus constraints are required to anchor the model in space. The boundary
condition is the application of a force and/or constraint. In HyperMesh, boundary conditions
are stored within what are called load collectors.
Quite often (especially at the beginning) a load collector is needed for the constraints
(also called SPC Single Point Constraints) and a second one is needed for the forces and/or
pressures. Any constraint can be placed (e.g. nodes constraint) with respect to dof1, or nodes
with constraints dof123, etc. in a single load collector. The same rule applies for
forces/pressures. They are stored within a single load collector regardless of their orientation
and magnitude. Distributed loads can be applied by means of an equation. In the displayed
example, the magnitude of the applied forces varies with respect to the nodal y-coordinate.
55
Fig 4.9: Providing Boundary Conditions
Applying Loads
The objective is to perform Gravity Load analysis for the Base frame of the Generator
set. The gravity load is considered to be acting in the negative Y-direction of the assembly.
The Boundary conditions are considered such that it will resemble the practical condition. In
actual the Base frame is rested on the Concrete Ground. Base frame is constrained in
sufficient degrees of freedom without any stability issues. The load is considered to be
uniformly distributed.
56
Fig 4.10: Providing Distributed Loads
Distributed loads (varying with respects to the coordinates of the nodes or elements)
can be applied by means of an equation. In the displayed figure, the magnitude of the applied
forces varies with respect to the nodal y-coordinate.
The Boundary conditions are considered such that it will resemble the practical
condition. In actual the Base frame is rested on the Concrete Ground. Base frame is
constrained in sufficient degrees of freedom without any stability issues.
Providing Constraints
57
Fig 4.11: Providing Constraints on Entire Base of Base Frame
Fig 4.12: Constraints on One Part of Base Frame

Degree Of Freedom
58
The assumption is that the base frame is fixed on a concrete block. So all the 6 degree
of freedom will be 0 (zero).
Fig 4.13: 6 Degree of Freedom
Six degrees of freedom (6DoF) refers to the freedom of movement of a rigid body in
three-dimensional space. Specifically, the body is free to move forward/backward, up/down,
left/right (translation in three perpendicular axes) combined with rotation about three
perpendicular axes.
Translation:
Moving up and down (heaving)
Moving left and right (swaying)
Moving forward and backward (surging)
59
Rotation:
Tilts forward and backward (pitching)
Swivels left and right (yawing)
Pivots side to side (rolling).
4.3 ABAQUS
Abaqus is a suite of powerful engineering simulation programs based on the finite
element method, sold by Dassault Systems as part of their SIMULIA Product Life-cycle
Management (PLM) software tools. Abaqus is a software suite for finite element analysis and
computer aided engineering. It is a software application used for both the modeling and
analysis of mechanical components and assemblies (pre-processing) and visualizing the finite
element analysis result.
4.3.1 Features of Abaqus
Abaqus contains extensive library of elements that can model virtually any geometry.
Geometry can be imported from many different CAD software packages.
Using Abaqus, we are able to use various different material models to simulate the
behavior of most typical engineering materials including metals, rubber, polymers,
composites, reinforced concrete, crushable and resilient foams, and geotechnical
materials such as soils and rock.
Designed as a general-purpose simulation tool, Abaqus can be used to study more

than just structural (stress/displacement) problems. It can simulate problems in such
diverse areas as heat transfer, mass diffusion, thermal management of electrical
60
components (coupled thermal-electrical analyses), acoustics, soil mechanics (coupled

pore fluid stress analyses), and piezoelectric analysis.
Abaqus offers a wide range of capabilities for simulation of linear and nonlinear
applications. Problems with multiple components are modeled by associating the
geometry defining each component with the appropriate material models and
specifying component interactions. In a nonlinear analysis Abaqus automatically
chooses appropriate load increments and convergence tolerances and continually
adjusts them during the analysis to ensure that an accurate solution is obtained
efficiently.
Static as well as dynamic analysis can be performed.
4.3.2 Abaqus Analysis Sequence
Abaqus is a software application used for both the modeling and analysis of
mechanical components and assemblies (pre-processing) and visualizing the finite element
analysis result.
Every complete finite-element analysis consists of 3 separate stages:
Pre-processing or modeling: This stage involves creating an input file which contains
an engineer's design for a finite-element analyzer (also called "solver").
Processing or finite element analysis: This stage produces an output visual file.
Post-processing or generating report, image, animation, etc. from the output file: This
stage is a visual rendering stage.
61
Fig 4.14: Abaqus Analysis Sequence

