(Derivation)

General noun derivation understand how words are formed in the meaning of origin
(the history of words), namely:
a) by conversion (Conversion);
b) shrinkage (Contraction);
c) affixation (affixation);
d) deflection (Deflection).

Nouns formed by conversion (Converted Nouns)

12. Conversion of "changing the grammatical category" is the process by which
one becomes a part of word
other word, can fulfill its functions; if the noun or the conversion of
In another part of speech or converting another part of speech noun. For example,
the word water
Take base is a noun and is used most often such (meaning "water"), but in a
sentence that
Have you watered the flowers? You sprayed (wet) flowers? it becomes verb and
meets all functions
characteristic verb (in our example is used during past tense, gaining specific
desinence -ed). on the
Furthermore, the word fall is based on a verb, to fall to fall, but in a sentence that
He had to fall. Fell, fallen,
it becomes a noun (Fall Fall) and performs all the functions characteristic of the
noun (in our example
It is preceded by specific determinant of the noun, the article -a).
Formation by conversion of nouns is not currently a very productive process,
instead,
its use in earlier stages of development greatly enriched the English nouns fund
more
mainly through the conversion of the adjective.
15
1. Those singular and plural
a) Different:
the native (a) native, (a) local
the stupid (fam.) (a) stupid, (a) noddy
the killer (a) criminal
b) Name of peoples, and inhabitants of some continents:
year Italian (a) Italian
European year (a) European
African year. (A) African
2. The only used in the singular
a) Different:
the public audience
the present this
Nature (outside)
b) Name of languages:
Romanian (language) Romanian
English (USA) English

c) Name of colors:
blue blue (l)
while white (ul)
d) Certain geographical names
the Pacific Pacific
the Mediterranean Mediterranean
e) .Anumite abstract nouns (abstract):
the beautiful beautiful
the sublime sublime
3. The used only in the plural
sweets sweets; candy
bitters bitter drinks
the ancients ancients, the ancients
the moderns moderns
4. Those who understand the plural without plural
a) Various adjectives preceded by the definite article:
the poor poor, poor
tlie rich rich, rich
the sick sick, sick
the wounded Wounded, wounded
Note. The singular is played using nouns as: man man, person person, fellow ins,
individual, etc.
The adjective placed after the nouns plural of which came from above, for example:
the sick patient man.
b) Some people's names (the terminal consonants wheezing)
the English English, English people
Dutch the Dutch, the Dutch people
the Scotch Scots, Scottish people
Verbs are substantiveaz especially as forms Eng. practically any noun can
become a verb (verbal) to
this form:
1. With both the number of singular and plural number
coming - comings arrival Check - arrivals
Coming writing - writing * writing, dissertation writing
reading - reading readings - readings
2. Having singular number only
speaking speech
learning learning, teaching
coloring dye
Coming coming, arrival, that to come
writing writing writing writing that
reading reading, that reading
Note. To observe differences of meaning of nouns coming, writing and reading of
paragraphs 1 and 2.
Other reports, namely the infinitive and the past participle is substantiveaz much
less so:
the wounded Wounded
the fall (comp. to fall) (a) fall
Other parts of speech are noun especially within fixed expressions:
the ins and outs of the problem - all the implications, or the details of a problem

