PETROLEUM AND

FOSSIL ENERGY
Dr.Ir.Sudjati Rachmat,DEA

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Petroleum and Fossil Energy

primarily derived from the remains of once living organisms
most deposits formed some 500-200 million years ago
the three major fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas
currently consumed at a rate faster than produced
very likely that fossil fuels will be depleted - the question is when?
large resources in tar sands and oil shales

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radiant energy the sun is

the ultimate energy source

chlorophyll converts
sunlight into carbohydrates
by combining radiant
energy, cabon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O), to
produce oxygen (O2) and
carbohydrates

important in carbon and

oxygen cycles.

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The Carbon Cycle

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Genesis of Fossil Fuels

Comprised of the organic (carbon-based) remnants of ancient life
anaerobic bacteria primarily responsible for breaking broke down complex
organic remains into hydrocarbon molecules - molecules of carbon and
hydrogen
Pressure and heat applied to the sediment within which organic remains are
buried, and degrade (crack) the hydrocarbons into an array of molecules of
various sizes. that are useful as fuel products
Plant remains + bacteria + pressure + temperature + time = hydrocarbons

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Fossil Fuel Types

Coal: carbonized remains of freshwater plants swamps
Kerogen: precursor to oil & gas, oil shale contains kerogen not oil
Oil: saltwater algae (high in H)
Gas: mostly methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6)

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Coal
The types of coal reflect the extent of biotic and thermal processing
peat - compressed plant remains (e.g. bogs) < few thousand BTU/lb
lignite some plant remains < 8,300 BTU/lb, 50-55% carbon
sub-bituminous 8,300 - 11,500 BTU/lb, 55-60% carbon
bituminous 11,500 - 14,000 BTU/lb, 60-85% carbon
anthracite >14,000 BTU/lb, 85-98% carbon
graphite pure carbon
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Coalification

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Coalification of plant debris buried at the bottom of a swamp include:

1.

Aerobic decay: In the first few centimeters, active aerobic bacterial decay
reduces by as much as 50%. Because the water is stagnant and the peat is
almost impermeable, the bacteria soon use up all the available oxygen and
die ending the first stage.

2.

Anaerobic decay: Bacteria that require no oxygen continue the decay

process reducing the volume further. Decay produces acids and pH
decreases throughout stage one and two. When the pH get to about 4.0 it
anaerobic bacteria die off. At this point the peat has changed into a black,
cheesy, gel-like material. It is this material that will eventually be changed
into a coal seam.

3.

Bituminization: Thermal processes now finish the metamorphisis during

burial of the peat by at least two or three thousand feet of sediment
depending on the geothermal gradient. Once the temperature reaches 100
C chemical reactions drive off water, oxygen and hydrogen which raises
the percentage of carbon. The degree to which the bituminization goes
determines the coal rank.
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Coal Production and Consumption

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Coal Reserves
reserves 1.1 trillion tons (100s or 1000s of years)
global production over 100 billion in 2000
only 20-50% of seam recoverable in many areas
high (3% S) vs low sulfur (< 1% S) coal
Borneo coal (50+m thick, near surface, 0.06% S)
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Petroleum originates from alteration and heating of organic matter

Diagenesis
ambient up to ~ 50 C
bacterial decay, oxidation, dehydration
H2O, CO2 and CH4 are expelled
produces kerogen or its precuror, humin
Catagenesis
~ 50 to 250 C
oil generation begins at 50 to 60 C and peaks at ~ 130 C
gas generation ~ 150 to 250 C
thermal cracking
Metagenesis
> 250 C
metamorphism - graphite generation
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thermal cracking

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Marine organic matter is a major precursor for petroleum

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Organic-rich sediments can form wherever life is abundant

algal bloom

nutrients

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Oxygen-rich (oxic) vs Oxygen-poor (anoxic) Water

Oxic
most organic matter is consumed by biota in the water column
CH2O + O2 = CO2 + H2O
much of the organic matter that reaches the floor is consumed by benthic organisms
accumulation and preservation a function of sedimentation rate
generally poor source sediments (H-poor, gas-prone)