Abaqus is used in the automotive, aerospace, and industrial products industries. The
product is popular with academic and research institutions due to the wide material modeling
capability, and the program's ability to be customized. Abaqus also provides a good collection
of multiphysics capabilities, such as coupled acoustic-structural, piezoelectric, and structuralpore capabilities, making it attractive for production-level simulations where multiple fields
need to be coupled.
Material Properties
The material used for the base frame and the canopy of the genset is a CRCA (cold
rolled closed annealed) steel. It is a sheet metal which has high strength. It has the material
properties similar to the steel. CRCA means that after hot rolling and pickling, the steel is
cold rolled to a reduced thickness (which makes it brittle and not too useful), which is then
followed by annealing in a closed atmosphere of nitrogen or other non-oxidizing gases. Steel
derives its mechanical properties from a combination of chemical composition, heat treatment
and manufacturing processes. While the major constituent of steel is iron the addition of very
small quantities of other elements can have a marked effect upon the properties of the steel.
62
Following the mesh creation the mechanical properties of the elements of the objects
involved must be specified. These are the Youngs modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, Mass
density and Yield strength. Their magnitude and orientation per element and spatial variation
within the model has significant implications for the results of an FEA.
Some of the material properties that are needed for analysis are:
Yield Strength: 280 MPa
Young's Modulus: 202500 MPa
Poisson's Ratio: 0.3
Mass Density: 7.85*10-9 tonnes/mm3
The different weights acting on the base frame are:
Canopy: 300kgs (0.3 tonnes)
Engine: 310kgs (0.31 tonnes)
Alternator: 270kgs (0.27 tonnes)
Fuel Tank: 140kgs (0.14 tonnes)

After modeling the genset base rail, it is then tried for analysis in Abaqus. In the
analysis, if there are any errors, the file is checked and the errors are debugged and again
tried for a run in the software. Once the run has completed, post-processing is executed. In
post-processing, Shear Capacity and Percentage Slip are checked in graphs. The acceptance
limit for Shear Capacity is 95% and for Percentage Slip is 70%. This acceptance limit is
plotted in the individual graphs and the other values for each bolt are plotted in each graph. If
any bolt crosses the acceptance limit plot, then the bolt may be considered to fail.
63
Chapter 5
Results And Conclusions
5. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

. The shear capacity values of the bolts are taken from the analysis file and tabulated
which in turn are plotted in a graph as shown below. The results for the bolts analyzed are as
shown in the table below. Table 5.1 shows the Shear Capacity values in percentages while
table 5.2 shows the Slip values in percentages.
Y-Axis (%Shear Capacity)
X-Axis
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M10
M10
M10
M10
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
B12
0.1
1.8
2.20
2.00
1.80
1.80
2.20
2.10
1.70
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
0.2
2.40
2.30
2.00
2.00
2.40
2.40
1.90
1.00
1.10
1.00
1.00
0.3
2.2
2.70
2.50
2.20
2.10
2.70
2.60
2.10
0.90
0.90
0.80
0.80
0.4
2.4
2.90
2.80
2.40
2.30
2.90
2.80
2.30
1.10
1.10
1.00
1.00
0.5
2.6
3.20
3.00
2.50
2.50
3.20
3.10
2.50
1.20
1.20
1.10
1.10
0.6
2.8
3.40
3.30
2.70
2.70
3.40
3.30
2.70
1.40
1.40
1.30
1.30
0.7
3.70
3.50
2.90
2.90
3.70
3.60
2.80
1.60
1.60
1.40
1.40
0.8
3.1
4.00
3.80
3.10
3.10
3.90
3.80
3.00
1.80
1.80
1.60
1.60
0.9
3.3
4.20
4.00
3.30
3.30
4.20
4.10
3.20
2.00
1.90
1.70
1.70
3.5
4.50
4.30
3.50
3.40
4.40
4.30
3.40
2.10
2.10
1.90
1.90
(G-Load)
Table 5.1: Shear Capacity values in percentage obtained from abaqus results
X-Axis
Y-Axis (%Slip)
61
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M12
M10
M10
M10
M10
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
B12
0.1
33.30
34.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
33.30
33.30
33.30
44.90
41.70
41.70
44.90
0.2
33.30
34.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
33.90
33.30
33.30
45.50
40.40
40.40
45.50
0.3
33.30
34.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
33.90
33.30
33.30
45.50
41.00
41.00
45.50
0.4
33.30
34.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
33.90
33.90
33.30
45.50
41.00
41.00
45.50
0.5
33.30
35.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
34.40
33.90
33.30
45.50
41.00
41.00
45.50
0.6
33.30
35.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
34.40
34.40
33.30
45.50
41.00
41.00
45.50
0.7
33.30
35.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
34.40
34.40
33.30
45.50
41.70
41.70
45.50
0.8
33.30
35.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
34.90
34.40
33.30
45.50
42.30
42.30
45.50
0.9
33.30
35.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
34.90
34.90
33.30
45.50
42.30
42.30
45.50
33.30
35.90
33.30
33.30
33.30
34.90
34.90
33.30
45.50
42.30
42.30
45.50
(G-Load)
Table 5.2: Slip values in percentage obtained from abaqus results
These results are now plotted in graphs which are as seen below. The X-Axis values
are the gravity values in steps and Y-Axis values are percentage values taken from 0 through
100. Graphs for different sizes of bolts (M10 and M12) are plotted separately and graphs for
Shear Capacity and Slippage are plotted separately.
62
The acceptance limit for shear capacity is 95% which can be seen in the graph on the
top. M12 bolts which fix the engine are numbered from 1 through 8 as Bolt 1 to Bolt 8 as
they are eight in number. They clearly do not exceed the limit as seen in figure 5.1. Hence, it
can be concluded that the M12 bolts do not shear and thus are safe.
63
Bolts of size M10 are used to fix the radiator in the genset. Total number of bolts
which hold the radiator are four. So the four bolts are numbered from 9 to 12 as Bolt 9 to
Bolt 12. These bolts too do not surpass the limit as seen in figure 5.3. Hence, they too do not
shear and can also be declared as safe.
The percentage slip values of the bolts are taken from the analysis file and plotted in a
graph as shown below. The X-Axis values are the gravity values in steps and Y-Axis values
are percentage values taken from 0 through 100.
64