to go into the whys and wherefores - to investigate the causes

Nouns formed by shrinkage (Contracted Nouns)
13. The contraction is the process by which a word is shortened by removing its
first part (afereaz Aphaeresis) of its middle part (syncope - syncopal) or part of its final (apocope apocope). number
nouns formed by shrinkage is quite high in contemporary English, the most apocope
sc productive and characterized in that it is used mainly in the spoken language
(familiar style).
1. nouns formed by apheresis:
car (the motorcar) car, car
bus (in omnibus) bus
pen (the fountain-pen) pen (originally meant only pen "pen")
wig (in periwig) wig
16
2. nouns formed by syncope:
mart (poetic, the market market (commodity)
captain (of Fr.capitaine) captain
3. nouns formed by apocope:
exam (the examination) examination
Jap (in Japanese) Japanese
vac (from vacation) holiday
doc (the doctor) Doctor
Phiz (from Physiognomy) physiognomy front face
pub (the public house) restaurant
ad (the advertisement) advertising, ad
Nouns formed by abbreviation (abbreviated Nouns)
& 14. The abbreviation (Abbreviation) is a particular aspect of shortening words
representing their reduction
the original - the first or first few letters of a word or words that form a compound at
the time
present, the abbreviation is a highly productive process within the English word
formation, dictionaries
Abbreviations portable format comprising as many as 30,000 to 40,000 units. Of
these, nouns
Abbreviated are the most common. Here are some examples:
M.P. (Member of Parliament) Member of Parliament, MP
Mr (Mister) Mr.
Mrs (Mistress) Mrs.
Dr (Doctor) Doctor
UNO (United Nations Organization) UN United Nations Organization
HP (horse power) horse power
GVT. (Government) government
Nouns formed by afixaie (Nouns Formed by affixation)
15. Afixaia is the process by which, using prefixes (Prefixes - particles placed at
the beginning of
word) and suffixes (suffixes -particule put at the end of a word), forming new words.
A considerable number of nouns are formed based afixaie. Affixes noun (Noun
affixes)

are the noun prefixes (Noun Prefixes), but the term is a misnomer because it can be
used
and prefixed verbal, adjectival etc., eg, outlaw outlaw; outcast, the out beyond over;
outside
can be use for training and verbs (to outnumber overcome numerically), adjectives
(outdated exceeded
outdated, unfashionable) and adverbs (outspokenly overt open girl) and noun suffix
(Noun
Suffix), as stated in 2.
Nouns formed by deflection (Nouns Formed by Deflexion)
16. Deflexiunea, known as the ablation means derivation of a word with another
word
vowel change. Applied to nouns, deflexiunea derive their means of another noun,
a verb or an adjective:
hedge (of how hawthorn) hedges
song (from to sing sing) song
loss (to lose from losing) loss
strength (strong, hard of) strength, power, endurance
breadth (in broad wide, wide) width, breadth
summary table
Scheme 1
forming nouns
a) After composing criterion
* Simple nouns
* Compound nouns
* man
* classroom
* board
* blackboard
* sky
* Brother-in-law
* field
* Passer-by
b) After derivation criterion
Conversion: fall (to fall), native (native), the poor (poor), the Atlantic, the English,
the sick, the beautiful,
reading, whys and wherefores the
shrinkage:
Apheresis: car (moto-car), pub (public house)
Syncope: mart (market) captain (Captain)
apocope: vac (vacation), doc (doctor), ad (advertisement)
Abbreviation: M.P. (Member of Parliament) Dr. (Doctor)
afixaie: wisdom (wise + dom) kindness (kind + ness)
deflection: song (to sing) strength (strong)
17
Classification of nouns in content and grammatically regime
17. General. English nouns classification "after the regime content and grammar"
is a difficult chapter,

but of exceptional importance for those who want to learn correct English. This time
no longer
it is a possible classification "interesting" or useful for teaching purposes rather than
theoretical
practical (as were some of the classifications so far), but a classification on
theoretical grounds, but has
immediate practical.
To better understand the problems which will have to cope within the classification
of nouns "after
content and grammatical regime "is useful to draw some comparisons between the
situation of Romanian and nouns
nouns in the English language. Thus, for example, in Romanian, a noun used in the
singular or
the plural in number of determinants, modifiers and verb-predicate-1 attached, for
example:
"The first candidate was introduced later"; "The most interesting books were
displayed in the window"; "Two
copies are missing, "etc. In the English language but such agreements are not
always respected, and enough
to think about the character of the majority invariably determinants, and to those of
all modifiers
(Qualitative and relative adjectives) to realize the first differences, for example: this
man this man, this
woman this woman, two maps two maps, two children two children, a good piece of
advice good advice, three
three good pieces of advice good advice etc. But big differences arise in connection
with the agreement or, rather,
which is often disagreement between singular and plural of the noun and the use of
English
different number of determinant and the verb so: THESE (pl.) people (sing.) these
people, Mathematics is a
Science Mathematics is a science, My Family My family is in Bucharest in Bucharest,
My folks are in
Bucharest etc. Differences between form and content of many nouns in English as
well
and grammatical differences regime (consent, the use of the determinants etc.)
make a classification of
nouns "in content and grammatically regime" is a semantic classification
morphological-syntactic
(Semantic, because regardless of content, morphological, because regardless of the
noun forms;
syntactic, because regardless of how it is granted to other parts of speech - parts of
the sentence).
Viewed from these three viewpoints, nouns are grouped into three broad categories,
subdivided:
) Individual nouns:
a) itself;
b) defective-individual;
2) single nouns:
a) equivalent proper names;