Anoxic
where the water column is stratified (e.g. temperature), bottom waters may become
depleted in oxygen
organic matter in oxygen-poor water degraded by less efficient anaerobes
more organic matter sinks to the floor, where benthic critters are absent
black muds and shales (H and lipid-rich, oil prone)
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Geologic scenarios for accumulation of biogenic hydrocarbons

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Migration and Trapping Petroleum

Primary migration: expulsion of petroleum from source rock into
permeable carrier bed
Secondary migration: flow of petroleum within the carrier bed
and into a trap
Tertiary migration: subsequent movement after intial trapping

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Once segregated, petroleum may segregate into hydrocarbon

contituents based on relative densities

folded rocks - anticline

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Oil Exploration and Recovery (Drilling)

major oil companies spend millions of pounds each year

on geologic exploration includes basic science research and

development
basic oil search techniques include
wildcat drilling
geology drillholes and well logs
seismic mapping of subsurface vibroseis

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Petroleum Exploration

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Geophysical Application to
Petroleum Geology

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Petroleum ExplorationGeophysical Methods

Gravity methods
Magnetic surveys
Seismic surveys

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Principle of Gravity Surveys

Uncorrected
Gravity
+1 Gravity
-1 Value (mgal)
-2
-3

Corrected Gravity
(Bouguer Anomaly)
Meter

Salt
2.1 gm/cm3

Clastics
2.4 gm/cm3
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Principle of Magnetic Surveys

Sedimentary Basin
Basement

Magnetization
Measured

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(from xxx, 19xx)

Seismic Surveys
The seismic tools commonly used in the oil
and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seismic
data
Seismic data are used to:
Define and map structural folds and faults
Identify stratigraphic variations and map sedimentary
facies
Infer the presence of hydrocarbons

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Receivers
Source

Surface
Weathered layer
Horizontal reference

Basic
Seismic
Principles

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Modified from Waters, 1981

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Marine Acquisition System

Boat
Sea Surface
Source
(Airguns)

Cable with hydrophones

Incident
waves

Reflected
waves

Sea bed

Sedimentary Layers
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Seismic Section with Log Ties

Geophysical
Well Log

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Modified from Weimer and Davis,1996

Applications of Seismic Data

Make a structural model of the reservoir
Delineate and map reservoir-quality rocks
Establish gas/water contacts

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- 126
00

Structural Map, VLE 196 Field

O
W

-1
22
00

-12
40

-12400

Structural interpretation
based on 3-D seismic
and well log data

-1
28
00

-1
30
00

00
26
-1

-11600

-1
2

4
0

00
26
-1

00
24

-1
1400

-1

> -11,600

- 11600

-12400

-1
26
00

ault
400 F

-12,400
-12,800

VLE

-11,600
-12,000

-11800

Sea-level datum

-12,000
-12,400

0
28

-11600

-1

0
00
-1 2

Top Misoa C-4 Sand

Elevation (ft) N

< -12,400
W

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-1
26
00

3000 ft
1000 m

-12
40
0

0
40
12

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Channels

Seismic
Amplitude
Map
of a
Horizon
3-D Seismic data
define reservoirquality,channel-fill
sand deposits

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Modified from Brown, 1996

Fluid Level Boundaries on 3-D Data

Not Interpreted

Flat spot on seismic line indicates

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petroleum / water contact

Interpreted

Fault

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Modified from Brown, 1996

4-D Seismic Surveys

The 4 in 4-D seismic is time
A 4-D survey means that at least two 3-D seismic
surveys have been made at different times over the
same field
Reflection character (attributes) change through
time
These changes result from migration of the water
contact in the reservoir
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Subsurface Geologic Reconstruction

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 Primary Recovery: uses only the natural energy of the

reservoir typically recovers up to 50% of reservoir oil

(average ~ 20%)
Secondary Recovery: involves adding energy to the
reservoir by injecting water to maintain pressure and
displace the oil typically recovers about 25-45% after
primary recovery (average ~ 30%)
Tertiary Recovery: other methods can recover an
additional 15 20% of oil after primary and secondary
recovery

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Oil removal can have immediate geologic effects

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Crude oil is separated

into various petroleum
products by the process
of fractional distillation

Hydrocarbon fraction are

separated in a distillation tower
based on their boiling points

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Oil Refinery

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