The percentage slip acceptance limit is 70% which can be seen in the graph on the top
in figure 5.5. None of the M12 bolts cross this limit and are well behind this limit. Hence,
slipping of M12 bolts is not a worry.
65

M10 bolts which hold the radiator too are well behind the limit. Figure 5.5 shows the
graph plotted for the slip values in M10 bolts. Thus, slipping of these M10 bolts is not a
concern.
The plots for the bolts analyzed are as shown below. Some of the plots are sectioned
views. Figure 5.9 shows the analysis plot for the entire base frame of the genset. While figure
5.10 and 5.11 shows the section view of the M12 and M10 bolts respectively.
66
Fig 5.9: Base Frame Plot

From above conclusions made, all the M10 and M12 bolts (MS material) are way
beyond the limit in either case of Shear Capacity and Slip, it can be said that these bolts
holding the engine and radiator are strong enough to withstand the stresses and are safe from
failing, thus providing an efficient joint. It can also be therefore established that all the
components are ready to operate under this loading.
67
Future Scope of Work:

The torque applied to the bolts in order to achieve the exact clamping force/preload
was applied by a wrench. This would inculcate human error, tool error in achieving the
desired preload. A new set of Direct Tension Indicator bolts are available in the market,
wherein, an operator can visually see if the desired clamping force has been obtained or not.
This bolted joint analysis was done by taking an approximate center of gravity for
providing the engine and radiator combined mass. Therefore, the results too were
approximate. By taking the exact center of gravity, precise results can be obtained.
Including several other factors like the exact amount of vibrations transferred to the
bolts would also help simulate the on-site situations.
Finer mesh would yield a much precise result. This means a time trade-off has to be
done as running the file for analysis with more number of elements would require more
amount of time.
Fatigue analysis, if done, could also tell the user extra set of information like the
fatigue life of the joint.
Final Assembled Genset
The inputs from the design and analysis (like the size of bolt, number of bolts,
location of bolts, etc.) were given to the manufacturer. These inputs were taken up and
implied in the design. The final manufactured cum assembled genset is as seen in figure 5.12.
The bolts holding the engine are seen in figure 5.13.
68
Fig 5.12: Final Assembled Genset
Fig 5.13: Bolts Holding Engine