b) name of matter;
c) Unique abstract nouns;
3) collective nouns:
a) collective itself;
b) the plurality;
c) individual - of plurality.
Nouns Individual (Individual Nouns)
Proper nouns individual (Individual Proper Nouns)
18. The actual individual nouns as singular number, which denotes a single object
class
that objects and plural number, naming many objects of that class: (a) Boards (a)
table (Four) -four dining tables; (An) idea (an) idea - (two) ideas (two) ideas; (One) man
(one, one) man - (two) men
(two people; (two men. The plural form has its mark - tables (the most common
plural desinence
English nouns, -s), men (irregular plural) etc. Note also that individual nouns
itself can be counted (are "countable"), as in the above examples: four tables, two
ideas, two men.
Nouns individual is given the proper number of determinants that have both
singular and
plurals and verb-predicate: this boy this boy, these guys THESE boys. The novelist
WAS born in
London novelist was born in London, Where are the manuscripts? Where are the
manuscripts? From the point of
view of agreement notice, therefore, there are no differences between individual
from Romanian nouns
the individual themselves in English.
The differences arise from the use of oracles, when a noun is used individually itself
in its most general sense, it represents a species, a kind etc. In such situations, in
Romanian,
noun respectively, be it in the singular or plural number, accompanied by the
definite article, the
Example: "The book is a good friend of man", "a friend in need is a friend indeed",
"trees grow in regions
mountain "in English might be different, namely when nouns are high in step
generalization, they are accompanied by the definite article singular and very
frequently the indefinite article a (n) and
plural Article zero (that is to say, the noun that does not have any determinant
expressed, is
together with either the or the (n).
18
Since these are very common mistakes that students make about the use of Article
Romanian "generic"
it is recommended that the following list of examples, having as a starting point
Romanian language to be learned by
sense.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
A friend in need is a friend Indeed.
Trees growing in mountainous regions.

Firs grow in mountaineous Regions.

The shortest path between two points is a straight line.
The Shortest Way Between Two points is a straight line.
Never look a gift horse in the mouth.
Do not look a gift-horse in (to) the mouth.
What is the nightingale? It's a bird.
What is a nightingale? It is a bird.
Whale is a mammal.
The / A whale is a mammal.
The dog is a faithful animal.
The / A dog is a faithful animal.
The wheel was invented in ancient times.
The wheel WAS invented in times immemorial.
Children - all children.
Children Will Be children.
Note. As exceptions to the above mentioned nouns can be individual human man;
man, woman woman;
name seasons, namely spring spring, summer summer, autumn autumn, winter
winter; Meal name
of the day, namely breakfast breakfast, lunch lunch, dinner noon; dinner, supper
dinner, as in the examples:
Man is thinking.
Man (with zero art) is a thinking being.
Breakfast is served in the morning.
Breakfast is served in the morning.
Spring starts on March 21.
Spring begins on the 21st of March.
Damaged individual nouns (Defective-Individual Nouns)
19. Nouns damaged individual representing a variety of individual nouns proper
ASCI. in the
many cases they are the nouns that have only plural number and in a much more
restricted to nouns have only the singular number; but whatever their form, they
can be counted (are
"Countable") - as individual nouns themselves - not by mere association with a
numeral, but by
Additional words referred to the intercession of stamps (Numeratives): a pair of a
pair, two pair (s)
of two pairs, a piece of a piece of, a, a, two pieces of two pieces, two, two, etc.
Individual defective nouns plural number j having only call:
a) some instruments and tools such as: compassion compass, a pair of compasses
Compasses, three pair (s) of
Compasses three compasses; glasses, spectacles glasses, five pair (s) of glasses /
spectacles five pairs
glasses; scissors scissors, two pair (s) of scissors Two pairs of scissors; binoculars
binoculars, a FEW pair (s) of
some binoculars binoculars;
b) some clothing, as: trousers pants, a pair of trousers a pair of pants, seven pair (s)
of
seven pairs of pants trousers; clothes clothes, clothing, a suit of clothes suit / a
change of clothes,

two suits of clothes two suits / lines / pairs of clothes; short shorts, shorts, three pair
(s) of shorts
three shorts.
Note. A number of defective individual nouns with plural number can only be
accompanied by
Numeracy although implies the plural, others require unusual stamps, for example
bowels
intestines, Annals anal three sets / groups of Annals three groups of anal auspices \
auspices etc.
Individual defective nouns having only singular number can not be classified in
terms of
category of objects covered: advice advice; tips, a piece of advice counsel, two
pieces of advice two
tips; information information; information, two piece / two items of information
information.
When used in a general sense, defective individual nouns are preceded by Article
zero:
Clothes do not make the man.
It's not the tailor that makes the man.
Annals record events year by year.
Annals records events every year.
Advice is never useless.
One tip is never superfluous.
As you can see from the examples above, individual nouns defective verb
agreement is
do the number.
Single nouns (Unique Nouns)
20. Unlike individual nouns (proper or individual defective ASCI), no single nouns
may include (are uncountable) because it is either unique (individual strongly
objects) or quantities.
They are:
19
Equivalent to proper names (Proper-Noun Equivalents)
21. Nouns of this class like proper nouns in that there are some names only
due to the fact that the name coincides with the name of the object. It is regarded
as a representative of some
object classes, they can neither be generalized nor used the plural number: the sun
the sun, the earth
earth, the moon month, the world world, the present present, Nature, paradise
heaven, hell hell.
Determinants and verb agreement predicaliv-in number is (singular).
Names matter nouns (Nouns of Material, Material Nouns)
22. These nouns refer to materials, substances, so objects can never count but be
regarded pole
quantitative. IIIe have only the singular number: sugar sugar, salt salt, water skis,
snowmobiles snow, earth ground meat
meat, poultry chicken, wheat corn ( "Corn" in American English), outdoor air, iron
iron, copper brass, copper,
Steel steel etc.
When taken in a general sense, they are preceded by Article zero - unlike Romanian,

where proper nouns appear with the definite article:

Sugar is sweet.
Sugar is sweet.
Salt is a mineral.
Salt is a mineral.
The steel is more resistant than brass.
Steel is much / far more resistant than copper.
Wheat is grown in the plains.
Corn is grown in the plain.
Prefer pork meat chicken?
Do you prefer pork to chicken?
The agreement with the verb-predicate determinants and is the number:
There is not much water left.
There is (still) remaining water.
Some nouns, names matter may be used in the plural:
a) as "stylistic plural" to emphasize quantity: water waters, sands sands, snow
snows;
b) the variety of materials including: alloy steels, steel varieties, salts salts etc.
On the other hand, a few nouns, names matter have only plurals: victuals food,
food, dregs
yeast sediment alcohol spirits.
Plural nouns, names matter is subject to the determinants and the verb-predicate
number (plural).
Unique and abstract abstract nouns
(Unique Abstract Nouns anil Abstractions)
2. 3. Unlike the broader category of abstract nouns (nouns many of which can
individual
actual), unique abstract nouns can not be thought of only as a single notion:
Literature, history
history, science science. They include the comprehensive category of abstractions,
so the nouns that
denumec quality, action or condition at its most abstract level and more generally:
whiteness whiteness (as
being white), friendship friendship (the quality of the friendly), singing scales (the
action of singing resting rest
(Resting state), realism realistic (the quality of being realistic) etc. accordingly, the
nouns are used to
singular number.
When taken in a general sense, they preceded the article sur zero - unlike
Romanian,
where proper nouns appear, usually accompanied by the definite article:
What could be more noble than friendship?
Nobler than what can BE friendship?
Theory without practice is useless practice without theory is blind.
Without practical Theory is useless, Without practical theory is blind. (Roger Bacon)
Do you like literature?
Do you like literature?
Reading is useful.
Reading is Useful.