As per the inputs, bolts of specified sizes and material were used and a successful and
efficient design was manufactured successfully. Bolts holding the engine and the radiator too
passed a fail test which was conducted on the prototype. During the course of the project,
frequent visits to the manufacturing unit helped us understand the challenges during
manufacturing. These were considered during the design which helped achieving a
manufacturable yet efficient design.
69
REFERENCES
1. Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John H. Bickford, Second
edition, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1990.
2. Machine Design, An Integrated Approach, Second Edition, Robert L. Norton, Pearson
Education Asia, 2000.
3. Machine Design, Dr. P. Kannaiah, Scitech Publications (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2003.
4. An article on Bolted Joint Design; Fastenal.
5. Design of Screws, Fasteners and Power Screws; IGNOU article.
6. Fastener Preload Concepts, for Air Force Materials laboratory, Dayton, Ohio, by
General Dynamics, Fort Worth 1978.
7. Mechanical Engineering; Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, Eighth Edition,
McGraw Hill.
8. Structural use of steelwork in building; Part 1: Code of practice for design Rolled
and welded sections; BS 5950-1:2000; British Standard.
9. Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints; Second Edition; Geoffrey L.
Kulak, John W. Fisher, John H. A. Struik.
70
10. Engineering Fundamentals of Threaded Fastener Design and Analysis; PCB

Piezotronics.
11. Meyer, G., and D. Strelow, Simple diagrams aid in analyzing forces in bolted joints,
Assembly Eng., January 1972.
12. Guideline for Bolted Joint Design and Analysis: Version 1.0, Kevin H. Brown,
Charles Morrow, Samuel Durbin, and Allen Baca; Sandia National Laboratories.
13. http://www.altairhyperworks.com/HWTemp3Product.aspx?
product_id=7&item_name=Capabilities
14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolted_joint
15. http://www.boltscience.com/pages/basics4.htm
16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_method
17. http://www.3ds.com/products-services/simulia/portfolio/abaqus/overview/
18. A Short Guide to Metric Nuts and Bolts; Thomson Engineering Design Ltd.
71

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DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BOLTED JOINTS ON THE

MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BOLTED JOINTS ON THE

Under the Guidance of

MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Dr. S Khadar Vali

AQHEEL MURTUZA SIDDIQUI

1.1 Introduction to Bolted Joint

1.2 Bolt Description

1.3 Bolt Standards

1.4 Bolt Failures

1.6 Current Work

2.1 Analytic Modeling Approaches

2.2 FEA Based Empirical Approaches

3.1 Product Development Cycle for NPI

3.2 Bolted Joint Behavior

3.2.1 Stress Concentrations

3.2.2 Tensile Stress Area

3.4 Stiffness and Strain Considerations

3.5 Tightening The Joint

3.6 The Joint in Service

3.7 Joint Failure

4.1 Introduction To Computer Aided Design (CAD)

4.2.1 Benefits of HyperMesh

4.2.2 Capabilities of HyperMesh

4.2.3 FE Modeling of Genset Base Frame

4.3.1 Features of Abaqus

4.3.2 Abaqus Analysis Sequence

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Fig 1.2: Nomenclature For Specifying A Threaded Fastener

Fig 1.3: Failure locations in Bolt

Fig1.4: Failure in Fastened Members

Fig 1.5: Failure as a Cause of Overload

Fig 1.6: View of a Failed Tie Rod End Bolt

Fig 1.7: Mahindra Genset

Fig 2.1: A Typical Bolted Connection

Fig 2.2: Representation of Bolts and Joint Behaving as Springs

Fig 2.3: A Simple Joint Diagram

Fig 2.4: Joint Diagram After The Joint is Clamped By A Bolt

Fig 2.5: Joint Diagram After Load is Applied

Fig 3.1: Product Development Cycle for New Product Introduction

Fig 3.5: Stress Concentration on Various Location of Bolt in a Joint

Fig 3.6: Stress Levels in Three Different Nuts

Fig 3.7: Tensile Stress- Strain Diagram

Fig 3.9: Torque and Turn Procedure

Fig 3.10: Stretch Control

Fig 3.11: Belleville Washers

Fig 3.12: Tightening Sequence

Fig 4.1: Quality Criteria of Quad And Tria Elements

Fig 4.2: Cone of Compression

Fig 4.3: Modeled Nut, Bolt and Washer

Fig 4.4: Cone of Compression on Both Abutments

Fig 4.5: Embedment of Solid and Shell Elements

Fig 4.6: Contacts

Fig 4.7: Creation of Rigid

Fig 4.8: Pretension and Mass Application on Base Frame

Fig 4.9: Providing Boundary Conditions

Fig 4.10: Providing Distributed Loads

Fig 4.11: Providing Constraints on Entire Base of Base Frame

Fig 4.12: Constraints on One Part of Base Frame

Fig 4.13: 6 Degree of Freedom

Fig 4.14: Abaqus Analysis Sequence