Romanticism was developed in English literature in the first half of the nineteenth
century. romanticism
developed in English literature in the first half of the 19 th century.
Some unique abstract nouns may be used in the plural:
a) as plural "stylistic" for emphasis: my respects my respects, my respects, ecstatic
rapture;
b) the varieties of that term: literature, literature (eg the literatures of the world
literatures
world), philosophies philosophies, friendship friends.
On the other hand, some abstract nouns that are used exclusively to unite plural
number:
a) some names sciences (in -s) as: physic: physics, mathematics mathematics,
mathematics, dynamic dynamics,
optical optics, ballistics Ballistics, cyber cybernetics;
b) Names of some diseases, such as: measles mumps measles mumps;
c) some game names as: skittles, play ninepins bowling, billiards billiards, checkers
drafts.
Unique abstract nouns and singular abstractions number of determinants in number
and
verb-predicate.
Plural names sciences, disease and games (points a - c) is given to the verbpredicate in the singular:
20
Cybernetics is a new science.
Cybernetics is a new science.
Is catching measles.
Measles is contagious.
Collective nouns (Collective Nouns)
24 Inactive. General. The essential feature of collective nouns is the possibility that
the concepts they
It is to be regarded as a fully Clemente components, the result being some changes
order
grammatical. (Collective nouns can be strictly lexical, such as wood forest, leafage
foliage etc .; they do not
in the categories below.)
Collective nouns proper (Collective Nouns Proper)
25. Still, although the singular form, expresses the idea of plural speaker not
wanting to stress the concept
That whole, but homogeneous constitutive elements (being almost exclusively
men): Family Family
(Family), manned crew (crew) government government (cabinet members),
audience
public (those present at a show etc.), parliament parliament (MPs), people people
(Citizens of a state), mankind mankind, people etc.
The consequence of such an interpretation is grammatical use of the verb-predicate
in plural number, despite
the singular form of the noun - a situation known in Romanian:
Where are His family?
The crew on board the Were Mauritania. Mankind have not forgotten the horrors of
World War II.

Where's his family? Where are his? The crew was on board Mauritania. Mankind has
forgotten / People did not
forget the horrors of the Second World War.
Basically, collective nouns belonging to other categories themselves - especially the
category of nouns
Individual (mankind belongs unique abstract nouns), in which it behaves according
to the rules
appropriate, eg: f
My family is large. My family is large.
this crew this crew
two crews two crews
Nouns plurality (Nouns of Multitude)
26. Nouns plurality are actually variety of collective nouns themselves, and which
differ
only in that it is used with the verb-predicate and plural exclusive determinants and,
on the other hand, can be
preceded by numerals: People crowd, people, people, people folk, world, cavalry
horse, poultry birds
poultry, poultry, cattle villas, vermin vermin, pests.
Examples in context:
There have many people at the entrance to the museum?
It's a lot of people / There are many people at the entrance to the museum?
The cattle have been watered
The calves were watered.
five people
five people
three horse
three horsemen / cavalry
3,000 cattle
3000 cattle
PLN-alitcifii individual nouns (Individual Nouns of Multitude)
27. These nouns pole be used both as individual nouns and nouns that the plurality
in
Depending on the speaker's intentions: fish fish; fish, trout trout; trout roe deer or
deer; deer or
deer; sheep sheep; sheep head head; head (of cattle) pair pair; pairs etc.
Examples in context:
Fish swim. Fishes swim.
The fish swim.
of fish, two fish, two fishes
one fish, two fish
Where are the second pair?
Where is the second pair?
three pair / pairs of glasses
three pairs of glasses
Scheme 2
Classification after Cotin nouns and grammatical regime
<Table>
* Categories
* Examples

* DETECT. generic
* Agreement with the verb
* Individual itself
* Table book whale
* And the (n) to sing., Art. zero plural
* Number
* Individual defective
* Glasses trousers Annals advice
* Art. zero
* Number
* Equivalence of proper nouns
* The books paradise
** Number
* Names of matter
* Leap iron dregs
* Art. zero
* Number
* Abstract unique and abstractions
* Singing literature friendship
* Art. zero
* Number
* Mathematics measles billiards
* The singular
* Collective itself
* Family crew
** Plural (or singular if they return to the original category)
* Ale plurality
* People poultry
* Art. zero
* Plural
* Individual of the plurality
* Deer fish
* Art. zero
* Singular or plural with
</ Table>
21
3 Classification Scheme common nouns
<Table>
* Criterion classification
* Categories
* Examples
* composition
* simple
* compound
* map
* classroom
* Diverting
*conversion

* The new
* Shrinkage: apheresis bus syncope mart ad apocope
*abbreviation
* M. P.
* Afixaie (suffixes)
* friendship
*deflection
* Song (to sing)
* Content and grammatical regime
* individual
*backgammon
* Individual defective
* clothes
* Equivalent names
* The earth
* own
* Names of matter
* steel
* Unique abstract and abstractions
* Literature whitness
* Collective itself
* family
* The plurality
* people
* Individual plurality
* fish
</ Table>
VI. The number of nouns
VI. The number of nouns (The Number of Nouns)
28. Genedraliti. The form it takes a noun to indicate that the speaker wishes to
refer to his humble,
conversely, the more representatives of a class of objects or concepts are
mimicking the noun more
mimicking exactly grammatical noun - singular (singular or plural (Plural).
The previous chapter was able to see that we all nouns have singular and plural
some have only
singular or plural form only; some singular include the plural idea in them etc. From
mentioned categories of nouns, proper nouns are the individual who both fot me to
singular and plural (different), and the differences between them are described
below.
The formation of plural nouns (Formation of the Plural of Nouns)
29. 1. Formation of plural nouns simple
1) The plural regularly, usually nouns are formed by adding -s consonant in the
singular number:
house, houses house homes
garden, garden gardens, gardens
song, song songs, songs
Desinence -s can have multiple pronunciations, depending on the sounds that
precede it. Thus, it gives
a) [s] after the sounds [p], [t], [k], [f], []

cup, cups [ka.ps] = cup, cups

nut, nuts [na.ts] = coconut, nuts
book, books [Buks] = book, books
cliff, cliffs [klifs] = rock (offshore) rocks
month, months [ma.nts] = month (calendar) on Monday
b) [z] after vowel sounds and consonant sounds audible after [b], [d] [g] [i] [m] [n]
[ing], [v]:
spa, spas [ 'spa: z] spring mineral water; resort - springs etc.
job, jobs [djo.bz] = job, jobs
card, cards [ka: dz] book (game); book; invitation - books etc.
pie, pies [Paiz] pie, pies
bag, bags [baegz] bag bags
tail, tails [teilz] tail, tails
Lamb Lambs [laemz] lambs lambs
town, towns [taunz] city, towns
thing, things [tsingz] = work things
car, cars [ka: z] car, car
floor, floors [flo: z] = floor floorings
22
grove, groves [grouvz] = grove, groves
row, rowx [Rouz] = row, rows
toy, toys [to.iz] = toy, toys
bear, bears [Drink: z] = bear, bears
c) it is preceded by the letter e, forming the group -es, it is pronounced [iz] after the
sounds [s], [z] <[d]:
make faces [ 'feisiz] = front side
rose, roses [ 'rouziz] = rose, roses
judge, Judges [ 'dja.djiz] = judge, judges
d) it is preceded by th forming -ths group, it is pronounced [ts] after short vowels
and [tz] after
diphthongs and long vowels:
mouth, months [Mautzi] = mouth openings
path, paths [pa: tz] path, paths
2) singular nouns ending in a consonant wheezing (sibilant) respectively -s, -ss, -x.
-eh, -sh, .com /,
Format / termination of the plural by adding -es, pronounced [iz]
bus, buses [ 'ba.siz] = bus, bus
class, classes [ 'kla: siz] = class, classes
box, boxes [ 'bo.ksiz] =, boxes
lunches, dinners [ 'la.ntiz] = lunch, lunches
dash, dashes [ 'daeiz] = parting line, parting lines
buzz, buzzes [ 'ba.ziz] = buzzing, buzzing
3) Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant form plural by adding -es with
termination
-y transformation in -I- (Group pronunciation is [iz] or [z] in monosyllabic nouns):
factory, factories [ 'faekt: riz] = factory, factories
county, counties [ 'kauntiz] = county, counties
country, countries [ 'ka.ntriz] = country, countries
fly, flies [flaiz] fly, flies

4) Nouns ending in consonant f f and converts Fe in you, and this is followed by -es
or -s
pronunciation is [vz]
leaf, leaves [li: vz] = leaf, leaves
half, halves [ha: vz] = half, halves
Life, Lives [laivz] = alive, lives
But there are some exceptions, such as:
roof, roofs [ru: fs] = roof roofs
handkerchief, handkerchiefs [ 'haendk: TSI: fs] = handkerchief, handkerchiefs
guff, gulfs [ga.lfs] = golf, bays (geographical)
wharf, wharfs [wo: fs] = but
and wharves [wo: vz] = keys, piers
5) Nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant get -es group -oes Read [ouz]
potato, potatoes [p 'teitouz] = potato, potato
tomato, tomatoes [Ta 'me: Touza] = (aubergines) red (love apple) red
echo, echoes [ 'ekouz] = echo, echo
Exceptions are mainly some nouns plural receive only consonant -s:
piano, pianos [ 'pjaenouz] = piano, piano
photo, photos [ 'fo.touz] = photography, photos
soprano soprano [to 'pra: nouz] = soprano, soprano but soprano
6) irregular plural forms, preserved from the old English period:
man, men [men] = male, male; man, people
woman, women [ 'wimin] = woman, women
child, children [ 'tildr: n] = child, children
goose, geese [gi: s] = goose, geese
mouse, mice [mais] = mouse, mice
foot, feel [as t] = foot, feet
tooth, teeth [ti: ts] = tooth, teeth
ox, oxen [ 'o.ks: n] = ox ox
die, dice [dais] = dice, dice
louse, lice [Lais] = lice, lice
brother, Brethren [ 'bretzr: n] = brother, brothers and brothers [' bra.tz: z]
7) plurals in -s, identical single
series, series [ 'SIA countries: z] = serial number
species, species [ 'spi: and: z] = species, species
Note. Plurals that are not marked by -s et same shape as the singular belong
actually category
individual nouns-defective (v. 23) as an example:
deer, deer [Dia:] = doe deer; deer, deer
sheep, sheep [and: p] = sheep, sheep
8) plural forms of nouns identical to those respective languages of which were
borrowed:
basis, bases [ 'Beisi: z] = core base
crisis, Crises [ 'KRAIS: z] = crisis, crisis
Phenomenon, phenomena [ 'fi'no.men:] = phenomena, phenomena
erratum, errata [ 'was TA:] = errata errata
bureau, bureaux [bju 'en:] = office, offices and bureaus [bju' Rouz]
sanatorium, sanatoria [SAEN: 'to RIA:] = nursing home, nursing homes and
sanatoriums [Saen' Ria: mz]

hippopotamus, hippopotami [HIPAA: 'po.t: May] = hippopotamus, hippopotamus

and hippopotamuses
[ 'HIPAA' po.t: me: siz]